A Forum of The American Physical Society • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 ofPhysics HISTORYNEWSLETTER FHP and the Physics Community

– Hans Frauenfelder, Forum Chair

The Forum on the History of Physics (FHP) serves many differ- ity, the path to a new law or model, be it the second law of thermody- ent customers. Three groups are particularly important: Professional namics, the Schrödinger equation, or the nuclear shell model, is not historians of science may find relevant contacts among the active straight, but is like a Brownian motion in knowledge space. The path physicists in FHP. Physicists often believe that they know most involves dead-ends, detours, and wrong conclusions till finally a things better than other scientists; the professional historians can correct answer (at least for a time) appears. Invited papers by histo- teach us to treat the history of physics with the same respect that rians in FHP meetings can show in specific cases how the Brownian we treat physics. The second group consists of physicists who walk occurred and how the final answer emerged. Some such have become historians. The third, largest, group involves physi- descriptions may eventually find their way into texts. cists like me who with age become interested in the historical Physics, in most texts and lectures, appears as an austere and aspects of physics, but for whom research in physics is still the impersonal subject. In reality, of course, physics is a living, exciting primary occupation. The FHP is the forum where these different subject, the result of intense and dedicated work by physicists, groups can interact. many of them giants. I have been privileged to get to know many of Teaching for more than forty years has shown me the severe the giants, for instance Bohr, Pauli, Heisenberg , and Kramers, and split between teaching and research that can only be overcome by a have observed how deeply they cared, and also how different their knowledge of the history. In teaching we try to outline and describe approaches were. FHP sessions, I believe, should also focus on the the most logical and clearest path that leads, usually from experi- personal side of physics research mental data, to a concept, model, or law. Students may well be The Forum can only be a living and growing activity if all, or at depressed by the elegance of the approach – how could anyone be least most, members are actively involved. You can help. Please so clever and arrive at the result in such an elegant way? In actual- encourage your friends to join FHP, send us suggestions for topics and speakers, and nominate deserving members for APS fellowship.

INSIDE Editor’s Note 2

Reports 2

Forum News 13

APS and AIP News 15

Notes and Announcements 16

Book Reviews 22 Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions John Hedley Brooke, Margaret J. Osler, and Jitse M. Van der Meer GEMA: Birthplace of German Radar and Sonar Harry von Kroge Briefly Noted: Pioneers of Physics in the Early Days of Japan: James T. Cushing, courtesy University of Notre Dame© Cognitive Dimensions James T. Cushing (1937-2002), of Notre Dame University, was a Hiro Tawara leader in history and philosophy of twentieth century physics and the study of foundational problems in quantum theory. He was a Nobel Prize Women in Science: member of FHP and a Fellow of the APS. The session at the April Sharon Bertsch McGrayne APS meeting, “EPR to Entanglement,” was dedicated to his memory (see report below). He passed away just three weeks prior to the APS meeting. Editor’s Note

Help keep Physics in Perspective alive. spective, go to the Birkhäuser Verlag website: Wilhelm Dove. Death of George-Louis This wonderful quarterly journal, published www.birkhauser.ch/journals/1600/ Lesage. since 1999, regularly has participants’ 1600_tit.htm or contact one of the editors: 1853 - Jean-Bernard-Léon Foucault accounts of important contributions in phys- John S. Rigden, American Institute of Phys- showed that light travels faster in air than in ics, historical articles, a regular feature: “The ics, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD water. William J. M. Rankine developed the Physical Tourist” outlining sites, laborato- 20740, [email protected] and Roger H. Stuewer, concept of potential energy. Birth of Evgraf ries with historical significance, artifacts from Tate Laboratory of Physics, University of Stepanovich Fyodorov, Victor Goldschmidt, the history of physics, and important physi- Minnesota, 116 Church Street SE, Minne- Heike Kammerlingh Onnes, Heinrich cists in selected regions (e.g. “Physicists and apolis, MN 55455, [email protected]. Johannes Gustav Kayser, Hendrik Antoon Physics in Munich” in the latest issue), and umn.edu, or contact me (Bill Evenson, see Lorentz, Arthur Moritz Schoenflies. Death book reviews. Another regular feature, “In below) and I will direct your inquiry to the of Dominique François Jean Arago. Appreciation,” is written about a physicist editors and publisher. If a significant frac- 1903 - Ernst Mach published his influ- by a student, first-hand acquaintance, or tion of Forum members were to try Physics ential History of Mechanics. Jules-Henri colleague. This is one of the few journals or in Perspective, its future would be assured. Poincaré introduced the concept of high magazines that I personally value so highly sensitivity to initial conditions in nonlinear that I read it cover to cover. There is no other Some Anniversaries for 2003 systems. December 17, the first successful journal like it for physicists and those inter- 1603 - Death of William Gilbert. manned flight of a heavier-than-air machine, ested in the history of physics, written at an 1703 - Isaac Newton elected President by the Wright Brothers (Orville in the plane) accessible level, with high standards and fine of the Royal Society, a post he continued in at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Birth of Frank writing. And there is a special price for APS until his death in 1727. Death of Robert Philip Bowden, Igor Vasilievich Kurchatov, members ($35 plus $10 shipping). This is a Hooke. Kathleen Lonsdale, Cecil Frank Powell, journal that all Forum members would enjoy 1753 - Birth of Benjamin Thompson, Johann Von Neumann. Death of Carl Anton and benefit from. Count Rumford. Bjerknes, Josiah Willard Gibbs. That is the good news. The bad news is 1803 - Observation of a meteor at Orne, 1953 - Albert Ghiorso et al. discovered that Physics in Perspective is in danger of France, April 26 - Jean-Baptiste Biot fermium. Donald Glaser invented the bubble succumbing due to too few subscriptions. described the event and determined that chamber. Murray Gell-Mann introduced the That would be a major loss for history of meteorites did not originate on earth. John quantum number “strangeness.” Charles H. physics. If you or your institution’s library Dalton established the concept of atomic Townes and, independently, A. M. would like to subscribe to Physics in Per- weight. The elements cerium, osmium, Prokhorov and N. G. Basov, invented the palladium, and rhodium were discovered. maser. Death of Edwin Powell Hubble, Birth of Johann Christian Doppler, Heinrich Herbert Eugene Ives, Robert Andrews of Physics Millikan, Ludwig Prandtl. HISTORYNEWSLETTER The History of Physics Newsletter is published twice each year by the Forum Reports on History of Physics of the American Physical Society. It is distributed free to all members of the Forum. Others who Tunneling, From Alpha Particle some have said that “Thomas Edison’s great- wish to receive it should make a donation Decay to Biology. APS March est invention was the ‘Research Laboratory’ to the Forum of $5 per year (+$3 addi- Meeting, Indianapolis, 18 March as a social institution.” This institution has tional for air mail). Each volume consists 2002. played a central role in Giaever’s life and of six issues. Editor: William E. Evenson, career: “My greatest discovery was when I This symposium featured four talks by Department of Physics, Brigham Young learned at 29 years of age that it was pos- leading participants in the study of tunnel- University, Provo, UT 84602, (evenson@ sible to work in such an institution and get ing phenomena who discussed manifesta- byu.edu) 801 422-6078. paid for doing research. I had become inter- tions and applications, including the current ested in physics, gotten a job at General status of tunneling studies in physics, chem- Editor: Electric Research Laboratory and found a istry, and biology. It was well attended, with William E. Evenson great mentor in John C. Fischer.” Giaever about 120 in the audience. The session was Department of Physics then told about his “second greatest dis- chaired by Hans Frauenfelder (Los Alamos). Brigham Young University covery: tunneling in superconductors.” He Ivar Giaever (Rensselaer Polytechnic Provo, UT 84602 reviewed the discovery that is reported in Institute) began the session by talking about e-mail: [email protected] greater detail in his 1973 Nobel Prize talk: his Nobel Prize-winning work on “Tunnel- tel: (801) 378-6078 “Electron Tunneling and Superconductiv- ing in Superconductors.” He noted that

2 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 ity” [Les Prix Nobel en 1973 or Science getics such as respiration and photosynthe- the 1911 Geiger-Nutall law. Both alpha 183:1253-1258(1974) or Reviews of Modern sis.” Onuchic presented his “recent results decay and thermionic emission provided Physics 46:245-250(1974)]. In the right place on how thermal motions may modulate elec- examples in which wave mechanics and the at the right time, having studied tunneling tron tunneling in these reactions. We identi- tunneling effect contained within the theory between thin metal films across an oxide bar- fied a new mechanism of nuclear dynamics led to satisfying unified explanations of rier at GE, Giaever encountered the BCS amplification that plays a central role when otherwise puzzling phenomena. This theory of superconductivity in a course from interference among the dominant tunneling strengthened both confidence in and under- Hill Huntington at RPI in 1960 and imagined pathway tubes is destructive. In these cases, standing of quantum mechanics in its early that he could measure the superconducting tunneling takes place in protein conforma- days. energy gap in his tunneling experiments if tions far from equilibrium that minimize The final talk of this interesting session he changed one of the metals to a supercon- destructive interference. As an example, we was given by Nancy Makri (UIUC) on ductor. He made aluminum-aluminum oxide- demonstrate how this dynamical amplifica- “Tunneling in Chemistry.” The tunneling lead samples (lead becomes superconduct- tion mechanism affects certain reaction rates probability depends on the negative expo- ing at 7.2 K, while aluminum remains a in the photosynthetic reaction center.” nential of the square root of the mass of the normal metal down to 1.2 K). He found a Eugen Merzbacher (U of North Carolina tunneling particle, so light particles have a dramatic change in the current-voltage char- at Chapel Hill) reviewed the history of higher tunneling probability than heavy acteristic when the lead became supercon- tunneling in “Tunneling – the Beginning.” ones. This suggests that isotopic differences ducting, and the same kind of change in A version of this talk was published in Phys- can be explored and exploited in the tunnel reverse when he drove the lead normal with ics Today, August 2002. “The advent of effect. Makri discussed effects of asymmet- a magnetic field. Then he found equipment wave mechanics almost immediately led to ric wells and dispersive media in quenching that allowed him to lower the temperature the insight that particles have a finite chance tunneling. For reaction rates at finite below 1.2 K, so both the aluminum and the of being found in, and penetrating through, temperatures, tunneling dominates at low lead strips in his sample would be supercon- regions of space that are classically inac- temperatures, where the classical rate goes ducting. He found a negative resistance char- cessible to them. . . Before tunneling became to zero. These effects were studied in chem- acteristic, as expected for tunneling between the standard term for the nonclassical trans- istry beginning with Hund’s work on mo- two superconductors with different energy mission of particles through a potential lecular spectra in 1927, which first suggested gaps. He and Karl Megerle then measured barrier, the quantum mechanical process, that tunneling could be important in chemi- anomalies in the current-voltage character- either in German or English, was often re- cal reactions. In 1932 the discovery of istics of lead, which were found to relate to ferred to as penetration of, or leaking deuterium gave evidence for quantum tun- the lead phonon spectrum. In retrospect, through, a barrier (or sometimes a potential neling and led to work on isotope effects. Giaever saw that they had observed the dc hill).” The first uses of the word “tunneling” Tunneling was evident in studies of ortho- Josephson effect many times but discarded to describe this process seem to have been and para-hydrogen in 1933, and tunneling these observations, thinking they were due to Walter Schottky in 1931 (in German) splittings were observed in ammonia in 1934. caused by metallic shorts. Collaborations and J. Frenkel in 1932 (in English). Friedrich Makri reviewed a rich history of tunneling with John Fisher, Charles Bean, Walter Hund, in several papers in 1927, explored effects in chemistry that touched on bond- Harrison, Karl Megerle, Howard Hart, and tunneling in bound states to understand ing and band structure effects, conjugated others were important in carrying out this molecular spectra. He derived a tunneling organic molecules, biomolecules, exciton research. rate proportional to the exponential of the tunneling in molecular aggregates, nuclear The second talk of the session was given product of barrier width and effective wave tunneling in electron transfer reactions (R. by Jose Onuchic (UCSD) on “Tunneling in number for penetration into the classically A. Marcus, 1992 Nobel Prize in chemistry), Biology.” Onuchic asked, “How do quan- forbidden region. Lothar Nordheim analyzed atomic tunneling via scattering in bimolecu- tum mechanical processes control important tunneling in thermionic emission in 1927, lar reactions, predissociation in unimolecular mechanisms in biology? Quantum mechan- using piecewise rectangular potentials. Then decay, and symmetric vs. asymmetric isomer- ics is important for the formation of chemical Robert Oppenheimer in January, 1928, in izations, tunneling in molecular spectros- bonds, but does it impact biology beyond Physical Review, addressed electric field copy, in enzymes, in condensed phases, that?” He studied electron tunneling in pro- effects on hydrogen in an early version of rotational tunneling in crystals at low tem- teins and found that a simple model of one time-dependent perturbation theory and perature, competing effects in kinetics, and dominant pathway explains the data well. found tunneling transition probabilities, theoretical treatments of tunneling, culminat- Why not multiple paths with interference? although he did not discuss them in terms of ing in the STM. They do find interference in reaction centers barrier penetration. Later in 1928 Fowler and [Science 290:114 (2000)], but generally the Nordheim published their calculations of Synchrotron Radiation: From interference averages to zero due to fluctua- tunneling through a triangular barrier, repre- Stepchild to Star. APS March Meet- tions in the Bohr oscillations. This leaves senting field-induced electron emission. one dominant pathway: the system finds “The explanation of radioactive nuclear al- ing, Indianapolis, 20 March 2002. pathways with a dominant path and other- pha decay, by Gamow and by Gurney and Chaired by Arthur Bienenstock wise destructive interference. This effect Condon in 1928-1929, provided the most dra- (Stanford), this symposium reviewed the results in more efficient electron transfer. matic and influential model of quantum history of research using synchrotron radia- “Electron transfer reactions are fundamental tunneling through a potential barrier.” tion. Interest was high, and the room proved in controlling several processes in bioener- Gamow, in 1928, showed that tunneling fit to be too small for the crowd of about 100

