William Walker’s Dark Destiny

Newly settled in Costa Rica, diverged. Whereas I had been lured by for his zealously anti-slavery views. visions of sunshine and hammocks, Walk- Though no abolitionist fi rebrand like a recent alumnus investigates the er tried to take over large swaths of Cen- Whitman, Walker at the time wrote legacy of “filibuster” William Walker tral America to create his own personal against the expansion of slavery in the slave republics. For a time, he succeeded. growing United States. M1843—largely forgotten in the Walker was the central antagonist in In 1850, Walker moved to San Francisco, US but still perhaps the most Costa Rica’s national history and mythol- whose population had ballooned following hated man in Central America. ogy. Probably Nicaragua’s too. El Salva- the discovery of gold nearby in 1848. After dor, Guatemala, and Honduras all helped obtaining an editorial position at the San By Myles Karp to vanquish him. Here in Costa Rica, the Francisco Daily Herald, he made the en- repulsion of the would-be invader and forcement of law and order in the rela- usurper was largely what fi rst forged the tively lawless young city his journalistic young republic’s sense of national iden- crusade. But despite his righteous tirades, tity and unity. Though the past century Walker seems to have gotten caught up in and a half have largely eff aced Walker the city’s culture of violence. He appar- from the historical imagination of the ently fought three duels, one of which United States, Central Americans have ended with a bullet in his leg. few months ago, I found myself not forgotten the misdeeds of the so- While it was primarily the material browsing in a novelty store in Ala- called “Grey-eyed Man of Destiny.” promise of gold that drew prospectors to A juela, Costa Rica, about an hour California, this mid-19th century west- from where I live. Among garments Walker was born in Nashville, Tennes- ward expansion also had strong ideo- displaying more familiar Costa Rican see, on May 8, 1824, a descendent of Lip- logical underpinnings. During the 1845 iconography—sloth on a surfboard, sloth scomb Norvell, a lieutenant in the Con- debates over the annexation of Texas, with sunglasses, sloth trapped inside a tinental Army. Academically precocious, journalist and politician John O’Sullivan glass of a tropical beverage—was a T- he graduated from the University of wrote in the Democratic Review that it shirt bearing the proclamation: “William Nashville at age 14. After some time at was “our manifest destiny to overspread Walker was a punk ass bitch.” the universities of Edinburgh and Hei- the continent allotted by Providence for I had moved to Costa Rica in January delberg, he obtained a medical degree the free development of our yearly mul- 2017 after a bout of restlessness and was from Penn in 1843, by then all of 19. tiplying billions.” The concept of manifest trying—awkwardly—to learn the lan- Walker practiced medicine in Phila- destiny, though not universally endorsed, guage, the customs, and the history; I still delphia and law in New Orleans for brief became a rallying cry for the expansion am. I had never heard of Walker, but I stints, before coming into control of a into and annexation of territories near soon learned that—like me—he was a New Orleans newspaper called the Dai- the country’s growing borders. visitor to Central America from the US ly Crescent as editor and co-owner. At Politically, manifest destiny featured who had graduated from Penn and tried one point, his co-editor was a pre-fame prominently in the platform of the Dem- his hand at a few jobs before getting hit Walt Whitman—who was fi red, as he had ocratic Party. President James K. Polk, a with wanderlust. From there, our paths been from other journalistic positions, Democrat, fervently pursued expansion

60 THE PENNSYLVANIA GAZETTE Mar|Apr 2019 ILLUSTRATION BY JONATHAN BARTLETT Mar|Apr 2019 THE PENNSYLVANIA GAZETTE 61 during his tenure from 1845 to 1849, wrest- mitment more to his own aspirations of Back in California, he was charged with ing 600,000 square miles of land from power than to any patriotic ideology. violating neutrality laws, which forbade Mexico in the Mexican-American War. Though slight in appearance and of American military expeditions to allied During his time in California, Walker gentle aff ect, Walker inspired fear and nations. Representing himself in court, became a strong advocate of the mani- loyalty in his men. According to the Walker deployed his substantial cha- fest destiny ideology, and he eventually writer J.C. Jamison, who fought for risma and rhetorical charms to obtain shifted his journalistic focus from local Walker in Nicaragua: an acquittal after eight minutes of jury crime to American expansionism. His “He was a man of small stature, his deliberation. He was a popular hero in writings were especially concerned with height being about fi ve feet fi ve inches, California, as well as throughout the Latin America; he advocated for the an- and his weight close to 130 pounds. His sympathetic American South and West. nexation of Cuba and US involvement in body, however, was strong, and his vital Walker settled into another newspaper Nicaragua, which in addition to a ter- energy surprisingly great. The expression position, but it was not long before he em- ritorial boon also promised to be a prof- of his countenance was frank and open, barked