INDEX

AAR stations, see After Action Review stations Ausbildungsgeraet Gefechtssimulator Panzer Activation rule, 52-53 Truppe (AGPT) (cont.) Ada programming language, 123 equipment familiarisation in, 140-141 AERA programs, 39 exercise control in, 145 After Action Review (AAR) stations instructional process control in, 146 in ccrr, 117, 120, 124, 125, 126, 130, 132 instructor console design in, 144-145 in SIMNET, 129 monitoring of performance in, 146 AGPT, see Ausbildungsgeraet Gefechtssimulator person machine interface in, 147 Panzer Truppe provision of feedback in, 143 Aircraft technicians, 114-115 provision of training objectives in, 143 Air Force, U.s., 86, 89,113 scenario generation in, 145 Air Force Institute of Technology (AFlT), 86 sequencing of training exercises in, 142-143 Air Training Network (ATN), 86 simulation fidelity questionnaires on, l39 ALMC, see Army Logistics Management College training programme design in, 140 Analog transmission, l3, 78, 84 training questionnaires on, l38-l39 Apple operating systems, 84 training system design in, 139-140 Appreciation System, 34 trials design in, 136-l37 Apprenticeship, learning as, 54-55 User Evaluation Survey of, 143-144, 148-149 APRE, l36 Australia Army, French, see LECLERC tank audiographic conferencing in, 10-11 Army, U.S., 67-68 conferencing in, 13 CCTI and, see Close Combat Tactical Trainer Automated Training and Feedback System DIS and, see Distributed Interactive Simulation (ATAFS), 125, 130, 132 video teletraining and, 79, 80, 86 Autonomous learning, 169 Army Logistics Management College (ALMC), 70,81 Bavarian Broadcasting, 106-107 Army Readiness and Training Evaluation Program Berlitz International, 13-14 (ARTEP), 125, 128, 129, 130 Box-score approach, 75 role in collective training, 127 Bradley Fighting Vehicle simulators, 120 Army Research Institute (ARI), 125 Brainstorming, 8 Army School of Training Support, 112 British Open University, 184 ARTEP, see Army Readiness and Training Evalu- British Telecom, 112, 113 ation Program Broadcasting, see Educational/instructional broad- Artificial intelligence, 186-187 casting Asynchronous learning settings, 9, 11, 15 BRS/Search,161 ATAFS, see Automated Training and Feedback BS 5750, 113 System Bulletin board systems, 11,86, 161 AN, 15 defined,24 Attitudinal considerations, 111-116 Audio conferencing, 9-10,15, 17,20 CAIMAN,55 defined, 24 CAMIS-II, see Computer-Assisted Medical Inter• Audiographic conferencing, 10-11, IS, 18, 19,20 active-Video System II defined,24 Canada, 10 Ausbildungsgeraet Gefechtssimulator Panzer CANOES, see Computer-Assisted Naval Oceanog• Truppe (AGPT), 4, 118, 135-149 raphy Education System content of training exercises in, 141-142 CATS, see Combined Arms Training Strategy