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 3 physicists, many of whom found standing mensional systems (GaSe) in 1977 and for curves and interface roughness. Magnetic room only. three-dimensional systems (Cu, 1979, and Ni, circular dichroism (MCD) is depth resolv- The first speaker was Yves Petroff (Ad- 1978, with many-body effects); discovery of able; magnetic speckles can be seen in vanced Light Source LBNL) on “Milestones resonant photoemission in 1977 (2-hole band nanostructures. In sum, “the field of VUV/ in Research Using VUV/Soft X-ray Synchro- state in Ni); tungsten surface core level states Soft X-ray synchrotron radiation is very ac- tron Radiation.” Petroff spoke of the (1979); spin-polarized photoemission (1980); tive and successful, contrary to some state- progress during the 30-year period from 1972 Fermi surface of Cu; high Tc superconduc- ments made a few years ago.” to 2002. “After some pioneering work in the tor studies in which photoemission has been Martin Blume (APS and BNL) spoke on sixties, the use of synchrotron radiation in very important. Petroff reviewed recent work “Milestones in Materials Research Using the VUV/Soft X-ray actually started in the on high Tc superconductors in some detail, Hard X-ray Synchrotron Radiation.” This seventies.” In 1975 there were only a few noting what has been learned from synchro- is an example of a technique that was once synchrotron centers, mostly operating in tron studies about the superconducting simply a side-effect that later evolved into a parasitic mode, and with only bending mag- peak, gap and anisotropy, pseudogap, bi- full-blown research tool. Blume gave a brief net sources. There was a belief that VUV/ layer splitting, Fermi surface, coupling of history of X-ray sources from X-ray tubes Soft X-ray work could only be done on low quasi-particles and collective modes, and the to synchrotron sources: 1913, the Coolidge energy machines. “In solid state physics, the possible magnetic origin of the pseudogap. X-ray tube; 1944, Pommeranchuk article in possibility to obtain the band structure by He noted that “equivalent developments Physical Review on the maximal energy at- angle-resolved photoemission was demon- have happened in molecular and atomic phys- tainable from a betatron, in which synchro- strated and quickly followed by the discov- ics,” as in the measurement of photoioniza- tron radiation was an undesirable side-ef- ery of resonant photoemission, the obser- tion cross-sections, and in the study of fect; 1946, article by Blewett on radiation vation of core level surface states and the surfaces with great sensitivity. Develop- losses; 1946-49, Schwinger theory of syn- detection of spin.” Gobeli and Allen at Bell ments are coming in inelastic scattering with chrotron radiation; 1947, observation of syn- Labs did the first ARPES (angle-resolved VUV and soft X-rays, due to the availability chrotron radiation at GE Research Labs. photoemission spectroscopy) in 1964. It then of radiation with high resolution and pen- The properties of synchrotron radiation took about ten years to catch on, with major etrating ability. This area needs further de- are that it is continuously tunable, sharply contributions by D. Eastman, N. Smith, J. velopment, but it could be revolutionary. collimated, of high intensity, and pulsed in Lecante, and Y. Petroff. Energy and angle This is now an important area for the time. The evolution of synchrotron sources resolutions have increased from about 150- study of magnetism. Originally there were and measurements can be seen in three 300 meV and 1.0º in 1975 to 40 meV and 0.5º only neutron scattering and spin-polarized generations: in 1990 and 10(2) meV, 0.05-0.1º today. Most photoemission, but now there are about 15 important excitations in condensed matter techniques, “like dichroism, inelastic scat- physics are in the meV range. tering, and microscopy.” Another area of Some major steps in this field include progress is probing buried interfaces with band structure determinations for two-di- soft X-ray standing waves to obtain rocking

Sources Materials characterization techniques

1st generation Parasitic EXAFS, XRD

2nd generation Rings designed or reconfigured for Circular and linear dichroism, anomalous synchrotron radiation. Insertion dispersion (resonant scattering), surface devices (wigglers). diffraction, X-ray microprobe, magnetic scattering (non-resonant and resonant)

3rd generation Larger rings. Dedicated undulators. Inelastic scattering, time-resolved scattering and absorption, coherence spectroscopy, speckle spectroscopy

“The advent of synchrotron radiation The third talk was “Milestones in Bio- crystal protein diffraction experiment was sources has changed qualitatively and quan- logical Research using Hard X-ray Syn- carried out in 1976. In 1984 the structure of titatively the nature of the materials experi- chrotron Radiation” by Stephen Harrison the human common cold virus was deter- ments that can be performed. As the (Harvard). The first synchrotron radiation mined in an experiment that showed that SR sources evolved and provided higher study of a protein was a diffraction experi- synchrotron radiation would allow experi- quality beams of X-rays, experiments that ment in 1970. Since 1972 protein crystallog- ments that were otherwise impossible. In 1987 were formerly difficult-to-observe effects be- raphy has become possible, with crystals D. C. Wiley and his group found the struc- came important experimental techniques.” becoming available for XRD. The first single ture of human class I histocompatibility

4 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 antigen. This was an important milestone due It traced the historical and philosophical drawn in the EPR paper stated that all physi- to the “clarity of a simple picture” they development of entanglement beginning cal concepts must correspond to some produced. Now we can obtain the complete with the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paper of aspect of physical reality. The famous quo- atomic structure of viruses and other objects 1935 and continuing through to present-day tation from that paper states: “If, without in up to about 120 nm in diameter. Coming soon: work in the field. The session consisted of any way disturbing the system, we can pre- “high throughput structure determination,” four speakers and one commentary. Unfor- dict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal “molecular machines,” “kinetics: molecular tunately, the session was shadowed by the to unity) the value of a physical quantity, movies.” absence of Professor James Cushing of the then there exists an element of physical real- David Moncton (Argonne) rounded out University of Notre Dame who was originally ity corresponding to this physical quantity.” the session with his talk, “Faster than slated to give the commentary but who This paper sparked a great deal of interest Moore’s Law: An Historical Review of passed away unexpectedly just weeks from philosophically-inclined physicists, in- Synchrotron Source Technology and Pros- before the meeting. Cushing was a member cluding Niels Bohr and Erwin Schrödinger. pects for an X-ray Laser.” He reported that of the Physics Department Faculty at Notre This led the latter to propose the now fa- the beam brilliance doubling rate is about Dame from 1966 until his death. He received mous Schrödinger cat paradox that argued a nine months, 35 orders of magnitude since his PhD in Physics in 1963 from the Univer- similar stance from a different point of view. X-ray tubes. Moncton reviewed the X-ray sity of Iowa and held postdoctoral appoint- Bohr, however, came out firmly opposed to Nobel prizes, noted the invention of the ments at Iowa, Imperial College in London, the conclusions of the paper, and most rotating anode (1966), and summarized early and Argonne National Laboratory before physicists later felt he successfully coun- thinking about using synchrotron radiation. moving to Notre Dame. He also held a four- tered Einstein. Bohr’s response contained a L. Parrat discussed X-ray physics with syn- year appointment in Notre Dame’s Philoso- “Criterion of Reality” that was slightly chrotron radiation in 1958. Green and phy Department from 1990 to 1993. His life’s ambiguous but came down on the side of Chapman first recognized the value of work was dedicated to the History and Phi- positivism, a result concurrent with a letter low-emittance particle beams in 1975. This losophy of Twentieth Century Physics and to Physical Review, Vol. 48, from Arthur was followed by tremendous improvement Foundational Problems in Quantum Theory. Ruark. This move to positivism was a shift in beam position stability to micron levels, He was a member of FHP and a Fellow of the in Bohr’s thinking about the quantum theory. making a new class of experiments possible. APS. He was the recipient of numerous On June 19, 1935, Einstein wrote to Projections to the future: First, improvements honors and grants and was widely published. Schrödinger to explain that the EPR paper to existing machines, with up to 100-fold im- He was born in 1937 in Long Beach, Califor- had essentially been written by Podolsky provement foreseen in brilliance. Then the nia and passed away just three weeks prior and had obscured the central point. The key Ultimate Storage Ring, an energy recovery to the APS meeting. He was warmly remem- features of the EPR argument emphasized linac with small beam size, about 104 greater bered by many at the conference including the minimal role of Bohr’s “Criterion of brilliance, much shorter bunch length, down Arthur Fine who was the first speaker of Reality.” Bohr’s responses definitively state to about 0.3 ps. Next, SASE Principle (Self- the session and whose talk was entitled his views on the concept of locality and the Amplified Stimulated Emission), with longer “EPR: Some History and Clarification” difficulty in interpreting it. On August 8, 1935, undulators (about 100 m) and higher Fine began by discussing the famous Einstein wrote again to Schrödinger describ- electron currents, about 100 times greater paper that essentially founded the field of ing an example involving exploding gunpow- flux, 106 greater brilliance, and peak brilliance Entanglement – the 1935 paper by Einstein, der that ultimately became a precursor of increased by 1010, bunch length about 100 Podolsky, and Rosen published in Physical Schrödinger’s cat. ps. Finally, the era of the Free Electron Laser Review, Vol. 47. The paper itself was a direct The second talk of the session was given (FEL). Recent results on the FEL have been result of the 1930 Bohr-Einstein discussion by Martin Jones of Oberlin College and was achieved at 130 nm wavelength, with the on the indeterminacy relations. Boris entitled “Interpretations of Entanglement.” basic physics well confirmed down to about Podolsky, who had worked with Einstein and Jones began by discussing the problem of 100 nm. A user facility with wavelengths in Richard Chase Tolman on a previous foun- entanglement, characterizing the problems the range 1 to 100 nm is possible in 2005- dational paper, joined the Institute for surrounding the phenomenon. Consider a 2008. By 2008-2010 we can expect wave- Advanced Study in Princeton in 1934. Also quantum-mechanical system containing two lengths of 0.1 to 1 nm. in that year, Nathan Rosen began work at subsystems, A and B. These two subsystems Princeton University. Einstein became inter- can be said to be in an entangled state if and EPR to Entanglement. APS April ested in the work of both men, and the three only if the composite system A+B can be Meeting, Albuquerque, 20 April soon were working together. In the early written as a simple tensor product of two 2002. spring of 1935 their famous paper “Can Quan- state vectors, one pertaining to each sub- tum Mechanical Description of Physical Re- system. Another way to describe this phe- Report by Ian T. Durham (Simmons ality be Considered Complete?” was written. nomenon is to say that A and B are in an College) The final form of the paper was largely entangled state when and only when the This FHP Invited Session was organized written by Podolsky and submitted for pub- combined state A+B can be written as a non- and chaired by Elizabeth Paris of the Dibner lication while Einstein was out of town. trivial superposition of tensor product states Institute and Harvard University and was Einstein did not, in fact, entirely approve of regardless of the choice of basis. Thus the dedicated to the memory of James T. the final form of the paper. Einstein’s origi- quantum-mechanical state of the two-particle Cushing. The session was held in the large nal thought experiment had involved spa- system in the EPR argument as well as the Kiva Auditorium and was very well attended. tially separate particles. The conclusion

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 5 state of Schrödinger’s unfortunate cat are delineation of various general constraints modal interpretations, several interpretations both entangled states. Jones also pointed that any suitable theory of quantum mechan- that fall under the heading of many minds out that it was Schrödinger who first intro- ics must satisfy, while the second is the interpretations, and more. These theories duced the term ‘entanglement’ in the ‘cat mélange of unorthodox interpretations that reject the idea that the wave function ever paradox’ paper. He then went on to intro- have cropped up. collapses and insist on linear, deterministic duce the canonical example of the singlet Within the first category of general Schrödinger evolution in every situation spin state for a pair of spin-½ particles. This constraints, Jones mentioned the two most (with minor exceptions). example was introduced by David Bohm in influential: Bell’s Theorem of 1964 and the Jones concluded his talk by touching on his 1951 text, Quantum Theory, when he Kochen-Specker Theorem of 1967. The all of these theories’ (both orthodox and initially spoke of ‘atoms.’ Jones chose to fol- latter basically shows that should we attempt unorthodox) specific applications to low convention and speak of electrons. to assign a definite value to every observ- entanglement. The problem of entanglement is that it able in a system, given some natural assump- The next person to take the podium was appears to introduce the concept of tions, we will ultimately arrive at a mathemati- Alain Aspect of Institut d’Optique, Orsay, nonlocality. This is because there is a corre- cal contradiction. The only way out is to France, who presented the first talk dealing lation between spatially-separated systems. reject one or more of the assumptions or with experimental aspects of entanglement But it is important to remember that assume that some observables can lack a (“Bell’s Theorem and the Non-locality of nonlocality only arises in entangled states. definite value. Bell’s Theorem basically rules Quantum Mechanics”). Aspect first re- Additionally, the problem is exacerbated by out hidden variables that would have prede- viewed the details of Bell’s theorem and in- the fact that quantum mechanics itself pro- termined the spin values of two electrons, equalities. The theorem was proposed as a vides no ‘obvious explanation,’ as Jones say, at the source. As such, certain predic- test for hidden variables, something that had said. Philosophically – or physically – then, tions satisfy Bell’s Inequality while predic- been suggested several times as a solution what does this tell us about the world? How tions of quantum mechanics do not. This is for the problem of incompleteness. Bell’s in- can we explain these correlations? For often thought to have re-ignited the idea of equality is actually just a simple probability example, if we measure a pair of entangled nonlocality. theorem that gives conditions for a series of electrons and one comes out spin-up, how Jones went on to explain a series of marginal probability distributions to be de- can we explain the fact that the other one further theorems based on the two primary rived from a single joint distribution. If hid- automatically comes out spin-down? ones, including some that combined the ap- den variables indeed existed, the distribu- Perhaps it simply means the world is proaches of Bell and of Kochen and Specker. tions would have to originate in a single joint nonlocal. The ‘spectre’ of nonlocality intro- The results of all these theorems serve to distribution and would obey the inequality. duces yet another problem in its apparent constrain general interpretations of quantum Thus violations of Bell’s inequality are usu- conflict with relativity in regard to events mechanics and may suggest a way of under- ally taken to indicate that hidden variables that are space-like related. Causal connec- standing entanglement by allowing us to are not possible. In essence, they indicate tions of space-like events in entangled states draw some general conclusions about it, that quantum mechanics violates classical would indicate the potentiality of including the possibility of nonlocality. concepts of locality. Aspect also focused on superluminal information transport in con- Alternative interpretations of quantum why this theory was so important to the un- flict with special relativity. mechanics offer other views of entanglement. derstanding of quantum mechanics. Despite these troubling issues, Jones The so-called ‘collapse interpretations’ With Bell’s inequalities as a backdrop, advocated a more specific question, asking assume that the wave function collapses (or Aspect then described his famous 1982 what entanglement tells us about quantum the wavepacket is reduced), usually at the experiments at Orsay which were very close mechanics rather than about the world at point of measurement. These interpretations to the ideal experiment devised by Bell him- large. The answer could be that quantum endorse the idea behind the projection self. In fact, there were three such experi- mechanics is limited in its scope and is not a postulate which is that states of systems ments performed by Aspect and his col- fundamental theory of nature (i.e. it is not sometimes undergo indeterministic ‘col- leagues starting in 1981 that were based on everywhere applicable to everything). This lapses’ or ‘jumps.’ These formulations either Bell’s suggestions. Atoms in some source is the essence of Einstein’s ultimate argu- assume that the Schrödinger equation is in- region are stimulated into an excited state ment: that quantum mechanics is incomplete. terrupted (or discontinuous) upon occasion by two laser beams. In returning to the As such, entanglement in this sense is or completely replaced by some other equa- ground state they emit two photons due to defined purely in terms of the mathematical tion, usually some stochastic equation of the existence of an intermediate state formalism of quantum mechanics. Ultimately motion. However, many of these interpreta- between the excited state and the ground there could be a difference between the tions reject the projection postulate as a way state. The photons were passed through statistical correlations of the mathematical of describing the way collapses occur (the filters to eliminate outside sources of light formalism and true causal connections of big question, of course, is are collapses and then encountered polarizers. Based on physical reality – i.e. is nonlocality purely a physical processes or mathematical conve- the quantum efficiency of the detectors, a statistical phenomenon or is it physical? niences?). certain number of the photons transmitted Jones then went on to discuss how these Another category of alternative interpre- will be detected. Entanglement exists between questions have been examined historically tation is the no collapse interpretation. the polarization states of the entire ensemble since the original EPR paper in 1935. In this Several theories fall under this category of the pairs of photons. Therefore, the time two main categories of interpretation including Bohm’s 1951 theory, the splitting detection times between the two photons in have developed. The first advocates the worlds interpretation of DeWitt, several a pair are measured. Ultimately this leads to