upon his next fi libustering journey. itable business opportunity, given the and heightened by the absence of beard Nicaragua was in the throes of a civil war country’s role as a prominent shipping of any kind. His aggressive and deter- between the Legitimist and Democratic byway in the time before the Transcon- mined character was plainly indicated by parties, based respectively in Granada and tinental Railroad and the Panama Canal. his aquiline nose, while his eyes, from León. The Democrats sought mercenary Though Polk embraced manifest destiny, which came his sobriquet, ‘Grey-eyed Man help and contacted Walker. Eager to ex- the US presidents who followed him— of Destiny,’ were keen in their scrutiny and ploit the nation whose shipping route Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore, both almost hypnotic in their power. A woman’s could prove immensely valuable to himself of the Whig Party—proved less enthusias- voice was scarcely softer than Walker’s … and to the United States, Walker agreed; tic. With federal support lacking, zealous But with all his placidity of voice and de- this time, however, he made sure to cir- expansionists often took matters into their meanor, men leaped eagerly into the very cumvent neutrality laws by obtaining a own hands, traveling to nearby lands with cannon’s mouth to obey his commands.” contract to bring “colonists” to Nicaragua. ideological compatriots or mercenaries On May 3, 1855, Walker and 57 follow- and small arsenals to claim territory for By the time of this fi rst fi libustering ers left San Francisco by boat. Shortly the United States. These guerilla expan- mission, Walker had long abandoned after arriving, and reinforced with local sionists came to be known as fi libusters, his mildly anti-slavery views and instead Democratic troops, they attacked the from an arcane Dutch word for pirates. championed the institution’s expansion Legitimist stronghold of Rivas. They lost Walker was not the fi rst fi libuster, but he throughout the Americas. He may have decisively, driven out of town after suf- became the most famous and—for a had a change of heart—or may simply fering signifi cant casualties. Though his while—the most successful. have recognized the usefulness of pro- military prowess was questionable, After hearing about a French colonial slavery sentiment in gaining support and Walker became the leader of the Demo- expedition to Sonora, Mexico, Walker set recruits for his fi libustering. The most crats by default, when the chiefs of both in motion his fi rst plan to act upon his ardent advocates of manifest destiny the military and the executive branch expansionist inclinations. Without wait- were Southerners who viewed expansion died. On October 13, in what many con- ing for permission from the federal gov- and annexation as opportunities to es- sider to be the only truly adept maneu- ernment, which Walker believed to be tablish new slave states, tipping the ver of his military career, he comman- too passive, the Tennessean arrived with tenuous balance with the abolitionist deered a ferry and sailed to Granada, a group of 45 mercenary recruits in North. Most of Walker’s enlistees on the taking the Legitimist forces by surprise. Mexico on November 4, 1853. Despite a Mexican misadventure had been recruit- At this point, he eff ectively gained con- complete lack of military experience, ed from the slave states of Tennessee and trol of Nicaragua, installing a puppet Walker successfully commanded the Kentucky. Once in control, Walker bor- interim president in Patricio Rivas. Soon capture of the governor of the Mexican rowed the laws of Louisiana for his new after, he had himself elected president state of La Paz and declared himself republic, making slavery legal by default. and was inaugurated on July 12, 1856. president of the new Republic of Lower Despite the hundreds of reinforce- Walker’s reign was characterized by the California. Though he ostensibly intend- ments who had come to join his ranks, imposition of white American cultural ed to eventually join his republic with Walker failed to take his second target, and racial hegemony over the native the United States, his installation of Sonora. Facing immense pressure from people and traditions. He declared Eng- himself as president of an independent both the Mexican and American govern- lish the offi cial language, confi scated state might have foreshadowed a com- ments, he surrendered in early 1854. property from Nicaraguan rivals to give

62 THE PENNSYLVANIA GAZETTE Mar|Apr 2019 to American supporters, legalized slavery, Walker’s reign in Nicaragua as an oppor- later, Mora issued a proclamation calling and invited—practically begged—white tunity. Southerners seeking to add a slave to arms not only his countrymen but also Americans to immigrate in notices like state to the union, emigrants looking for the “Great Central American family” of this one from a New Orleans paper: new opportunities and land, and capital- Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. “The Government of Nicaragua is desir- ists seeking new sources of profi t each as- Walker responded in kind with a de- ous of having its lands settled and culti- sumed he would champion their unique cree of his own: vated by an industrious class of people, causes. But as he gained power, Walker “The Natural law of individual protec- and off er as an inducement to emigrants, demonstrated that