193 194 Index

CATT, see Combined Anns Tactical Trainer Combined Arms Training Strategy (CATS), 128 CCTT, see Close Combat Tactical Trainer COMDEX '93, 83 CD-DA, 82, 84 Command and control simulation, 61-64 CD-G,82,84 Command and General Staff College (CGSC), CD-I, 82, 84, 185 U.S. Army, 80 CD-MO,82 Communications, Command and Control (C3) CD-RDx,82 Module, AGPT, 141,142 CD-ROM,73 Compact discs (CDs), 82-83,84, see also CD en• compression technology and, 83 tries educational materials/systems transfer and, 185 Compression technology, 15,80-81,83,84-85,86 interactive courseware and, 74 Computer-Assisted Medical Interactive-Video Sys• MINERVA and, 64 tem II (CAMIS-II), 89 multimedia equipment and, 82, 84 Computer-Assisted Naval Oceanography Educa• inNTTC,l61 tion System (CANOES), 89 CD-ROM.xA, 82 Computer-based instruction, 74, 75-76, 77, 89 CD-TV,82 Computerconferencing, 11-12,15,17,18,19,20 Central Intelligence Agency, 82 defined,24 CESN, see CNET Electronic Schoolhouse Network DELTA and, 191 Classrooms Computer-mediated communication (CMC), 165, Electronic, 192 168,169,170-171 in video teletraining, 78, 79-80 defined,24 Class 1 terminals, 89-90 Computer simulation, see Simulation Class 2 terminals, 89-90 Conferencing, 7-25, see also Audio conferencing; Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CC'IT), 117, 119- Audiographic conferencing; Computer con• 132 ferencing; Video conferencing approach to training in, 126-129 comparative overview of technologies for, 14- collective training and, see Collective training 17 description of, 120 from course organizer's perspective, 18-19 effecting unit performance with, 129 defined, 7, 24 fidelity of, 120-122 educational motivations for, 8-9 plans for training in, 126 from instructional designer's perspective, 20-21 RAM engineering of, 122-123 from instructor's perspective, 18 refinements over SIMNET, 120-123 from learner's perspective, 17-18 reusability of, 123 from media specialists's perspective, 20-21 standards compliance of, 123 from organizational decision maker's perspec- CMC, see Computer-mediated communication tive, 19-20 CNET Electronic Schoolhouse Network (CESN), technologies for, 9-14 79-80,86 Connectionism, 52-54 Codecs, 13,83-84,89 Connection weights, 52 COFf, 126-127, 128 Consorzio per I'Universita a Distanza (CUD), Cognition 158, 164-165 situated, 55 telematic tutoring in, 169-171 sociocultural perspective on, 52 Constraints Cognitive activities, 30-32 AGPT,140 knowledge-based/problem setting, 32, 33 UCIT,41-42 knowledge-based/problem solving, 31-32, 33 Constructivism, 50 rule-based, 31,33 Co-operative learning, 52 skill-based, 30-31 Cooperative R&D Agreement (CRADA), 161 Cognitive artifacts, 49-50 Copyright, 90-91, 92 Colleague (search interface), 161 Correspondence courses, ECOM as extension of, Collective training, 119, 123-124 69-70 ARTEP's role in, 127 Costs Combat instructions sets (CIS), 122 of audio conferencing, 9-10 Combat Maneuver Training Center (CMTC), 124 of audiographic conferencing, 10-11 Combat training centers (CTCs), 124 of computer conferencing, 12 Combined Arms Tactical Trainer (CATT), 117, of conferencing, 19-20 118, 119, 135-149, see also Aus• of educational/instructional broadcasting, 106- bildungsgeraet Gefechtssimulator Panzer 107 Truppe of interactive courseware, 76-77 Index 195

Costs (cont.) Electronic blackboards, 10, 11 of Royal Netherlands Army Training Command Electronic Classroom, 192 course, 101-102 Electronic Communication, see ECOM of telematic tutoring, 169 Electronic mail, see E-mail of video conferencing, 13 Electronic superhighways, 85-86, 91 of video teletraining, 80-81 E-mail, 45,86,92, 161 Cross platform compatibility, 83 Entrepreneurial managers, 30, 32 CUD, see Consorzio per l'Universita a Distanza Environmental Protection Agency, 87 Culture, 51-52 European Association of Distance Teaching Uni- versities (EADTU), 180, 184, 187 Data operators, 28 European Open University Network, 187 Data voice logger (DVL), 143, 145, 146 European Round Table, 192 Debriefing Eurostudy Centres, 187 in AGPT, 141, 143, 146, 148, 149 "Exercise Phantom Bugle" (field exercise), 137 in command and control simulation, 61, 63 Extension Course Institute, U.S. Air Force, 113 Decentralised bases, 164-165 Extreme learning, 169 Decision-taking support professionals, 29 Defense Acquisition University (DAU) Network, Facsimile transmission, 10 86 Feature theories of memory representation, 53 Defense Advanced Projects Agency (DARPA), Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) 117,119 178,89-90 DEU-TA,4, 187, 189-192 Federal Republic of Germany, see Germany Desktop video, 83-85 Federal research and development (R&D), 159- Didactic triangle, 40 162 Digital transmission, 78, 84 FEDRIP database, 160 Direct-broadcast satellite, 24 Fidelity Directors, 29, 31, 34 ofAGPT,139 DIS, see Distributed Interactive Simulation of CCTT, 120-122 Discrete cosine transform (DCT), 83 Field training exercises (FTXs), 123, 124, 127, Distance learning, 2-3 128, 129 Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS), 117 differences between simulations and, 125-126 in CATT, 135, 136 Field Tutors, 115-116 in CCTT, 120, 126 Financing, see Costs in SIMNET, 119 FIPS, see Federal Information Processing Stand• Distributed representation, 53 ards DOD-SID 2167A, 123 Fire & Manoeuvre and Tactical Awareness Mod• DOS machines ule, AGPT, 141, 142 CD-ROM for, 84 FIST-V, 120 telematic tutoring and, 170 Fort Knox Combat Vehicle Command and Control Dual use, 87, 91,157 project, 128 Dutch Open University, 181, 182-183, 184, 185, Frame of reference, 41, 42, 45-46 187 France DV-I,lO LECLERC tank in, see LECLERC tank defined,25 video conferencing in, 13, 14 Freeze-frame video, 10 EADTU, see European Association of Distance Teaching Universities Gain Extension Language (GEL), 83 ECOM,65-72 GARR network, 170 Educational/instructional broadcasting, 105-109 General Services Administration (GSA), 87 Educational materials/systems transfer, 177-188 Geometry balls, 145 design and, 178-179 Germany evasions and solutions in, 180-185 didactic triangle in, 40 problems in, 179-180 educational/instructional broadcasting in, 105-109 technology and, 185-187 video conferencing in, 13, 14 Educational Technologies, 27-35, see also Organ- Gore, AI, 87 isational models; Professional types Great Britain, see United Kingdom Educators, see Instructors Greece, 14 Effect size, 75-76 Green Book standard, 82 8 Signal Regiment pilot study, 115-116 Green computing, 87, 91 196 Index