6 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 a direct test of Bell’s inequality because the In 1997 Zeilinger and his colleagues philosophical ‘realism.’ He said that photons’ behavior was predicted to differ became the first to realize another practical observer-independent theories such as depending on whether or not nonlocality application of entanglement – quantum Newtonian Mechanics could exist and one was a physical reality. The Orsay experi- teleportation. Classical teleportation is could still maintain that science is a social ments proved that nonlocality does indeed deemed impossible by the Heisenberg construction. He gave examples of ‘realist exist in physics. Uncertainty Principle which would prevent a interpretation’ that were, in fact, just differ- Aspect concluded his talk by discuss- perfect measurement of an object (needed to ent physical theories (e.g. Bohm’s). ‘Real- ing the advantages to quantum optics that reconstruct it elsewhere – i.e. the Star Trek ism’ thus is seen as playing the role of moti- the 1982 Orsay experiments have provided transporter concept is sabotaged by uncer- vator. Cushing argued in print that the Fifth and discussed some of the ongoing research tainty). The team produced pairs of Solvay Congress in 1927 could have made at Orsay including work with Bose Einstein entangled photons by a process known as de Broglie’s theory (which is basically condensates (BECs) and atomic mirrors. The parametric down-conversion and used two- Bohm’s) a dominant research program. goal is to produce analogs of traditional photon interferometry to analyze the Bacciagaluppi believes a choice of observer- optical devices for atoms. entangled state. By this process they were independent interpretation was ultimately Aspect was followed by Anton able to transfer the polarization state from tied to the question of which interpretation Zeilinger of the University of Vienna who one photon to another, thereby teleporting a was more heuristically fruitful and in that spoke on the practical applications of en- quantum property (the polarization state). context he says Copenhagen was more fruit- tanglement (“Quantum Entanglement and All the above-mentioned applications of ful. He went on to list some of the fruitful Information”). In the early 1970s true ex- quantum entanglement could theoretically be aspects of Copenhagen including perimental tests of Bell’s theorem began, combined to create some form of quantum complementarity and the fact that it could though the motivation was still simply to computer which is simply using the even be applied to EPR situations. But what answer fundamental questions in physics. information exchanged in these processes in price is paid for the success of Practical applications of entanglement only some systematic manner. Zeilinger used this complementarity? began to emerge in recent years. The areas as a platform to predict the development of Before the EPR argument Bacciagaluppi of application include quantum communi- some new type of technology in the future holds that complementarity was connected cation, quantum cryptography, quantum that would create a novel kind of information to ‘earthy’ intuitions, suggesting that it teleportation, and quantum computation. technology. applied to measuring apparatuses if the Some of Zeilinger’s own experimental work The session was wrapped up in a limits of applicability of classical concepts includes not only photons but molecules as commentary given by Guido Bacciagaluppi are fundamental. He said that this reasoning well. The basis of quantum communication of the University of California at Berkeley. is less intuitive in the EPR case. In fact, Bohr is the idea that information can be multi- Bacciagaluppi was standing in for Jim had trouble making intuitive sense of the EPR plied several times over. For instance, some Cushing, mentioned above, who had passed argument. This physical intuition of hypothetical quantum communication away three weeks prior to the meeting. entanglement is only now being developed. devices would have a receiver that read a Bacciagaluppi’s commentary attempted to Bacciagaluppi then suggests that it has taken two-bit piece of information while physically provoke further discussion and thought so long for this physical intuition to develop receiving only one bit. This is accomplished regarding the material presented in the because the Copenhagen interpretation has by having the receiver actually send the first session. He quoted Zeilinger as saying not been completely successful at dealing bit (part of a two-bit entangled state) to the entanglement has gone from being an with entanglement. He then supported this sender who then sends it back to the embarrassment to being a physical resource. argument with some specifics as well as what receiver with some encoded information. Aspect gave Bell’s inequalities as the turn- he called ‘circumstantial evidence’ – the fact Due to the entangled state, the receiver ac- ing point in the history of entanglement. that many new interpretations (though not tually has two pieces of information despite Bacciagaluppi began with a fairly simple ques- all full-blown physical interpretations) had only receiving one. This concept is often tion: why did it take so long to realize the been developed, which he takes to indicate used to allow confidential messages to be possibilities of entanglement? Traditionally that the Copenhagen interpretation has masked to unauthorized third parties – i.e. it is thought that Bohr successfully answered ceased to have the same heuristic force it cryptography. In classical cryptography it the EPR paradox, though this is not quite used to. is always possible to intercept classical key true according to Fine. Fine also pointed out Bacciagaluppi drew some final conclu- distributions without being noticed. How- that Einstein’s concerns were a bit different sions from all this, including the fact that the ever, recent developments have produced a than is usually thought. His own version of judgment of the outcome of the EPR quantum key distribution which allows single EPR had little to do with the specific vari- exchange should be reexamined. Insofar as quanta of information (qubits) to be trans- ables of the Uncertainty Principle but rather Einstein’s primary concern was observer in- ferred via a quantum channel. The idea is when a certain quantity is measured, which dependence, Bacciagaluppi thinks he may that information cannot be gained from a means abandoning the one-one correspon- have been right after all. He made this point system without disturbing it, and the quan- dence of the quantum state and physical with one final remark regarding the many- tum key distribution prevents the system world. worlds interpretation – there cannot be a (as a whole) from being disturbed. Ulti- Bacciagaluppi, himself a philosopher like one-one correspondence between the wave mately, it is possible to send an encoded Jones, went on to point out that advocating function and physical reality if we hold to message that cannot be deciphered by any an observer-independent formulation does locality. statistical methods. not automatically imply the espousal of

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 7 Interpreting Copenhagen. APS lished his theory of the compound nucleus the gaseous diffusion method due to Gustav April Meeting, Albuquerque, 20 in 1936 in Nature, but Bohr believed that the Hertz because Hertz was half Jewish; there April 2002. nucleus would de-excite by emission of was a graphite problem, and Heisenberg single particles rather than split apart. failed to recognize the need for high purity This session was organized by the Fo- This history of the liquid drop model can graphite; there was a design problem. Finally, rum on Physics and Society and cospon- be divided into two stages: Stage I, 1928-35; changing military fortunes threatened the sored by FHP. Andy Sessler (LBNL) chaired Gamow, Heisenberg, von Weizsäcker; project: the Leningrad defeat led to a full the session. It was preceded by a staged emphasized static features of the nucleus, review of all research programs, and funds reading of Act One of the play, Copenhagen, calculation of the nuclear mass defect curve. were withdrawn in February, 1942; in June, in a special Friday evening program (April Stage II, 1936-37; Bohr; emphasized dynamic 1942, modest funding was obtained from 19). Bertram Schwarzschild (Physics Today) features of the nucleus, nuclear excitations. Speer after Heisenberg intervened to keep read the role of Niels Bohr, Olive Meitner was familiar with Stage I develop- the project alive. Schwarzschild (National Academy Press) ments, Frisch with Stage II. Frisch later said, Cassidy argued, finally, that Heisenberg read Margrethe Bohr, and Phillip Schewe “We put our different kinds of knowledge pursued this project as a means to his own (AIP) read Werner Heisenberg. Both the read- together.” professional rehabilitation and the rehabili- ing and the session were arranged by Harry Bohr then carried the message of fission tation of theoretical physics in Germany. Lustig (APS/CCNY-emeritus) and Brian to the USA on a visit to Princeton. His think- Next on the program were David and Suzy Schwartz (CCNY). ing embedded in Stage II, Bohr did not asso- Pines (Los Alamos) presenting “Niels and The session was opened by Roger H. ciate the mass defect curve with nuclear Margrethe Bohr – Some Favorite Memo- Stuewer (U of Minnesota), who spoke on de-excitation. The Bohr-Kalkar paper in 1937 ries: A Dialogue.” They used a dialogue “An Act of Scientific Creativity: Meitner, did not cite Gamow, and this omission was format to share memories of Niels and Frisch, and Nuclear Fission.” Stuewer propagated by Bethe in his book on nuclear Margrethe Bohr in Copenhagen and La Jolla reviewed the discovery of nuclear fission, physics. Then the Bohr-Wheeler paper in during the years 1954-1974. They took their “the dominant event that lay in the back- 1939 failed to correct the earlier oversight, first trip to Europe in 1954 to the Solvay meet- ground to Werner Heisenberg’s fateful meet- so many physicists have incorrectly learned ing, and Christian Møller invited them to ing with Niels Bohr in occupied Copenhagen that Bohr was the originator of the liquid Copenhagen. In 1957 they visited again, on in September 1941.” The discovery and in- drop model of the nucleus. a year-long sabbatical that began in terpretation of nuclear fission occurred three David C. Cassidy (Hofstra) then spoke Copenhagen. They were invited to lunch by years before the Copenhagen meeting. Lisa on “New Light on ‘Copenhagen’ and the the Bohrs in their country house. They Meitner met her nephew, Otto Frisch, in German Nuclear Project.” Immediately orried about what would be appropriate gifts: Kungälv, Sweden, in late December, 1938. She after World War II, some German scientists Bram Pais suggested toys, so they took a had a letter from Otto Hahn indicating that pointed to the bomb as evidence of their own slinky and water-propelled rocket. They were he and Strassmann had found barium as a moral superiority. Some also argued that the a great success; Bohr began playing with reaction product when uranium was bom- German effort had been deliberately sabo- them himself, not even sharing them with barded with neutrons. Meitner and Frisch taged for moral reasons. Robert Jungk, with the grandchildren, initially. “Margrethe Bohr arrived at the nuclear fission interpretation his 1956 book, Brighter Than a Thousand was tall, beautiful, strong, soft, and gentle of these experimental results as they walked Suns, popularized von Weizsäcker’s argu- all at once.” She expressed a strong interest and talked in the snow over the Christmas ments along these lines. Thomas Powers in how the Pines’ were managing in holidays. When Frisch told Bohr of this (Heisenberg’s war: the secret history of the Copenhagen. discovery in early 1939, Bohr was greatly German bomb, 1993) and Michael Frayn 1957 was the summer of the microscopic surprised. Why had they not seen this (Copenhagen, 1998) revived and repopu- theory of superconductivity. David Pines possibility before? larized these arguments. gave lectures on this subject at the Bohr Gamow (not Bohr) invented the liquid On January 6, 2002, the Bohr family Institute. He was warned by Aage and Ben drop model of the nucleus in 1928 and released eleven documents for study by Bohr independently that Bohr felt very presented it at a meeting of the Royal Soci- historians. There is now overwhelming deeply about this subject and could have ety of London in February, 1929. Gamow evidence against the sabotage thesis. Hans very strong questions. The talk went well, pursued these ideas in 1929-1931 at Cam- Bethe changed his view of Heisenberg due and Bohr asked David to talk with him bridge, then returned to Russia in the sum- to the new documents, and von Weizsäcker privately about the theory, so they went to mer of 1931 to renew his passport. Unfortu- conceded that Heisenberg was more Bohr’s study and sat at a long table. Bohr nately, his passport was denied, so he could complicated than previously portrayed. would light and relight and puff on his pipe. not return to England. In February, 1932 Powers claimed that Heisenberg killed the He had an impenetrable accent in English Chadwick discovered the neutron. project in 1942, but there is no evidence of (even in Danish he was difficult to under- Heisenberg and Carl Friedrich von this. Rather, there seems to have been a tech- stand). Bohr was very sharp in 1957 – also Weizsäcker took up the liquid drop model nical failure by Heisenberg: he never worked the time of his unsent letters to Heisenberg. and extended it between 1933 and 1936, in out the critical mass properly; he did not In June, 1958, Suzy Pines was invited by the development of von Weizsäcker’s semi- think the Germans could get sufficient U- Margrethe Bohr to a luncheon at Carlsberg. empirical mass formula. Then Bohr pub- 235; he did the calculation wrong; he ignored Margrethe had a keen interest in politics,

8 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 both national and international affairs. She other scientists and their interactions in the 100 years ago. He attended the Fasori asked Suzy about “your Mr. Nixon.” Then, golden years of the creation of quantum Lutheran Gymnasium, which educated, in the summer of 1960, when the Bohrs were mechanics are accurately and thrillingly among others, John von Neumann and John principal guests of honor at the dedication rendered. There may be no better non-tech- Harsanyi, Nobel-laureate in economics. of the General Atomic Laboratories, nical exposition of complementarity and the Wigner was influenced by his math teacher, Margrethe told Suzy, “You were absolutely uncertainty principle than the one that Frayn László Rátz who taught calculus in high right about Nixon!” puts into the mouths of Bohr and school. World War I, revolutions and The Pines’ saw the play, Copenhagen, Heisenberg. The treatment of the history of counter/revolutions, kingdom, republic, in London in 1999 with the Bohr sons (also the atomic bomb and Heisenberg’s role in Soviet-type council republic followed each having seen it in Copenhagen in Danish ear- Germany’s failure to achieve a bomb is an- other in dizzying sequence, so Wigner lier). Margrethe Bohr was not present at the other matter. Frayn can also be criticized for decided to continue his university studies conversation with Heisenberg in 1941. Bohr applying uncertainty and complementarity in Berlin, where quantum mechanics was would meet with his visitor, leave his study to the macroscopic world and, in particular, discussed and developed in the 1920s. After and consult with Margrethe, then return to to human interactions, thereby giving some his Ph.D. Wigner worked in Budapest and in the visitor, and so on. When they met in the aid and comfort to the post-modernists. Berlin, and he elaborated the foundations of fall of 1941, Bohr had long been encourag- These reservations aside, Copenhagen is a quantum mechanics based on symmetry prin- ing Heisenberg to come out of Germany. He beautiful contribution to the appreciation of ciples. He wrote his book on symmetries had offered Heisenberg a position. But science.” during a summer holiday in Hungary, and Heisenberg was coming to Copenhagen to Lustig briefly discussed several of the this later brought him the Nobel Prize. Wigner show Bohr that he had made the right deci- recent science plays, including the new QED, moved to the U.S. in 1930, where he enjoyed sion. He then went to give lectures at the about Feynman. excellent working conditions and recogni- German Embassy, for which he had brought Brian Schwartz (CCNY) spoke on tion. He revisited his homeland only in the his uniform as a colonel in the German “Reaching the Public Through Symposia 1970s, where his ideas about the future at- Wehrmacht. on Science and Theater: Copenhagen and tracted huge audiences at the Academy of Harry Lustig (APS/CCNY-emeritus) Other Plays.” He reported on the Physics Sciences, at universities, and in the Physical spoke on “Science As Theater, Theater As Festival in Atlanta in 1999 at the APS Society. He received high honors from his Science.” He reviewed a long history of Centennial meeting, followed by other pub- home country – a bit belatedly. The princi- science in the theater, from Bertold Brecht’s lic programs. He and Harry Lustig organized pal focus of his attention was the quantum- Galileo in 1942 and Friedrich Dürrenmatt’s the “Creating Copenhagen” Symposium in mechanical concept of measurement, the role The Physicists in 1962 to the present. “Phys- New York City on March 27, 2000. This of human consciousness. But even in his ics and other sciences have served a symposium was so well received that they last years, in the 1980s, he most enjoyed his number of dramatists as backdrops for the organized another in Washington, DC on visits to high schools, attending physics exposition of existential problems, as well as March 2, 2002 and are planning symposia in classes, discussing the future of science in the provision of entertainment. Michael each city of Copenhagen’s national tour. human society with teachers and students. Frayn’s 1998 play Copenhagen broke new Other activities at CUNY include symposia “Eugene Wigner, The First Nuclear ground by giving a central role to the on other science topics for the public and Reactor Engineer” by Alvin M. Weinberg presentation of scientific substance and Science Vaudeville. The public has a “hun- (Oak Ridge). All physicists recognize Eugene ideas and to the examination of recent ger to understand science from a point of Wigner as a theoretical physicist of the very controversial and emotionally charged view they are interested in.” first rank. Yet Wigner’s only advanced de- events in the history of science and of the The session concluded with questions gree was in chemical engineering. His phys- ‘real world.’ A rash of ‘science plays’ from the audience to the panelists. ics was largely self-taught. During WWII, erupted.” Copenhagen has been called “the Wigner brilliantly returned to his original greatest science play of all time,” and about Eugene Wigner Centennial. APS occupation as an engineer. He led the small twenty science plays have been produced April Meeting, Albuquerque, 21 team of theoretical physicists and engineers since Copenhagen. “How should we physi- who designed, in remarkable detail, the origi- cists react to this development? Surely, it April 2002. nal graphite-moderated, water-cooled can be argued, any exposure of science to This session was organized by the Hanford reactor, which produced the Pu-239 the public is better than none and will help Division of Nuclear Physics in cooperation of the Trinity and Nagasaki bombs. With his break down the barriers between the ‘two with the Division of Particles and Fields, FHP, unparalleled understanding of chain reactors cultures.’ But what if the science or the and the Forum on International Physics. (matched only by Fermi) and his skill and scientists are badly misrepresented or the Joseph Ginocchio (Los Alamos) chaired. liking for engineering, Wigner can properly play is a weapon to strip science of its legiti- There were four speakers, all with close be called the Founder of Nuclear Engineer- macy and its claims to reality and truth? association with Wigner. A detailed report is ing. The evidence for this is demonstrated After reviewing a half dozen of the new plays, not available, so the published abstracts are by a summary of his 37 patents on various I conclude that Copenhagen, though flawed, reproduced below. chain-reacting systems. is not only the best of show, but a positive, “Wigner in Hungary” by George Marx “Wigner’s Changing View of the even admirable endeavor. The contributions (Eötvös U., Budapest). Eugene P. Wigner Elementary Quantum Phenomenon” by of Bohr, Heisenberg, Born, Schrödinger, and was born into a well-to-do family in Budapest John Archibald Wheeler (Princeton, U