his only unwavering tion obliges us, the Americans of Nicara- a donation of Two Hundred and Fifty ideological commitment was to himself. gua, to declare eternal enmity to the ser- Acres of Land for single persons, and One It was his repudiation of powerful capi- vile party and the servile governments of Hundred Acres additional to persons of talists that led to his eventual downfall. Central America. The friendship we have family. Steamers leave New Orleans for Since 1849, the Accessory Transit Com- off ered them has been rebuff ed. We are San Juan on the 11th and 26th of each pany, controlled by Cornelius Vanderbilt, left with no option other than to make month. The fare is now reduced to less had enjoyed contractual dominion over them recognize that our enmity can be as than half the former rates.” the transit route across Nicaragua. Assum- dangerous and destructive as our friend- He established a bilingual newspaper, ing their compatriot would prove sympa- ship is faithful and true.” El Nicaragüense, which originated his thetic to their aims once in power, com- The Costa Ricans did indeed take up famous sobriquet, based on a supposed pany executives had provided much of the arms. The fi libusters had, by that point, indigenous legend about a grey-eyed fi nancial and logistical support for Walk- actually penetrated into Costa Rican ter- leader who would drive out Spanish op- er’s mission. But shortly after gaining con- ritory, inhabiting a farm called Santa pressors. “This traditional prophecy has trol of the country, Walker revoked the Rosa in the Nicoya Peninsula, just south been fulfi lled to the letter,” proclaimed company’s charter and seized its boats. of Nicaragua. Mora and the Costa Ricans a writer for Walker’s paper in December Though Walker had made a great number reached Santa Rosa on March 20 and won 1855. “‘The Grey-Eyed Man’ has come.” of enemies, none had been so rich, power- the ensuing skirmish in 14 minutes, offi - If his ideological commitment to slav- ful, and vengeful as Vanderbilt. cially expelling the invaders from their ery had been ambiguous earlier, Walker As Walker established himself in Nica- country. They then continued to Rivas for was by now a zealous proponent. He also ragua and began hinting at greater ambi- a now-legendary battle. After grueling saw slavery as a means of limiting the tions in the region, nearby countries street fi ghting, the two sides reached a race-mixing between Spanish and indig- sought to prepare defenses. Costa Rican sort of stalemate, with the fi libusters en- enous people that he considered the root president Juan Rafael Mora became the trenched in the Guerra family’s home and of social unrest in the region. primary galvanizer of opposition to the boardinghouse, from which they main- fi libusters for both Costa Rica and the tained a secure fi ring position. Back in the US, Walker was practically region as a whole. In November of 1855, As the possibly apocryphal legend goes, beatifi ed. Plays were staged about his about a month after Walker’s victory at a Costa Rican drummer boy named Juan exploits, with a playbill for one July 1856 Granada, Mora off ered the following Santamaría volunteered to charge the production at Manhattan’s Purdy Na- warning to his countrymen in a decree: house with his torch as long as someone tional Theatre calling him “The hope of “Peace, that fortunate peace that, to- would take care of his mother in case of freedom.” W.F. Brannin of Kentucky took gether with your industrious persever- his death. He managed to light the house it upon himself to write the “Nicaragua ance, has so increased our credit, wealth, on fi re, drawing out the fi libusters, but he National Song,” presenting Walker as a and happiness, is perfi diously threat- was gunned down in doing so. Juan San- tyrant-toppling liberator: ened. A gang of foreigners, scourge of all tamaría is now Costa Rica’s national hero. peoples … plan to invade Costa Rica to The international airport is named for It needs not a Prophet or talker look in our wives and daughters, in our him, and every April 11—the anniversary To tell you in prose or in verse, houses and farms, pleasures for their of the battle—the country celebrates Juan the exploits of Patriot Walker, fi erce passions, nourishment to their Santamaría Day. Whom Tyrants will long deem a curse - unbridled greed. Will I need to paint for Though they do also commemorate the A brave son of Freedom is Walker you the terrible ills that coldly awaiting anniversary of independence from Spain, And Nations his fame will rehearse. such a barbaric invasion can result in?” Costa Ricans consider Juan Santamaría On February 26, 1856, Costa Rica of- Day to be the primary national holiday, In addition to lauding his bravery and fi cially declared war on the fi libuster and mark it with comparable fanfare. accomplishments, many Americans saw government of Nicaragua. A few days This past April, fi reworks displays audible