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 9 Texas-Austin). In 1961, Eugene Wigner His later interest in nuclear physics, solid tion, and the use of Reynolds decomposi- argued that “the being with a consciousness state, elementary particles, etc. was almost tion with moment closure. The research must have a different role in quantum never without a component of the role of described in this presentation combines theo- mechanics than the inanimate measuring symmetry in these problems. The best retical and experimental activities with model device.” By 1981, he had changed to a to- example of this is his work on the “Unitary building for scientific and engineering com- tally different position, one compatible with representations of the inhomogeneous puter codes. the position of Niels Bohr, that all it requires Lorentz group” (1939) which led later to the “Post-Cold War Science and Technol- for the elementary quantum phenomenon is possible form of equations and interactions ogy at Los Alamos” by John C. Browne (Los an elementary process brought to a close by in the elementary particle field. Alamos). Los Alamos National Laboratory an irreversible act of amplification (i.e. the Eugene Wigner was certainly one of the serves the nation through the development click of a counter or the blackening of a grain giants of XX Century physics and his and application of leading-edge science and of photographic emulsion). It is instructive contribution not only influenced the field in technology in support of national security. to review the reasons Wigner gives for this his time but is also likely to be fundamental Our mission supports national security by: important change in his views. in the century that will follow the centennial ensuring the safety, security, and reliability “Eugene Wigner and Symmetries In we are celebrating now. of the U.S. nuclear stockpile; reducing the Physics” by Marcos Moshinsky (UNAM, threat of weapons of mass destruction in Mexico). Concepts of symmetry in physics History of Los Alamos. APS support of counter-terrorism and homeland have had a long history, particularly if they April Meeting, Albuquerque, 21 defense; and solving national energy, envi- are of a geometric or crystallographic origin, April 2002. ronment, infrastructure, and health security yet in classical physics they had a some- problems. We require crosscutting funda- what esoteric position. This situation This FHP Invited Session was chaired mental and advanced science and technol- changed radically when in the XX Century by Damon Giovanielli (Los Alamos). This ogy research to accomplish our mission. we passed from classical to quantum session is reported by the published The Stockpile Stewardship Program mechanics. In the former a state for a system abstracts. develops and applies advanced experimen- of particles was given by a number of points “The Role of the Special Engineering tal science, computational simulation, and in phase space and the transformation Detachment at Los Alamos during WWII” technology to ensure the safety and reliabil- groups related with symmetries mainly gave by Val L. Fitch (Princeton). The Special ity of U.S. nuclear weapons in the absence the invariance of concepts such as energy Engineering Detachment was a creation of of nuclear testing. This effort in itself is a or angular momentum. In the latter the state General Groves in the fall of 1943 to supply grand challenge. However, the terrorist is characterized by a vector in Hilbert space the technical assistance that was required in attack of September 11, 2001, reminded us of in which the transformations had a repre- the development and construction of nuclear the importance of robust and vibrant sentation. Eugene Wigner was the right man weapons. Army personnel who had techni- research and development capabilities to (for his mathematical ability and physical in- cal training or education were selected out meet new and evolving threats to our na- tuition) at the right place and time (Germany, of regular army units and sent to work at Los tional security. Today through rapid in the twenties) to take full advantage of this Alamos alongside and beholden to civilian prototyping we are applying new, innova- new situation. His first interest was atomic scientists. By the end of the war almost 800 tive science and technology for homeland spectroscopy (then a very active field) and enlisted men had been so assigned and came defense, to address the threats of nuclear, the fact that its basic states were related with to occupy positions ranging from technician chemical, and biological weapons globally. irreducible representations of the orthogo- to group leader. I will briefly describe the life Synergistically, with the capabilities that nal group in three dimensions O(3). The of the SEDs. we require for our core mission, we contrib- German version of his book on Group theory “Los Alamos from the Inside and Out” ute in many other areas of scientific and Applications, published in 1931, estab- by Richard Garwin (IBM T.J. Watson endeavor. For example, our Laboratory has lished, as he quotes “that almost all rules of Research Center). been part of the NASA effort on mapping spectroscopy follow from the symmetry of “Building Bridges from Micro Scale to water on the moon and NSF/DOE projects the problem.” His later extension to the di- Macro Scale” by Francis Harlow (Los studying high-energy astrophysical rect product of two or more representations Alamos). A major focus of research at the phenomena, understanding fundamental led to his development of the 3-j symbol, Los Alamos National Laboratory since its scaling phenomena of life, exploring high- that he explicitly derived, and his interest in inception in 1943 has been to characterize temperature superconductors, investigating the properties of 6-j, 9-j, etc. His awareness very complex small-scale processes in terms quantum information systems, applying neu- of time inversion as an antiunitary operator, of bulk constitutive relations that capture trons to condensed-matter and nuclear phys- and the analysis of its combination with the the essence of the collective behavior. ics research, developing large-scale model- unitary representations of other symmetries, Examples include the development of equa- ing and simulations to understand complex proved fundamental for deriving the features tions of state, the investigation of material phenomena, and exploring nanoscience that of time-reversed reactions from their direct mix at an unstable interface, the examination bridges the atomic to macroscopic scales. behavior. His interest in space reflection and of metal pore growth with strong tensile In this presentation, I will highlight some the concept of parity led to important selec- stress, and characterization of the response of these post-cold war science and technol- tion rules, and was of relevance even in weak of a polymeric foam to large-strain-rate in- ogy advances, including our national secu- interactions where parity is not a good sults. Bridging techniques include transport rity contributions, and discuss some of symmetry. for probability-distribution-function evolu- challenges for Los Alamos in the future.

10 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 History of Physics Contributed was also elected for membership in Phi Beta In 1902, the managers of the ICY sus- Papers. APS April Meeting, Albu- Kappa, but was not actually inducted until pended the academic department and fired querque, 22 April 2002. 1884. Bouchet, along with all the other teachers. During his senior year, Bouchet was The ICY was disbanded and moved to a The FHP Contributed Session was approached by Alfred Cope about remain- rural location approximately twenty miles chaired by Benjamin Bederson (NYU). There ing at Yale and obtaining the doctorate in from Philadelphia. The new curriculum, at were three talks: “Edward A. Bouchet” by physics. Cope was a member of the Board of what became the Cheyney Training School R. E. Mickens (Clark Atlanta U), “The Managers of the Institute for Colored Youth of Teachers, was based largely on the Uncertain Sir Arthur Eddington” by Ian (ICY), a Quaker school for black children industrial arts programs at Hampton and Durham (Simmons College & U of St. located in Philadelphia. Because of his own Tuskegee Institutes. Bouchet was not in Andrews), and “Quantum Computers and personal interest in science and mathemat- sympathy with these changes and was the Reality: Deutsch’s Anti-Positivist Campaign ics, and his desire to have the students at only instructor at the ICY not to receive for Explanations-in-General, Apart From ICY receive training in these areas, Cope several months additional salary after its His Many Worlds Interpretation” by developed a scientific department and hoped closure. Thomas W. O’Donnell (U of Michigan). In that Bouchet would direct it after complet- During the period from 1902 to 1916, addition to the talks, there was one history ing additional advanced studies at Yale. Bouchet held a number of positions at vari- of physics poster contributed on Saturday: Bouchet agreed to stay at Yale for graduate ous locations around the country: teaching “Statistical Challenges in Medieval study with Cope providing the necessary mathematics and physics at the Sumner High Astronomy” by Virginia Trimble (U of funds. School (1902-1903), St. Louis; business man- Maryland & UC-Irvine). In the fall of 1874, Bouchet returned to ager at Provident Hospital (1903-1904), St. Yale as a candidate for the doctor of Louis; U.S. Inspector of Customs at the Loui- Edward Alexander Bouchet (1852- philosophy degree in science. At the 1876 siana Purchase Exposition (1904-1905), St. 1918). Report provided by R. E. Mickens commencement, he received the Ph.D. in Louis; director of the Academic Department (Clark Atlanta U). experimental physics in the area of geometri- at St. Paul’s Normal and Industrial School Edward Bouchet was the first African cal optics. His dissertation title was “Mea- (1905-1908), Lawrence, VA; principal at American to receive the doctorate in any suring Refractive Indices.” Bouchet’s Lincoln High School (1908-1913), Gallipolis, field of knowledge in the United States and research advisor was Professor Arthur OH; and Bishop College (1913-1916), that area was physics. He was granted the Williams Wright, the first person to receive Marshall, TX. This list of employment degree in 1876 from Yale University, making the physics doctorate from Yale in 1861. strongly indicates that Bouchet was never him at that time, one of the few persons to For twenty-six years, beginning in 1876, again able to find the contentment in teach- hold the physics doctorate from an Bouchet taught at the Institute for Colored ing and service to his community that was American University. Youth. In addition to his academic duties, he available to him during his long twenty-six Bouchet was born September 15, 1852 in actively involved himself in projects related year tenure at the ICY. New Haven, Connecticut to William and to the general welfare of the black people of In 1916, Bouchet retired from Bishop Susan Bouchet. His mother, a native of Philadelphia. He lectured extensively before College and returned to New Haven. His Connecticut, was born in Westport on various church, community, and trade main reason for both actions was his failing October 1, 1817 and died in New Haven on groups. Even when the ICY began to give health. After two years of care by his mother February 11, 1920. His father’s birth date and preference to industrial education over pure and sisters, he died on 28 October 1918. place are uncertain, but in some accounts it academics and his salary was cut, he never- While Bouchet did not have an active is given as c.1817 in New Haven; he died theless remained at the school. role in physics research, he played a there in 1885. William and Susan had four Bouchet also became involved in the significant role in the education of African surviving children of whom Edward was the Philadelphia Yale Alumni Association and Americans during the last quarter of the 19th youngest and only son. faithfully attended its meetings and annual century through his teaching and mentoring Bouchet’s primary education began at dinners. According to the 1919 Biographical activities at the ICY in Philadelphia. He was the Artesian Street Colored School which Record of the Class of 1874 in Yale College, one among a small number of African Ameri- was founded in 1811 and the oldest of four “he won and retained the regard and kindly cans who achieved advanced training and primary schools for black children in New interest of its other members and was always education within decades of the American Haven. He next attended Hopkins Grammar received by them with cordiality and Civil War. These persons provided direction, School for two years where he graduated respect.” leadership, and role models for what even- first in his class and gave the valedictory Bouchet was also a member of the tually became the civil/human rights move- address at graduation. Franklin Institute, one of the country’s ments. The years 2001 and 2002 mark, In 1870, Bouchet entered Yale College oldest scientific societies. He regularly respectively, the 125th celebration of his and became one of the outstanding students attended its meetings, lectures, and dinners. receiving the doctorate degree and the 150th of his class. During his undergraduate years In addition, he was a member of the Ameri- year beyond his birth. he took courses in the sciences (astronomy, can Academy of Political and Social Science 1. R. E. Mickens (editor), Edward mathematics, mechanics, and physics) and and was on the board of directors of the Bouchet: The First African American also studied English, French, German, Greek, Century Building and Loan Association of Doctorate. Singapore: World Scientific, 2002. Latin, logic and rhetoric. At graduation in Philadelphia. 2. Obituary Record of Graduates 1874, he ranked sixth in a class of 125. He Deceased during the Year Ending July 1,

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 11 1919. New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1920. successfully wedded the strong, weak, and mechanics (QM); he supports the Many 3. Linda M. Perkins, Fanny Jackson electromagnetic forces, but the marriage with Worlds Interpretation (MWI) and credits it Coppin and the Institute for Colored Youth, gravity has yet to be accomplished. Theodor for his insights. In his book, The Fabric of 1865-1902. New York: Garland, 1987. Kaluza in 1919 and Oskar Klein in 1926 Reality, and numerous articles and talks, he began a program to unify general relativity argues that the adoption of the MWI is nec- The Uncertain Sir Arthur Eddington. with electromagnetism. Dirac’s famous essary for making the advances required for Report adapted from a draft paper, papers of 1928 and 1929, in which he de- quantum computing. His argues that physi- “Eddington and Uncertainty,” by Ian scribed a relativistic wave equation for the cists must resolutely take a “realistic” view- Durham (Simmons College & U of St. electron, were attempts at unification. Sir point to its logical conclusions, and, that the Andrews). Arthur Eddington, disappointed that Dirac’s MWI is the realistic theory. In response to Sir Arthur Eddington is considered one work did not appear in tensor form, sought ubiquitous assertions by the majority of of the greatest astrophysicists of the twen- to rework the formulae essentially to put physicists that “both systems give the same tieth century, and yet he gained a stigma quantum theory into the language of relativ- numbers,” and “all physics does (or can do) when, in the 1930s, he embarked on a quest ity. The work was the starting point for a is to predict the outcome of experiments,” to develop a unified theory of gravity and grand, though not often fruitful, series of he argues strenuously for the importance of quantum mechanics. His attempts ultimately cosmological theories developed by explanations in quantum physics, and to proved fruitless, and he was unfortunately Eddington, Dirac, and E. A. Milne. scientific progress in general. Hence, I partially shunned by some physicists in the Eddington’s work, which is arguably the argue that there are two, reasonably sepa- latter portion of his career. In addition, some most thoroughly studied of the theories, rable, layers here: (i) opposition to positivist historians have been less than kind to him began with the simple premise that quantum and instrumentalist arguments against the regarding this portion of his work. His bril- mechanics and relativity could be united validity and/or value of any explanation(s) liant career finished with a flair when the under a common framework, specifically cen- as such, and (ii) an argument about just what culmination of nearly two decades of work tered around the idea of coordinates. is the correct explanation: the MWI over the was posthumously published under the title, What we can say for certain about CI. While establishing the validity of (i) may Fundamental Theory. Eddington’s attempt Eddington’s work is that it did successfully possibly undermine CI’s spirit, nevertheless to merge relativity and quantum mechanics predict a number of methods and results that (i) can be strongly validated independent was, in fact, one of the earliest attempts to are in use today. He correctly predicted the from complications of an overlap with issues develop a Theory of Everything (TOE). It need for a quantum mechanical standard for of the interpretation of QM. I develop some was a cumbersome and obscure work that the measurement of length and, in his devel- simple, historical contradictions regarding enjoyed some initial success largely out of opment of the concept of the uranoid, he point (i), (without passing judgment on deference to his other brilliant work. But the employed an early version of a philosophy Deutsch’s MWI or involving the CI). For work has been largely a historical oddity for that appeared later in some versions of quan- example, the majority viewpoint identifies its the past half century. tum field theory – namely, the inseparability seemingly “non-philosophical” and non- However, a detailed analysis of how this of an object and its environment. His idea “metaphysical” mindset as archetypically work got started shows that Eddington’s that there is a fundamental link between quan- “scientific,” while seemingly quite unaware theories were not as outlandish as they are tum mechanics and relativity, based on the of the theoretical difficulties with positivist often purported to be. His entire theory concept of coordinates, is not far off, since notions of truth, such as the fact that the rested on the use of quantum mechanical both theories rely heavily on coordinates and foundations of universal classical compu- methods of uncertainty in the reference both theories delve into concepts relating tation theory rest squarely upon the work of frames of relativity. Along the way he to topology. His mathematical work was care- Gödel. His proof (undecideability) showed astutely predicts several items that have only fully and impeccably done. Only his physi- logical-positivist notions of truth to be recently become apparent, including the cal interpretations could truly be called het- clearly mistaken.(1) It is therefore not sur- need for a quantum-specified standard of erodox. prising that Deutsch, today working to length and even certain aspects of string achieve a more powerful and general quan- theory. A re-analysis of this portion of his “Quantum Computers and Reality: tum version of the Church-Turing thesis and somewhat forgotten work has shown more Deutsch’s Anti-Positivist Campaign for Quantum Universal Computation, rejects wisdom and foresight than he was ever cred- Explanations-in-General, Apart From His positivist notions of truth, just as Gödel ited with and has a tremendous amount of Many Worlds Interpretation” by Thomas found it necessary to do in the process of historical significance to the study of the W. O’Donnell (U of Michigan) (published clearing the road to the development of the development of quantum field theory and abstract). classical versions. Up to this point, Deutsch cosmology. Though the work was not David Deutsch (Oxford) is known for stands on solid, established ground, and ultimately fruitful, in hindsight it did fore- “Deutsch’s algorithm” – for going beyond this is, it seems, independent of anyone’s shadow several later results in physics, and the initial ideas about quantum computing interpretation of QM. his methods were definitely rigorous. In (QC) of Benioff, Bennett, and Feynman, to In summary, Deutsch is correctly seek- addition, his philosophy regarding determin- describe a quantum Turing machine, and ing to discredit the logical-positivist and in- ism and uncertainty was actually fairly sparking today’s widespread experimental re- strumentalist surfeit of the majority of the orthodox for his time. search to actually build one. physics community, and it appears that this Today unification is widely considered Deutsch does not accept the standard can be done without acceptance of the MWI. the Holy Grail of physics. Physicists have Copenhagen Interpretation (CI) of quantum Assessment of this second part of his

12 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 program (MWI) is beyond the scope of the beautiful facility surrounded by spacious “Symmetry Groups in Particle Physics.” That present paper. grounds with many trails for walking and afternoon the topic was “The Noether Theo- (1) Davis, Martin, The Universal hiking. Its idyllic setting and superb cuisine rems,” with Michel Janssen (Minnesota) and Computer, Norton, NY, 2000, pp. 118-9. make it an ideal location for small informal Tilman Sauer (Caltech) speaking on meetings. Its owner, Lee Gohlike, is the “Einstein, Hilbert, and Klein: The Back- “Statistical Challenges in Medieval founder of the Seven Pines Symposium. ground to Noether’s Theorems,” and Harvey Astronomy” by Virginia Trimble (U of Unlike the typical conference, twice as Brown (Oxford) speaking on “Philosophical Maryland & UC-Irvine) (published abstract). much time is devoted to discussions follow- Perspectives on the Noether Theorems.” The A number of well-known figures contrib- ing the talks as to the talks themselves, and morning of Saturday, May 18, was devoted uted to the development of both astronomy long mid-day breaks permit small groups to to the topic of “Gauge and Internal Symme- and statistics, including Galileo (moons of assemble at will. As preparation for the talks tries,” with John Earman (Pittsburgh) speak- Jupiter and least absolute deviations), Halley and discussions, the speakers prepare sum- ing on “The Nature of Gauge Symmetry,” (comet and survival tables), and Gauss (as- marizing statements and background read- and Serge Rudaz (Minnesota) speaking on teroid orbits and least squares). The poster ing materials, which are distributed in ad- “Symmetries in the Standard Model and their will focus on several less famous examples, vance to all of the participants. Nineteen his- Spontaneous Breaking.” That afternoon Jef- including James Bradley (aberration of star- torians, philosophers, and physicists were frey Harvey (Chicago) spoke on light and error distributions), John Michell invited to participate in this year’s sympo- “Supersymmetry,” and Katherine Brading (discovery of binary stars and the “birthday sium. James Glanz, science writer for the New (Oxford) spoke on “Some Philosophical Re- problem”), Neville Maskelyne (proper York Times, also attended. flections on Symmetry.” The closing discus- motions of stars and the excess of system- Each day the speakers set the stage for sion on Sunday morning, May 19, was atic over random errors), and how a method the discussions by addressing major histori- chaired by Roger H. Stuewer (Minnesota). for analyzing discordant data developed by cal, philosophical, and physical issues Lee Gohlike, the founder of the Seven Tobias Mayer (to track the libration of the related to symmetry and symmetry breaking Pines Symposium, has had a life-long inter- moon) came to be called Euler’s method in physics. The morning of Thursday, May est in the history and philosophy of phys- (after a chap who failed to develop it to track 16, was devoted to the topic of “Lorentz In- ics, which he has furthered through gradu- the mutual perturbations of Jupiter and variance,” with Michel Janssen (Minnesota) ate studies at the Universities of Minnesota Saturn). speaking on “The Role of Lorentz Invariance and Chicago. To plan the symposia, which in Reshaping Fundamental Physics, 1895- are held annually, he established an advi- The Seven Pines Symposium 1911,” and William G. Unruh (British Colum- sory board consisting of Roger H. Stuewer Roger H. Stuewer (U of Minnesota). bia) speaking on “Lorentz Invariance and its (Minnesota), Chair, Jed Z. Buchwald The Seven Pines Symposium is dedi- Status in General Relativity and String (Caltech), John Earman (Pittsburgh), cated to bringing historians, philosophers, Theory.” The topic that afternoon was “The Geoffrey Hellman (Minnesota), Don Howard and physicists together for several days in a Rise and Fall of Charge Symmetry,” with (Notre Dame), and Alan E. Shapiro (Minne- collaborative effort to probe and clarify sig- Allan D. Franklin (Colorado) speaking on sota). Also participating in the sixth annual nificant foundational issues in physics, as “The Discovery of CP Violation: A Convinc- Seven Pines Symposium were John D. they have arisen in the past and continue to ing Experiment,” and Bruce Winstein (Chi- Norton (Pittsburgh) and Robert M. Wald challenge our understanding today. cago) speaking on “Charge, Parity, and CP (Chicago). The sixth annual Seven Pines Sympo- Violation.” In the morning of Friday, May 17, The seventh annual Seven Pines Sym- sium was held May 15-19, 2002, on the Otávio Bueno (California State, Fresno) posium will be held May 7-11, 2003, on the subject, “Symmetry and Symmetry Breaking spoke on “Group Theoretical Methods in subject, “The Concept of the Vacuum in in Physics.” It was held in the Outing Lodge Quantum Mechanics: Weyl and Wigner,” Physics.” at Pine Point near Stillwater, Minnesota, a and Yuval Ne’eman (Tel Aviv) spoke on Forum News

FHP Sessions planned for the Brush of the University of Maryland have der Waals, Korteweg and Bakhuis March and April 2003 APS organized a session for Monday afternoon Roozeboom” Meetings entitled “J. Willard Gibbs and His Legacy: 4. Leo P. Kadanoff, University of A Double Centennial.” It will feature four Chicago, “Reflections on Gibbs: From the The FHP Program Committee has distinguished speakers: Amistad to Complexity Theory.” planned and organized a diverse set of ses- 1. Martin Klein, Yale University, “Gibbs On Tuesday afternoon, there will be an sions on the history of physics for the March and Statistical Mechanics a Century Ago” FHP session on “The Early Days of Solid and April 2003 APS meetings. At the March 2. Ole Knudsen, University of Aarhus, State Physics” that Lillian Hoddeson of the meeting, to be held in Austin, Texas, we will Denmark, “Gibbs in Europe” University of Illinois has organized. It also have sessions on Monday and Tuesday, 3. J.M.H. Levelt Sengers, NIST, “Key features four speakers: March 3 and 4. Michael Fisher and Steven Concepts from Gibbs that Empowered Van 1. Hans Bethe, Cornell University (by

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 13 speaker phone), “Arnold Sommerfeld and are Vice-Chair and two Members-at-Large of of the AIP Center for History of Physics the Beginnings of Modern Solid-State the Executive Committee. In 2004 nomina- ([email protected]), serve as ex officio Theory” tions will be needed for Vice-Chair, Secre- members of the Executive Committee. 2. Lillian Hoddeson, University of tary-Treasurer, and two Members-at-Large Many thanks to Benjamin Bederson, Illinois, “The Quantum Theory of Solids of the Executive Committee. Send nomina- Department of Physics (emeritus), New York Enters American Graduate Programs: John tions to the chair of the Forum Nominating University ([email protected]), for his Bardeen at Princeton in the 1930s” Committee: Prof. Virginia Trimble, Physics good work as Chair during 2001-2002, and to 3. Frederick Seitz, Rockefeller Univer- Department, University of California-Irvine, Laurie M. Brown, Department of Physics sity, “How We Came to Know What We Knew Irvine, CA 92697; Phone (301) 405-5822; Fax and Astronomy (emeritus), Northwestern about Semiconductors During World War (301) 314-9067; [email protected]. University ([email protected]), II” for his continued help as Past Chair during 4. Philip Anderson, Princeton University, APS Fellow Nominations 2001-2002. Thanks also to Michael “When Band Theory Doesn’t Work: The Nauenberg, UC-Santa Cruz, and Allan A. Nina Byers is chair of the Forum’s Magnetic State.” Needell, National Air & Space Museum, Fellowship Committee for 2002-03. Any Those interested in attending these Smithsonian Institution, for their work on the Forum members who wish to nominate a sessions should consult the meeting pro- Executive Committee during the last year. candidate for Fellow in APS are invited to gram for details. send her their suggestion(s), along with a For the April meeting, to be held April 5- c.v. and letter describing the candidate’s Executive Committee 8 in Philadelphia, we are leveraging our achievements in history of physics. Send allotment of two full sessions by cospon- The annual meeting of the Executive suggestions to Prof. Nina Byers, Department soring four sessions in all with other APS Committee was held on April 21, 2002, at the of Physics, UCLA, 405 Hilgard Ave, Los units. They are: APS April Meeting in Albuquerque. It was Angeles CA 90024; Phone (310) 825-3588; 1. “Using History of Physics in Educa- chaired by Ben Bederson, who thanked the [email protected]. tion,” cosponsored by the Forum on many Forum members who helped with FHP Education projects this year, especially the Program Forum Officers 2. “Benjamin Franklin, Civic Scientist,” Committee, Award Committee, and Nominat- cosponsored by the Forum on Physics & Hans Frauenfelder, Los Alamos National ing Committee. The Program Committee, led Society Laboratory ([email protected]), became by Hans Frauenfelder, planned a set of re- 3. “History of Electron-Positron Chair in April 2002 at the end of Ben markably successful sessions this year, as Colliders,” cosponsored by the Division of Bederson’s term. Michael Riordan, UC-Santa reported in this Newsletter. FHP membership Physics of Beams Cruz ([email protected]), became has been holding steady at about 3,000 for 4. “History of Solar Neutrinos,” cospon- Chair-elect and will succeed to Chair in April the past 6 years. Participation in the election sored by the Division of Nuclear Physics. 2003. Nina Byers, UCLA (nbyers@ was about average at 7.7%. FHP remains in The details of these sessions are still in physics.ucla.edu), was elected Vice-Chair good financial condition, with a small reserve flux as this Newsletter goes to press, so they and will succeed to Chair-Elect in April 2003. fund that is adequate for exceptional will be published in the Spring Newsletter, Per F. Dahl, Lawrence Berkeley National expenses, usually associated with FHP due out next February. Those interested Laboratory-emeritus ([email protected]), and programs. The Program Committee will should consult it for dates of these sessions Daniel Siegel, University of Wisconsin consider strategies to encourage more con- and the speakers making presentations. ([email protected]) were elected tributed papers in history of physics at -Michael Riordan, Program Chair to three-year terms on the Executive future meetings. The Award Committee is Committee. Their terms end in April 2005. The working vigorously on fund raising to make Contributed papers for the April continuing members of the Executive the FHP award a reality. 2003 meeting Committee are Elizabeth Urey Baranger, University of Pittsburgh ([email protected]) and Forum Committees The next FHP contributed paper session Michael E. Fisher, University of Maryland will be at the 2003 April APS meeting in at College Park, whose terms expire April For 2002-03, the Standing Committees of Philadelphia. History talks are allowed twice 2003. Daniel M. Greenberger, CCNY the Forum are: the usual time for contributed papers: 20 + 4 ([email protected]), and Elizabeth Paris, Program Committee: Michael Riordan minutes. The deadline for submitting ab- Argonne National Laboratory (eparis@ (chair), Nina Byers, Per Dahl, Elizabeth Paris, stracts for this session is January 10, 2003. anl.gov), continue terms that end in April Dan Siegel Members are strongly encouraged to 2004. Nominating Committee: Virginia submit abstracts on their current work. Kenneth Ford, retired Executive Direc- Trimble (chair), Elizabeth Baranger, Jay tor of AIP ([email protected]), contin- Pasachoff, Robert Resnick, Fritz Rohrlich Call for Nominations ues as Secretary-Treasurer until 2004. Gloria Fellowship Committee: Nina Byers Nominations are invited for Forum Lubkin, Physics Today ([email protected]), (chair), Per Dahl, Martin Gutzwiller, Elizabeth officers to be elected in early 2003 for terms continues as Forum Councillor until Decem- Paris, Michael Riordan beginning immediately following the Execu- ber 2005. Bill Evenson, Brigham Young Membership Committee: Ken Ford tive Committee meeting in April, or for future University ([email protected]), as Newslet- (chair), Dan Greenberger elections. Offices that will be open in 2003 ter Editor, and Spencer R. Weart, Director Award Committee: Ben Bederson (chair),