Mar|Apr 2019 THE PENNSYLVANIA GAZETTE 63 from around the Central Valley had the In a dedicatory note to “my comrades haven’t forgotten. Still-popular terms for stray dogs that rule my street howling in Nicaragua,” he describes the book as both Salvadorans (Salvatruchos) and loudly and proudly; even the little dachs- an eff ort “to do justice to their acts and Hondurans (Catrachos) derive from the hund-chihuahua mutt was celebrating motives: To the living, with the hope that name of the allied commander in the war the rout of Walker’s men at Rivas. we may soon meet again on the soil for against the fi libusters, Florencio Xatruch. The Costa Ricans had a key ally, and which we have suff ered more than the Here in my adopted home of Costa Rica, Walker a fateful enemy, in Cornelius pangs of death—the reproaches of a the national heroes and holidays, the Vanderbilt. The tycoon sought to seize people for whose welfare we stood ready names of airports and highways, stem back control of the San Juan River and to die: To the memory of those who per- from the story of Walker and the heroic his former boats, which had become ished in the struggle, with the vow that quest to prevent the country from becom- Walker’s lifeline for supplies and rein- as long as life lasts no peace shall remain ing a Yankee-controlled slave state. As I forcements. In doing so, Vanderbilt with the foes who libel their names and was researching this piece in a room full could help defeat his nemesis while si- strive to tear away the laurel which of battle dioramas at the Juan Santamaría multaneously regaining the lucrative hangs over their graves.” Museum in Alajuela, a group of school- transit route. In December 1856, one of But Walker’s next return to Central Amer- children around eight or nine years old his agents, Sylvanus Spencer, led 120 ica would prove considerably less conse- entered the room, their teacher spinning Costa Rican troops by canoe and raft to- quential to the region—and fatal for him. the national yarns of the campaign ward the ferry port at Greytown, Nica- A group of rogue British settlers hoped against the fi libusters; they looked like ragua. There they were joined by Mora to establish a colony on Roatán, an is- they had heard it all before. and 800 more troops, well-armed with land off the Honduran coast, and they It’s all too easy to canonize our heroes guns and ammunition supplied by asked the famed fi libuster for help. He and forget about our demons. Walker Vanderbilt. Together they traversed the agreed, but shortly after arriving, he was was an exceptional case, but he cer- river and captured the ferry boats one captured by Commander Nowell Salmon tainly was not the last demon in the by one, eventually gaining control of the of the British Navy. The British con- story of the relationship between the route. Walker’s lifeline was cut, and trolled the land that is now Belize and US and Central America. Many of the Vanderbilt had gotten his revenge. viewed Walker as a threat to their inter- most egregious transgressions are, like Meanwhile, the allied coalition of Hon- ests in the region. Salmon turned Walk- the Walker aff air, left out of our history duras, El Salvador, and Guatemala at- er over to the Honduran government—a books. Even without sinister intention, tacked from the north. As fi ghting went gift surely received with pleasure. On US culture continues to exert a hege- on, Walker’s situation became increas- September 12, 1860, at the age of 36, monic—often uninvited—infl uence on ingly desperate, exacerbated by out- Walker was executed by a fi ring squad. Central America. Ironically, the words breaks of disease and desertion among The New York Times report of the ex- on the T-shirt that inspired my William his men. Finally, on May 1, 1857, Walker ecution suggests the fervency with Walker fact-fi nding initiative were, de- surrendered and was brought to New which the Honduran executioners un- spite their anti-imperialist sentiment, York by the US Navy. dertook the task: printed in English. Once again greeted as a hero at home, “Three soldiers stepped forward to Given the historical context, to wel- he cast himself as the injured party, lodg- within twenty feet of him and dis- come a visitor like me is an act of for- ing a formal complaint against the US charged their muskets. The balls entered giveness for Costa Rica, and I’ve been naval commander who had captured him his body, and he leaned a little forward; striving to adapt to local customs and be in a meeting with President Buchanan. but, it being observed he was not dead, a good guest—an anti-Walker. I’m not His continued criticism of the Navy for a fourth soldier mercifully advanced so sure how we can keep the memory of our interfering cut into his popular support close to the suff ering man that the muz- collective misdeeds alive—but a handy somewhat, and there were occasional run- zle of the musket almost touched his T-shirt with a disparaging quip about ins with the law over his fl outing of neu- forehead, and being there discharged, one of America’s most nefarious punk trality laws, but nothing came of them. He scattered his brains and skull to the ass bitches is a good starting point. lectured widely, trying to raise money for winds. Thus ends the life of the ‘Gray- a return to Nicaragua, and in 1860 pub- eyed man of Destiny.’” Myles Karp C’12 is a journalist living in Costa lished The War in Nicaragua, an autobio- Rica, seeking out and writing about exotic fruits, graphical account of his military cam- Though lionized during his lifetime, compelling human stories, and lesser-known paign, where he is listed on the title page over the decades Walker faded into ob- episodes in Latin American history for publica- as “Gen’l William Walker.” scurity in the US. But Central Americans tions ranging from The New York Times to Vice.

64 THE PENNSYLVANIA GAZETTE Mar|Apr 2019