14 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 Stephen Brush, Gloria Lubkin, Harry Lustig, notify others in the history of physics of 1957-8. A suggestion has come to FHP Michael Riordan, Roger Stuewer, Spencer community and gather records of the that important physics historical sites in the Weart physicist’s life as appropriate. USA be identified and that plaques describ- Editorial Board and Publications Bill Evenson: Department of Physics, ing their importance be prepared and erected Committee: Bill Evenson (chair), Ken Ford Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602- at the sites. There are many places that would 4645; [email protected]. warrant such identification, including sites Spencer Weart: Center for History of where major discoveries were made, or ma- Request for Information about Physics, American Institute of Physics, One jor physics achievements accomplished. Memorial Sessions for Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740; Such a project would take substantial Prominent Physicists [email protected]. effort and funding. It would require volun- When readers of this Newsletter hear of teers from FHP, APS, etc. Forum officers memorial sessions being planned to honor Suggestion for International would like to know how FHP members prominent physicists, please notify Bill Physics Year respond to this suggestion and how much Evenson, Editor of the History of Physics interest there is. Please send your comments Newsletter, and Spencer Weart, Director of 2005 is being touted as the time of an to FHP Past-Chair, Ben Bederson, the AIP Center for History of Physics, at the “International Physics Year,” similar in spirit [email protected]. addresses below. We want to be able to to the famous International Geophysical Year APS and AIP NEWS

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History of Science Society •Listing in the History of Science C.W.F. Everitt and Anna Muza, History, Invitation. Society/Philosophy of Science Association Theory, and the Ziggurat of Physics, an Online Membership Directory, a valuable tool essay review of Peter Galison’s Image and Stephen G. Brush, one of the founders of for quickly connecting with colleagues. Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics, the Forum on History of Physics and the •Advanced notice of and reduced-rate Isis 91:2 (2000) first Secretary-Treasurer and Newsletter registration at the Society’s annual meetings. Peter Harrison, Curiosity, Forbidden Editor of FHP, extends the following invita- Future annual meetings are scheduled for Knowledge, and the Reformation of tion to Forum members: Cambridge, MA, and Austin, TX. Natural Philosophy in Early Modern Dear Colleague, •A 30 percent discount on issues of England, Isis 92:2 (2001) I write both as a member of the Forum on Osiris, the Society’s annual volume of Frederic L. Holmes, The Revolution in History of Physics of the American Physical research focused on significant themes in Chemistry and Physics: Overthrow of a Society and as a member and former its field of interest. Reigning Paradigm or Competition be- President of the History of Science Society •Online access to news of hundreds of tween Contemporary Research Programs?, to urge you to join the History of Science grant competitions, jobs listings, and calls Isis 91:4 (2000) Society. for papers, collected from around the world John Krige, Distrust and Discovery: The The History of Science Society is the and sorted to help members find the grant or Case of the Heavy Bosons at CERN, Isis 92:3 world’s largest organization dedicated to job or conference they need. (2001) understanding science, technology, medi- •The forthcoming Guide to the History Joost Mertens, Shocks and Sparks: The cine, and their interactions with society and of Science, a volume designed to lead mem- Voltaic Pile as a Demonstration Device, Isis culture in their historical contexts. As a mem- bers through the growing maze of research 89:2 (1998) ber of the Forum you well know that such institutions, graduate programs, journals, A special order form showing the free understanding is most crucial in a world and other societies that support scholarship copy of Catching Up with the Vision and increasingly interconnected by science and and training in the field. the 50% discount on selected University of technology. Your HSS membership supports In addition to these benefits, members Chicago Press books is available from Dr. an international effort to produce and dis- who join in 2002 will also receive: Alexandra A. 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Only first-time authors will be consid- Recent Isis articles related to the history of look forward to welcoming you to member- ered. To be eligible, manuscripts must not physics are listed on the reverse of this ship in the History of Science Society. be under contract with any publisher at the letter. Sincerely yours, time the award is decided. •Access to the History of Science and Stephen G. Brush Selection Criteria: The Prize will be Technology Bibliographic Database, an Distinguished University Professor (Uni- awarded for the best book-length manuscript online guide to the latest research in the field. versity of Maryland, Institute for Physical submitted during each year. Manuscripts •The annual Current Bibliography in the Science and Technology) must be unpublished and must either fall History of Science and Its Cultural Influ- Recently published articles in Isis of clearly within the subject area or be closely ences, a significant bibliography of history interest to scholars of the history of physics relevant to it. Consistent with the goals of of science and technology articles published include: the prize, manuscripts will be evaluated both worldwide. Ann Blair, Mosiac Physics and the for their scholarly contribution and for qual- •The quarterly HSS Newsletter, which Search for a Pious Natural Philosophy in ity of writing; the manuscript that best com- annually provides more than 150 pages the Late Renaissance, Isis 91:1 (2000) bines both attributes will be awarded the listing grant competitions, conference Michael F. 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16 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 alties; and a $1,000 stipend for travel to the believe that scholarly papers written by The American Philosophical Society annual convention of the History of Science historians of physics, philosophers of phys- Library Resident Research Fellowships Society. ics, and physicists themselves can be an 2003-2004. The American Philosophical Guidelines for Submission: The next effective means for bringing the ideas, the Society Library accepts applications for deadline for receipt of manuscripts is 30 June substance, and the methods of physics to short-residential fellowships for conducting 2003. Submit two (2) copies of the manu- non-specialists, provided jargon is avoided research in its collections. The Society’s script, one to Basic Books and one to any and care is taken in the writing. Library, located near Independence Hall in one judge listed below. This year’s Prize will Physics in Perspective is published quar- Philadelphia, is a leading international be announced at the 2002 meeting of the terly. Besides articles and book reviews, the center for research in the history of Ameri- History of Science Society. journal has two regular features: first, “The can science and technology and its Euro- Judges: Norton Wise, Department of Physical Tourist,” identifies sites for the trav- pean roots, as well as early American History, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095. Mary eler whose interests include artifacts from history and culture. The Library houses over Jo Nye, Department of History, Milan Hall the history of physics, laboratories with his- 7 million manuscripts, 250,000 volumes and 306, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR torical significance, birthplaces of well- bound periodicals, and thousands of maps 97333. Robert J. Richards, Morris Fishbein known physicists, and the like; second, “In and prints. Outstanding historical collec- Center for The History of Science, Univer- Appreciation” is written about a physicist tions and subject areas include the papers sity of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637. David by a student, first-hand acquaintance, or of Benjamin Franklin; the American Revolu- Lindberg, Department of History of Science, colleague. Physics in Perspective is avail- tion; 18th and 19th-century natural history; 7143 Social Sciences Bldg., University of able to members of the American Physical western scientific expeditions and travel, Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. Society at the special subscription rate of including the journals of Lewis and Clark; Send one copy of the manuscript to: $35 per year plus $10 shipping and handling. polar exploration; the papers of Charles Basic Books - History of Science Prize, 387 Additional information can be found at the Willson Peale, including family and descen- Park Avenue South, 12th Floor, New York, Birkhäuser Verlag website, www.birkhauser. dants; American Indian languages; anthro- NY 10016. For more information email ch/journals/1600/1600_tit.htm. pology, including the papers of Franz Boas; [email protected]. First-hand accounts of participants in the papers of Charles Darwin and his fore- interesting and important research projects runners, colleagues, critics, and successors; Cushing Prize in History and Founda- – experimental, theoretical, or computational history of genetics, eugenics, and evolution; tions of Physics. A prize has been estab- – often become documents of historical history of biochemistry, physiology, and lished in memory of James T. Cushing (1937- import. The editors of Physics in Perspec- biophysics; 20th-century medical research; 2002), who at the time of his death was a tive welcome such first-hand accounts and and history of physics. (The Library does Fellow of APS and a long-time member of hereby extend an invitation to physicists, not hold materials on philosophy in the the Forum. The annual prize of $1,000, hon- and particularly to members of the Forum on modern sense.) oring Cushing and his contributions to the History of Physics, to submit manuscripts The fellowships, funded by The Andrew history and philosophy of physics, will be for publication. (John S. Rigden, American W. Mellon Foundation, the Grundy Foun- awarded for significant new work by Institute of Physics, One Physics Ellipse, dation, the Isaac Comly Martindale Fund, younger scholars in the history and philo- College Park, MD 20740, [email protected] and the Phillips Fund, the John C. Slater Library sophical foundations of modern physics. Roger H. Stuewer, Tate Laboratory of Phys- Research Fund, and other generous gifts by Nominations for 2003 are now being ics, University of Minnesota, 116 Church individual donors, are intended to encour- accepted, and the winner will be announced Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, age research in the Library’s collections by in April. The 2002 Call for Nominations can [email protected]). scholars who reside beyond a 75-mile radius be found at www.nd.edu/~cushpriz Nom of Philadelphia. The fellowships are open to ination.htm. A retirement celebration for Lawrence both U.S. citizens and foreign nationals who Contributions to the endowment for the Badash was held in Santa Barbara on May are holders of the Ph.D. or the equivalent, prize are being accepted at Cushing Memo- 11, 2002. Badash has made many important Ph.D. candidates who have passed their rial Prize, Program in History and Philoso- contributions to the history of the modern preliminary exams, and independent schol- phy of Science, University of Notre Dame, physical sciences. ars. Applicants in any relevant field of schol- 346 O’Shaughnessy, Notre Dame, Indiana arship may apply. The stipend is $2,000 per 46556. For more information, please contact “Physicists and the 1945 Decision to month, and the term of the fellowship is a Don Howard at 574-631-7547 or Cushing. Drop the Bomb” by Nina Byers. The CERN minimum of one month and a maximum of [email protected]. Courier has scheduled for their November three, taken between June 1, 2003 and May issue an article by Nina Byers entitled “Physi- 31, 2004. Fellows are expected to be in Physics in Perspective. Most journals cists and the 1945 Decision to Drop the residence for four consecutive weeks dur- are targeted to a small group of scholars. Bomb.” It is a followup of a paper she wrote ing the period of their award. That is not the case for the journal Physics for publication in the Proceedings of the There is no special application form and in Perspective, which has now been University of Chicago 2001 Reunion in honor this notice provides all the essential infor- published since early 1999 for a wide audi- of Enrico Fermi. (See her talk “Fermi and mation needed to apply. Applicants should ence of historians, philosophers, physicists, Szilard” at http://xxx.lanl.gov/html/physics/ submit the following: (1) cover sheet stating and the interested public. The editors 0207094.) a) name, b) title of project, c) expected

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 17 period of residence, d) institutional affilia- ence, especially to geophysics. Another Nelly Oudshoorn, Carroll Pursell, Karen A. tion, e) mailing address, f) telephone num- study dealt with the aurora of March 17, 1716 Rader, and Alison Wylie. The volume is avail- bers, and e-mail if available, and g) social and includes the original text by Ch. Wolff, able in both hardback and paper. security number; (2) a letter (not to exceed G. Langhausen, and C. Kirch. three single-spaced pages) which briefly Another purpose of the commission is The Annals of Science Prize for Junior describes the project and how it relates to to collect old instruments, biographical notes, Scholars is offered each year to the author existing scholarship, states the specific rel- scientific correspondence. Selected corre- of an unpublished essay in the history of evance of the American Philosophical spondence of the seismologist Emil science or technology. The article must not Society’s collections to the project, and in- Wiechert with Hendrik A. Lorentz (Nobel be under consideration for publication else- dicates expected results of the research (such Laureate) and Arnold Sommerfeld (theoreti- where. The prize, supported by Taylor and as publications); (3) a c.v. or résumé; and (4) cal physicist) have been published by Francis, is intended for those who have been one letter of reference (doctoral candidates Wilfried Schröder (Archive Hist. Ex. Science, awarded their doctorate within the past four must use their dissertation advisor). Guides 1982ff), as well as a comprehensive book on years, and for doctoral students. Essays to the collections are available on the the life and work of Emil Wiechert (Wilfried should be submitted to the Editor in a form Society’s website: www.amphilsoc.org. Schröder, Emil Wiechert: Geophysicist, suitable for publication in Annals of Science Applicants are strongly encouraged to Physicist and Organizer of International and may be in English, French, or German. consult the Library staff by mail or phone Science, Bremen: Science Editions, 2000; see Essays should be between 6,000 and 9,500 regarding the collections. also:http://huhu.franken.dehistory words in length, including footnotes. The Address applications or inquiries to: -geophysics/Wiechert.htm). The lives of winning essay will be published in the jour- Library Resident Research Fellowships, other German geophysicists have also been nal and the essay’s author will be awarded American Philosophical Society Library, 105 recorded, including Julius Bartels, Ludwig $500. Papers should be submitted by 1 South Fifth St., Philadelphia, PA 19106-3386. Biermann, Hans Ertel, Max Eschenhagen, September. For further information, visit the Telephone: (215) 440-3400. Applications must Leonhard Euler, Wilhelm Foerster, Carl- Taylor and Francis Web site at www. be received by March 1, 2003. Notice of Friedrich Gauß, Beno Gutenberg, Hermann tandf.co.uk. awards will be mailed after May 1, 2003. von Helmholtz, Cuno Hoffmeister, Alexander von Humboldt, Johann von Lamont, Helmut Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of German Commission for History of E. Landsberg (for his German time with Experimental Science 1100-1700, by A. C. Geophysics, Cosmical Physics and Space Gutenberg), Otto Jesse, Adolf Schmidt, Crombie has recently been reprinted by Physics founded. A commission for the his- Wilhelm Weber (a book on Weber has been Oxford University Press from the original tory of geophysics, cosmical physics and published by member Karl-Heinrich 1953 publication. space physics has been founded under the Wiederkehr), Alfred Wegener, and others. leadership of Professor Dr. Hans-Jürgen The commission welcomes comments NASA History: News and Notes is pub- Treder, formerly director of the Einstein Labo- and suggestions from all colleagues. lished quarterly by the NASA History Divi- ratory for Theoretical Physics of the Acad- Contact [email protected] and visit sion, Office of Policy and Plans, Code ZH, emy of Sciences.The commission publishes the website: http://huhu.franken.de/history NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546. a journal entitled Contributions to the his- -geophysics/english.html. You can receive NASA History: News and tory of geophysics and cosmical physics, -Wilfried Schröder, Geophysical Insti- Notes via email. To subscribe, send a which is open to all authors. It is a discus- tute, Bremen, Germany message to [email protected]. Leave the sion forum for the interdisciplinary discus- subject line blank. In the text portion simply sion of problems in history and philosophy French Journal issue on historical and type “subscribe history” without the quota- of geosciences and its sub-disciplines, philosophical analyses of quantum theories: tion marks. You will receive confirmation that including solar-terrestrial physics and its Philosophia Scientiae, Vol. 5, No. 1: Analy- your account has been added to the list for special problems in development and his- ses Historiques et Philosophiques sur les the newsletter and to receive other an- tory, and space physics. This also includes Théories Quantiques. nouncements that may interest you. The space science education, the public under- latest issue of this newsletter is also avail- standing of space science and the history of The results of the 1998 HSS Women’s able on the web at www.hq.nasa.gov/office/ space science and aeronautics in general. Caucus Workshop held at Princeton pao/History/nltrc.html. The discussion will cover from the first steps University have been published as a since Fabricius, Scheiner and Galilei up to volume from University of Chicago Press A Dirac Centenary Conference was held the recent space experiments of the present entitled Feminism in Twentieth-Century at Baylor University September 30 to day. A recent volume has been published Science, Technology, and Medicine, ed. October 2, 2002. This interdisciplinary under the title Pathways to Science, which Angela N. H. Creager, Elizabeth Lunbeck, and conference explored the continued fecundity includes authors such as Sir Ian Axford, Londa Schiebinger (2001). Contributors: Ruth of Dirac’s contributions to physics, math- Syuin-I. Akasofu, Sir Allan Cook, David Schwartz Cowan, Linda Marie Fedigan, Scott ematics and the heuristics of physical theory. Oldroyd, Giovanni Gregori, Helmut Moritz, F. Gilbert, Evelynn M. Hammonds, Evelyn Speakers at the conference included John formerly president of IUGG, and many oth- Fox Keller, Pamela E. Mack, Michael S. Baez (UC-Riverside), Laurie Brown (North- ers. The authors describe their path to sci- Mahoney, Emily Martin, Ruth Oldenziel, western), Richard Dalitz (Oxford), Michael

18 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 Dickson (Indiana U), Gordon Kane (U of proceedings of the conference are in prepa- inventor, he was second to none. He also Michigan), David Olive (U of Wales, ration and will be published by Acta Physica played a major role in the rebuilding of Swansea), Don Page (U of Alberta), Roger Hungarica. All of the proceedings will ap- London after the Great Fire, while his diaries Penrose (Oxford), John Polkinghorne (Cam- pear on CD-ROM and on the web, while se- give a revealing picture of his lifestyle and bridge), John Roberts (U of Rome), John Roe lected proceedings, including those of in- milieu in the Restoration metropolis. (Pennsylvania State), Simon Saunders (Ox- vited and plenary speakers will be imprinted This major international conference, ford), and Cumrun Vafa (Harvard). in “Heavy Ion Physics” and “Quantum Elec- organised under the auspices of Gresham tronics,” the two series of Acta Physica College, London, and co-sponsored by The A chapter of the new book, Prematurity Hungarica, as well. More information about Royal Society, will give attention to all in Scientific Discovery: On Resistance and this conference, including abstracts, is avail- aspects of Hooke’s life and work. Neglect, is now available on a special web able at quantum.ttk.pte.hu/~wigner. Registration: Those who would like to site: go.ucpress.edu/prematurity. The book attend or wish additional information should is edited by Ernest B. Hook, Professor at the New guide on the use of oral history, correspond with the administrator, Mrs Julie School of Public Health, University of Cali- “Making Sense of Oral History.” This guide Jones ([email protected]) or tele- fornia, Berkeley, in which an eminent group relies on the internet to show individuals how phone her (01235 762744). Information and of scientists, historians, sociologists and to “read” oral history as evidence of the past. registration details can also be obtained from philosophers focus on the fascinating prob- It was created through the efforts of History the Gresham College website at www. lem: why are some discoveries rejected at a Matters and the Visible Knowledge Project. gresham.ac.uk/hooke. particular time but later seen to be valid? It presents an overview of these sources, including how historians use them. The 21st Annual Mephistos Conference, a Lorenz Krüger postdoctoral fellowship guide then uses explanatory text and inter- Graduate Student Conference on the History, for 2003/05 at the Max Planck Institute for active examples to consider what critical Philosophy, and Sociology of Science, Tech- the History of Science in Berlin. This fellow- questions to ask when working with these nology, and Medicine will be held 6-8 March ship is for an outstanding junior scholar materials. For example: “Who is talking?” 2003 at the University of Wisconsin-Madi- whose current research combines perspec- “Why are they talking?” It is available on son. Deadline for submissions: 15 January tives from the history of science with those the web at historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/oral. 2003. For more information visit athena of the philosophy of science and/or the his- The guide was prepared by Linda .english.vt.edu/cgi-bin/netforum/ishlist/a/ tory of philosophy. The fellowship is named Shopes, a historian at the Pennsylvania His- 14--13.3.1. in honor of the late Professor Lorenz Krüger, torical and Museum Commission. She has of the University of Göttingen, whose work worked on, consulted for, and written about “Discovering the Nanoscale,” confer- sought to connect philosophy with the his- oral history projects for more than 25 years. ence. Philosophers, historians, sociologists tory of science. The Lorenz Krüger Fellow- She is co-editor of The Baltimore Book: of science and technology are invited to ship is awarded for a two-year stay at the New Views of Local History and is past presi- submit proposals concerning the signifi- Institute in Berlin, beginning 1 October, 2003. dent of the Oral History Association. cance of nanoscale research for the The fellowship is open to scholars of all “Discovering the Nanoscale” conference. nationalities who have completed their Ph.D. Pushing gravity: New Perspectives on The conference will be held 20-23 March 2003 no earlier than 1998 and no later than Sep- Le Sage’s Theory of Gravitation, Matthew at the University of South Carolina, Colum- tember 2003. The stipend for applicants from R. Edwards (ed.) has recently been published bia, and 10-12 October 2003 at the Technische abroad is Euro 1.841 per month. Women are in Montreal by C. Roy Keys, Inc. (ISBN Universität Darmstadt, Germany. The discus- encouraged to apply. Qualifications being 0-9683689-7-2, pb, $25). More information is sions will begin in Columbia, SC and con- equal, precedence will be given to candidates available at redshift.vif.com/BookBlurbs/ tinue six months later in Darmstadt, Germany. with disabilities. Applicants are invited to PushingGravity.htm, 500-word proposals can be submitted to ei- send a curriculum vitae, a brief research pro- ther or both meetings (the second confer- posal (maximum 1000 words), and two let- Meetings ence allows for the presentation of substan- ters of recommendation by 31 January 2003 tially revised or expanded drafts). Send elec- Robert Hooke Tercentenary Conference to Max Planck Institute for the History of tronic submissions (pdf or RichText formats) will be held at The Royal Society, London, 6- Science, “Lorenz Krueger Fellowship,” by 1 December 2002 to Alfred Nordmann at 10 July, 2003. Keynote speakers are Michael Wilhelmstraße 44, 10117 Berlin, Germany. [email protected] For more Nauenberg (UC-Santa Cruz)on Robert detailed information concerning topic and Hooke’s Dynamics, Jim Bennett (Museum of Tools and Modes of Representation in format visit www.cla.sc.edu/Phil/scistud/ the History of Science, Oxford) on Robert the Laboratory Sciences, an edited collec- call.html. Hooke and Scientific Instrumentation, Moti tion, has recently been published by Kluwer, Feingold (Cal Tech) on Robert Hooke: as volume 222 of Boston Studies in the Phi- The Canadian Society for History and Gentleman of Science, Jacques Heyman (U losophy of Science, Ursula Klein (ed). All 14 Philosophy of Science (CSHPS) is holding of Cambridge) on Hooke and Bedlam. articles are primarily about chemistry. its annual conference in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was a true on 29-31 May 2003. The program committee polymath. Author of the influential Wigner Centennial Conference was invites historians and philosophers of sci- Micrographia (1665), he was one of the lead- held in Pécs, Hungary, 8-12 July, 2002. The ence, as well as scholars from any field whose ing natural philosophers of his day. As an

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 19 work relates to history and philosophy of History of Science Society, 2003. The tact Frank Manasek, francis.j.manasek science, to submit abstracts for individual HSS Annual Meeting in 2003 will be 20-23 @dartmouth.edu. papers or proposals for sessions. November in Cambridge, MA. Information Submissions may be in English or can be found at www.hssonline.org. In 2004 Web Resources French. Individual paper submissions HSS will meet in Austin, TX, 18-21 should consist of a title, a brief abstract of November. Web to reveal Pauling’s methods and 150-250 words, and complete contact infor- musings. Digital versions of Linus Pauling’s mation for the author. Session proposals Mundi Subterranei: Scientific Instru- lab notebooks were released online on 28 should consist of a session title, titles and ment Collections in the University, an inter- February, the 101st anniversary of the double brief abstracts for each paper, and complete national symposium at Dartmouth College, Nobel prizewinner’s birth. The 46 notebooks contact information for the session organizer. 24-27 June 2004, co-sponsored by the span the years between 1922 and 1994, and Proposals must be received by 31 December Scientific Instrument Commission and include details of the work that earned 2002 and must be sent by email (rtf attach- Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH. Pauling the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry ment preferred) to the following email The Dartmouth collection of historic for his studies of chemical bonds between address: [email protected] scientific instruments, one of the oldest and atoms. Pauling campaigned against the de- The complete call for papers can be largest at a North American university, is velopment of nuclear weapons during the found at www.psych.yorku.ca/orgs/cshps/ currently being reorganized and catalogued. cold war, and in 1958 presented a petition to call2003.htm. Information about Congress Other universities and colleges around the the United Nations, signed by more than registration and accommodation can be world have begun similar projects, seeking 9,000 scientists, that called for the end of found at the Humanities and Social Sciences to formalize collections that, until now, have nuclear testing. He was awarded the Nobel Federation of Canada web site. Canadian been virtually unknown even within their Peace Prize for this work in 1962. The note- Society for History and Philosophy of institutions. Taken individually, such collec- books have been digitized by staff at Science: www.ukings.ns.ca/cshps/. Con- tions present unique windows into the role Oregon State University, who say the records gress of the Social Sciences and Humani- of instruments in higher education and in contain autobiographical musings as well as ties: www.hssfc.ca/. transmitting scientific knowledge to public Pauling’s experimental records. Go to audiences. Taken collectively, they represent osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections. Vienna International Summer Univer- a vast scholarly resource that is still largely sity 2003: Biological and Cosmological hidden from view and under-appreciated. Searchable online bibliography of the Evolution, Vienna, July 14-27, 2003, organized With this in mind, Dartmouth will host a history and philosophy of chemistry is now by the University of Vienna and the Insti- conference in June of 2004, focusing on the available on the web. This bibliography com- tute Vienna Circle. This is a two-week high- theme of instrument collections in academic bines numerous thematic bibliographies. level summer course on questions about institutions. We hope 1) to encourage the The database presently includes some 5,800 evolutionary aspects in physics and genet- development of a network among these titles and is rapidly growing as further the- ics from a comparative and interdisciplinary collections, 2) to provide a forum to discuss matic bibliographies are being added. point of view. practical problems that pertain to such Access is free at www.hyle.org/service/ Main Lecturers: Karl Sigmund (U of collections, including cataloguing, web ex- biblio.htm. Vienna), Robert M. Wald (U of Chicago), hibits, storage and exhibition space, safety Eörs Szathmáry (Eötvös Loránd U, Hungary). issues such as potentially toxic substances, New version of Panopticon Lavoisier, Assistant Lecturer: Daniel Holz (UC-Santa and the profile of such collections on including a bibliography and inventory of Barbara). campus and their use in teaching and Lavoisier’s manuscripts and instruments: Application deadline January 15, 2003. research, 3) to facilitate presentation of moro.imss.fi.it/lavoisier. (Later applications may be considered if scholarly papers and posters relating to space is still available.) For further informa- scientific instruments, their histories and the The British Society for the History of tion contact Professor Friedrich Stadler, collections in which they reside. Science has a newly redesigned and [email protected]. or consult Parts of the Dartmouth Collection will be expanded website at www.bshs.org.uk. The the IVC’s Web site: ivc.philo.at/VISU or the on display and the Shattuck Observatory Society’s former pages on the University of University of Vienna’s Web site: www.univie (1853) will be open. In addition, excursions Manchester’s CHSTM server are now .ac.at (click Vienna Summer University). are planned to the Precision Museum in defunct. The Society now has an expanded Windsor, Vermont, and to turret telescopes links directory at www.bshs.org.uk/links, Panel on “20th Century Physics, Inter- in Springfield, Vermont. For those who wish covering journals, societies, lists, museums national Human Rights Legislation, and to explore other nearby instrument collec- and online resources by subject area. Conceptions of Human Agency,” in the tions, the Harvard collection in Cambridge Association of Social Anthropologists De- and the University of Vermont collection in New British Society for the History of cennial Conference, University of Manches- Burlington are each about 2 hours away by Science Guide to History of Science ter, 14-18 July, 2003 organized by Stephanie auto. Courses in the UK: www.bshs.org.uk/ Koerner (University of Manchester), For further information, to express inter- courses. les1.man.ac.uk/sa/ASA/Decennial. est, or to receive the second circular, con-

20 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 New, free, online Navigational Aids for Senior Fellows, two Senior Visiting Research Dibner Institute is titled “Sound Men: Engi- the History of Science, Technology & the Fellows, seven Postdoctoral Fellows and has neering the Sound Revolution in the Ameri- Environment can be accessed at www. renewed the appointments of five can Film Industry.” nahste.ac.uk. This is a large, web-based in- Postdoctoral Fellows. In addition, they have Richard Yeo is Professorial Fellow at dex of archive material newly catalogued in appointed six Graduate Student Fellows, Griffith University, Australia. He is the the University of Edinburgh, in Heriot Watt Ph.D. candidates writing their doctoral dis- author of Science in the Public Sphere: University, and in the University of Glasgow, sertations at Dibner Institute consortium- Natural Knowledge in British Culture, brought together with funding from the UK member institutions. The Fellows come from 1800-1860 (2001)and Encyclopedic Research Support Libraries Programme. several nations and pursue many different Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and aspects of the history of science and tech- Enlightenment Culture (2001). He plans to Dibner Institute for the History nology. Those working in or close to history write on the subject, “Managing Knowledge of Science and Technology of physics are listed below. A complete list in Early Modern Europe 1650-1800” while he can be found on the Dibner Institute website. is at the Dibner Institute. Fellows Programs 2003-2004. The Dibner Institute for the History of Science Dibner Institute Senior Visiting and Technology invites applications to its Dibner Institute Senior Fellows Research Scholars two fellowship programs for the academic Robert P. Crease is a Professor at SUNY, year 2003-2004: the Senior Fellows program Stony Brook and also an Historian at Constance Barsky is Director, Program and the Postdoctoral Fellows program. Some Brookhaven National Laboratory. He is the in Learning by Redesign, The Ohio State twenty-five Dibner Fellows are resident at author of Making Physics: A Biography of University. She is the author, with Kenneth the Institute each year. The Dibner Institute Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1946- Wilson, of two articles which appeared in is an international center for advanced 1972, (1999) and, with Robert Serber, Peace The One Culture: A Conversation About research in the history of science and tech- and War: Reminiscences of a Life at the Science, ed. Labinger and Collins: “From nology, established in 1992. It draws on the Frontiers of Science, (1998). At the Dibner Social Construction to Questions for resources of the Burndy Library, a major Institute he will continue his work on a new Research: The Promise of the Sociology of collection of both primary and secondary ma- volume of the history of the Brookhaven Science” and “Beyond Social Construction.” terial in the history of science and technol- National Laboratory, covering the period At the Dibner Institute, she will be working ogy, and enjoys the participation in its 1973-1997. with Kenneth Wilson on a catalog of programs of faculty members and students Robert DiSalle, Professor at the Univer- technological history. from the universities that make up the Dibner sity of Western Ontario, Canada, is the Kenneth Wilson, who received the Institute’s consortium: the Massachusetts author of two forthcoming papers: Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the Institute of Technology, the host institution; “Newton’s Philosophical Analysis of Space renormalization group, is Youngberg Profes- Boston University; and Harvard University. and Time,” The Cambridge Companion to sor in the Physics Department, The Ohio The Institute’s primary mission is to Newton, ed. I. B. Cohen and G. E. Smith (2002) State University. He is the author, with B. support advanced research in the history of and “Conventionalism and Modern Daviss of Redesigning Education (1994) and science and technology, across a wide Physics: A Re-Assessment,” Noûs (6/2002). Broken Scale Invariance and the Light variety of areas and a broad spectrum of At the Dibner Institute he plans to continue Cone, coedited with M. Gell-Mann (1971). topics and methodologies. The Institute fa- to investigate the evolution of theories of At the Dibner Institute, he will be working vors projects that address events dating back space and time in a work to be titled on two projects: the first, connected with thirty years or more. “Conceptual Analysis and the Conceptual the Sloan-Dibner project in the History of The deadline for receipt of applications Development of Physics.” Recent Science and Technology, will explore for 2003-2004 is December 31, 2002. Fellow- Giuliano Pancaldi is Professor at the the conditions requisite for community-wide, ship recipients will be announced in March University of Bologna, Italy. He is the sustained developments in science and 2003. Please send requests for further author of the forthcoming Enlightenment technology; the second, with Constance information and for application forms directly and the Battery. Alessandro Volta and the Barsky, will be to initiate a catalog of socio- to: Trudy Kontoff, Program Coordinator, Cultures of Science in Europe and Darwin technological transformations. Dibner Institute for the History of Science in Italy: Science Across Cultural Frontiers and Technology, MIT E56-100, 38 Memorial (1991). His work while at the Dibner Institute Dibner Institute Postdoctoral Drive, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139; is titled “Enlightenment, Diversity, and the Fellows 617-253-6989; fax: 617-253-9858; dibner@ Cultures of Science and Technology.” François Charette recently defended his mit.edu; website: dibinst.mit.edu. Emily Thompson, Professor at the dissertation, “Mathematical Instrumentation University of Pennsylvania, is the author of in 14th-Century Egypt and Syria” for the Dibner Institute Names Fellows for The Soundscape of Modernity: Architec- Program in History of Science, Frankfurt 2002-2003. The Dibner Institute for the tural Acoustics and the Culture of Listen- University, Germany. He has written a chap- History of Science and Technology is ing in America 1900-1933 (2002) and, ter, “Islamic Astrolabes,” for the forthcom- pleased to announce the appointments of co-edited with Peter Galison, The Architec- ing “Astrolabes at Greenwich. A Catalogue the Dibner Institute Resident Fellows for ture of Science (1999). Her project at the of the Planispheric Astrolabes in the National 2002-2003. The Institute will welcome eleven

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 21 Maritime Museum,” ed. K. van Cleempoel. tion, where she was a Lecturer and devel- Knowledge.” His most recent article in His project while at the Dibner Institute is oped courses in teaching science. She is the English is “The Korean Adaptation of the titled “The Visual Language of Islamic author, with P. Lucht and F. Hughes- Chinese-Islamic Tables,” forthcoming in Science.” McDonnell, of “Playing with Light,” Educa- Archive for History of Exact Sciences. His H. Darrel Rutkin, doctoral candidate at tional Action Research (2001) and “Experi- research project at the Dibner Institute is Indiana University, is the author of the menting with Magnetism: Ways of Learning titled “European Background of Jesuit article, “Celestial Offerings: Astrological of Joann and Faraday,” American Journal Predictive Astronomy in 18th Century China.” Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Galileo’s of Physics (1997) and will present a paper at Siderus Nuncius and Kepler’s Astronomia the 2002 Bakken Museum Conference on the Dibner Institute Graduate Nova,” in Secrets of Nature: Astrology and lightning rod. For her Dibner Institute Student Fellows Alchemy in Early Modern Europe, ed. project, she is doing research on induction- Jeremiah James received the B.A. from Grafton and Newman (2001). At the Dibner coil-making by 19th-century amateurs and St. John’s College, Annapolis, Maryland and Institute he proposes to develop a book on the educational and historical ramifications will receive the Ph.D. from the History of the place of astrology in premodern western of replicating their experiments. Science Department, Harvard University. He science, c.1250-1500. Alberto Martinez received his Ph.D. is the author of the forthcoming article, Christopher Smeenk defended his from the University of Minnesota and was “Disunifying Science: The Fragmentation of dissertation, “Approaching the Absolute subsequently a Dibner Library Resident the Pauling Program,” Chemical Heritage Zero of Time: Theory Development and Scholar, Smithsonian Institution. He was an Foundation Magazine. His dissertation will Evaluation in Early Universe Cosmology,” Organizer for the Seminar on the Investiga- examine the development of new research Spring, 2002 at the University of Pittsburgh. tion of Difficult Things, 1999-2000 and for programs and their identities as scientific He is the author, with John Earman, of “Take the Seminar on Natural Philosophy, 1996, disciplines, built upon work done by Linus a Ride on a Time Machine,” to appear in both at the University of Minnesota, and Pauling in the 1930s. “Reverberations of the Shaky Game,” edited has been a participant in the Seven Pines Chen Pang Yeang received the B.S. from by Jones and Ehrlich, and he is assistant Symposium for History and Philosophy of National Taiwan University and the Sc.D. in editor, with J. Renn, M. Schemmel, and C. Physics, 1997, 1999. At the Dibner Institute Electrical Engineering from MIT, and is now Martin of the forthcoming two-volume work, he is preparing a book on the history of enrolled in MIT’s Program in Science, “The Genesis of General Relativity.” The title kinematics, the modern science of motion. Technology, and Society. He is the author, of his work while at the Dibner Institute is He is also finishing a book entitled “Physi- with W. He, of the paper, “How the Mag- “An Inflationary Field: The Heyday of Early cal Mathematics.” netic Core Memory became a Core Memory Universe Cosmology.” Yunli Shi was Professor, Department of in the Digital Computer,” submitted to Tech- History of Science, University of Science and nology and Culture. The title of his thesis is Dibner Institute Postdoctoral Technology of China, from which he received “Transmission, Reception, and Interference: his Ph.D. He is the author of several books Fellows Appointed to a Radio Technology and Science, 1900-1940.” Second Year in Chinese, including History of Astronomy in China and the forthcoming “Chinese Elizabeth Cavicchi received her Ed.D. Astronomy and the Importation of Western from the Harvard Graduate School of Educa- BOOK REVIEWS

John Hedley Brooke, Margaret J. Osler, Galileo and some scientists opposed him. content of science? This issue of Osiris and Jitse M. van der Meer, editors, Science Not quite so clearcut. The title of shows that the answer is a resounding “Yes,” in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions Finocchiaro’s paper, “Science, Religion, and at least in earlier eras. In 14 case studies (Osiris, 16, University of Chicago Press, the Historiography of the Galileo Affair: On featuring several headline scientists of the 2001). ISBN: 0226075648, $39 (cloth); the Undesirability of Oversimplification,” 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, the influence 01160756586, $25 (paper). tells its own story. of religion on science is developed in detail. Reviewed by John S. Rigden, American Most scientists, if asked, would acknowl- While most of the case studies (12) focus on Institute of Physics. edge that cultural values and philosophical scientists who are Christians, there is one History eschews simplicity. It is com- predilections exert an influence on the case study that focuses on each of the other monly believed that the Galileo affair repre- conduct of science. Most scientists, physi- two monotheistic world religions. These sents a clearcut example of science vs. cists in particular, would also acknowledge case studies are preceded by two essays of religion – of good vs. evil or evil vs. good, that science can be influenced by aesthetics a broader nature designed to provide a depending on one’s point of view. However, – perceptions of beauty, elegance, simplic- framework for the specific case studies that as Maurice A. Finocchiaro shows in this col- ity, and symmetry. But religion? Does follow. lection, some churchmen lined up with religion also insert itself into the practice and

22 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 The first essay, “Religious Belief and the before “God’s Word and Works had ... bifur- own agenda, and the destruction and Content of Science,” is by John Hedley cated” (p. 197). dispersal of German records and apparatus Brooke, who is also the author of Science In the context of the 17th century, it seems when the war ended. In particular, it is little and Religion: Some Historical Perspec- legitimate to ask, “How, if at all, did Boyle’s appreciated that GEMA, an acronym for tives, (Cambridge). Brooke’s position is that religious beliefs relate to his scientific study Gesellschaft für elektroakustische und “religious beliefs and practices can shape of gases?” (p. 30). Boyle was, after all, both a mechanische Apparate, built the first func- worldviews, that worldviews may find religious man and a scientist, and these two tioning radars and sonars in Germany. This expression in a commitment to metaphysical strong influences shaped his thought. Could problem is rectified by Harry von Kroge with principles that govern theory construction, the same question be asked of Maxwell, who his short but excellent volume, ably trans- and that these, in turn, may govern the came nearly two centuries later? Of course, lated by Louis Brown of the Carnegie Insti- degree of assent one might give to particu- we are free to ask the question and the an- tution of Washington – himself author of lar explanatory theories” (p. 6). Brooke swers would definitely reveal that Maxwell the recent and masterful A Radar History of develops arguments designed to show that was a religious believer. For example, in the World War II: Technical and Military religion shapes not only the content of case study, “Victorian Sciences and Reli- Imperatives. Notes Brown in his Translator’s science, but also the practice of science. gions: Discordant Harmonies,” the author Preface, certain technical materials in Brooke’s position begs the question: What Bernard Lightman refers to Maxwell’s 1873 Kroge’s book, of interest to engineers and is a religious belief and, more to the point, address, “Molecules,” delivered to the Brit- physicists, are marked in boldface, and may how does one distinguish between religious ish Association for the Advancement of Sci- be skipped without losing the thread. and metaphysical beliefs? For example, one ence, in which Maxwell argued that the pre- The story had its beginnings in the 1920s can believe in the unity of nature for cise properties of molecules could not have when a Dr. Rudolf Kühnhold joined the religious and/or metaphysical reasons. This come about “by any process we call natu- German Navy’s Nachrichtenmittel Versuchs- issue is the subject of the second introduc- ral” (p. 353) but were the work of a divine anstalt (NVA), in the development of under- tory essay, “Religious Beliefs, Metaphysi- creator. But this statement does not suggest water sound technology, for communication, cal Beliefs, and Historiography of Science,” that science and religion “interpenetrated” listening, and directing naval fire. When lack- by Stephen J. Wykstra. in Maxwell’s mind as it did in Newton’s. In luster results were obtained, Kühnhold was The case studies feature Johannes my reading of the essays, things had changed impelled to go beyond the limits of his Kepler, Galileo and his much-studied in the years between Newton and Maxwell. assignment, and turn to radio transmissions controversy with the Catholic Church, What about today? After reading this above the water. In so doing, he hired two Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton, Alfred Russel collection of papers, I wondered: Do the young engineers, Paul-Günther Erbslöh and Wallace, and Charles Darwin. Other case religious beliefs of today’s physicists influ- Hans-Karl Freiherr von Willisen, boyhood studies delve into more general issues. There ence the content and practice of their pals who had channeled their childhood is no doubt that religion has had decisive physics? There are first-rate contemporary hobby of amateur radio into Tonographie, a influences on the work of the named indi- physicists whose lives are ordered by their small firm for manufacturing phonograph viduals. For example, the paper by Peter strong religious beliefs. Such physicists, I records and recording equipment. Before Barker and Bernard R. Goldstein, “Theologi- expect, would see in various natural phenom- long they formed GEMA, so called to cal Foundations of Kepler’s Astronomy,” ena evidence for “intelligent design.” As did deflect the curious by its reference to previ- demonstrates convincingly that “...theology Maxwell. However, are the Kepler-types and ous activities. The eventual upshot was the plays a central role in Kepler’s scientific the Newton-types, in whose minds an famous Freya air-warning and Seetakt ocean- thinking” (p. 89), not only in his Mysterium “interpenetration” did occur, a thing of the surveillance radars. Cosmographicum (1596) but also in his New past? This question is left unanswered by After dwelling on the origins of GEMA, Astronomy (1609), where his laws of plan- this interesting collection of case studies. the author proceeds with early underwater etary motion are developed. In the paper by sound and radar equipment, with some Stephen D. Snobelen, “‘God of gods, and Harry von Kroge, GEMA: Birthplace of surprises here and there, including the Lord of lords:’ The Theology of Isaac German Radar and Sonar, translated from complicated circumstances in which GEMA Newton’s General Scholium to the the German and edited by Louis Brown (In- dropped the magnetron oscillator in favor Principia,” the author argues that an “inter- stitute of Physics Publishing, Bristol & Phila- of the triode (and thereby missed the cavity penetration existed at a fundamental level delphia, 2000). 250 pages, ISBN: 0750307323, magnetron that ultimately helped the Allies between the cognitive content of the theo- $75 (£50) cloth. win the war). All this was before the begin- logical and natural philosophical features of Reviewed by Per F. Dahl, Lawrence ning of the war. The rest, and most of the Newton’s grand study” (p. 197). In other Berkeley National Laboratory. volume, deals with GEMA in World War II, words, Newton’s theology informs his Radar progress in Germany (and Japan) not only successes and failures of radars natural philosophy. I believe the authors before and during World War II comes as a and sonars, but gives us an interesting demonstrate successfully that the content surprise to many, with all the literary hype history of an industrial corporation in of both Kepler’s and Newton’s science was about Allied radar development. This skewed wartime Germany. directly influenced by their religious faith. impression is partly due to the fact that the “On 31 May 1945 [notes Kroge] GEMA But as Snobelen acknowledges, this should people writing the histories were active at Lensahn was officially closed. This not be surprising as it occurred in an age participants, and thus tended to push their happened after the British authorities had

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002 23 thoroughly cleared out the German war ma- Briefly Noted: physicists in Japan in this later, more open terial there so they could use the space to period, up to World War I. This includes Hiro Tawara, Pioneers of Physics in the intern Wehrmacht personnel being returned influential western teachers who were Early Days of Japan (North Holland, n.d.). from Norway and Denmark. This clearance brought into the Japanese universities in the 58+iv pages, paper. took place on 16/17 May, and all of the early days (1870s and 1880s), followed by This little booklet is a paperbound tirelessly saved experimental models and important Japanese physicists who took up essay by Hiro Tawara, a respected atomic prototypes of GEMA development were leadership of science in Japan in the second collision physicist, about Japan’s scientific destroyed, so that when the research-minded generation. Tawara closes his essay by development. It begins with a brief review of British Intelligence Service arrived, only noting the emergence of Japan to world-class “Science and Scientists Before the Meiji Era wreckage remained.” influence in physics after World War I, but (1868-1912).” Beginning in the 16th century, The volume ends with an informative his essay does not address this later period Tawara makes brief note of the influence of epilogue by Louis Brown, in which he finds that saw the full flowering of Japanese Western scientific concepts and instruments a remarkable parallel of GEMA’s efforts with physics. in Japan, along with early Japanese practi- those of two American laboratories, the tioners of science. The 18th and 19th centu- Naval Research Laboratory and the Signal Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize ries saw early Japanese contributions to Corps Laboratory. He also notes an aspect Women in Science, 2nd edition (Joseph physics, but these efforts were limited due of the German effort that differed from that Henry Press, Washington, DC, 1998). 451+xii to the closure of the society to outside of the Allies: numerous corporate rivalries in pages, ISBN: 0309072700, $19.95, paper. cultures. Nevertheless, Tawara sketches the the German program. This may be accounted This update of McGrayne’s 1993 book contributions of seven Japanese physicists for by the fact that Allied radar research was (originally published by Carol Publishing who helped raise the level of science in largely carried out in government laborato- Group, Secaucus, N.J.) is a welcome reissue Japan during this early period. ries, with smaller corporate contributions. of an important book on the lives and With the overthrow of the Shogunate in Following Brown’s epilogue, there are achievements of women science Nobel 1868, the Meiji government established uni- nearly 30 pages of excellent photographs of Laureates. The new edition adds the story versities that eventually included advanced personalities, apparatus, and locations, and of 1995 Nobelist, Christiane Nüsslein- physics courses. This was followed by the name and subject indexes. All in all, the Volhard. McGrayne explores the challenges founding of academic societies and journals. volume is well written, perhaps partly due to and discrimination these women faced, along The second half of this essay gives brief Brown’s involvement. with the motivations that underlay their great sketches of the contributions of individual achievements.

24 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume VIII, No. 5 • Fall 2002