Handicaps, 169 Kolleg sessions, 107, 108 HMMWVs, 120 KPR-93-4-1,87 Hypermedia systems, 34, 50-51, 191 Labor market, 67 ICW, see Interactive courseware Land Systems Operational Requirements-2 IEEE-STD 1278-1993, 123 (LSOR2), 136 ILCE, see Interactive Learning and Course Devel- Laser-Vision standard, 89 opment Environment Learners, see also Students IMA, see Interactive Multimedia Association conferencing and, 17-18 Information processing approach, 53-54 instructional theory and, 40, 42-43 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Learning, 49-55 (IEEE), 82-83 as apprenticeship, 54-55 Instructional task analysis, 43-45 autonomous, 169 Instructional theory/technology, 37-47 co-operative, 52 frame ofreference and, 41, 42, 45-46 distance/distributed,2-3 learners and, 40, 42-43 extreme, 169 learning environment and, 38-39, 40, 41, 42, 45 new social settings for, 51-52 learning tasks and, 40, 42, 43-45 open, 169 Instruction analysis, 38-39 system, 2-3 Instructor Contact Hours (ICH), 88 Learning environment Instructors, see also Tutors connectionism and, 52-54 AGPTconsole design and, 144-145 instructional theory and, 38-39,40,41,42,45 AGPT process control and, 146 Learning rules, 52 conferencing and, 18 Learning tasks, 40, 42, 43-45 interactive courseware and, 88 LECLERC tank, 117, 118, 151-156 in Royal Netherlands Army Training Com- operational requirements of, 151-152 mand,99, 102-103 vehicles animation principle in, 153-155 Intellectual property rights, 73, 90, 92 "Leoland" (data base), 136, 137 Intelligent Tutoring Systems, 1,33-34,50 Leopard II simulators, 137 Interactive courseware (ICW), 73, 88, 90 Local representation, 53 costs of, 76-77 Local training areas, 123 dual use of, 87 LSOR2, see Land Systems Operational Require• effectiveness of, 74-77 ments-2 interoperability standards for, 89 Interactive Learning and Course Development En• Managers, 29-30 vironment (ILCE), 187, 188 attitudinal considerations and, 112 Interactive Multimedia Association (IMA), 83, 89, entrepreneurial, 30, 32 90 social,29 Interacti ve television, 14 super-professional, 29-30 Interactive videodisc instruction (IVD), 74, 76, Manual workers, 28 77,89 Mass workers, 28 International Union-Techni• Mechanical models, 27-30, 28, 31, 33 cal Standardization Sector (ITU-TSS), 89 MediaSpace card, 64 International Telegraph and Telephone Consult- Memory theories, 53, 55 ative Committee (CCITn, 89 Meta-analysis, 75 , 12,73, 74, 86, 91, 92 METL, see Mission Essential Task List Interoperability standards, 89-90, 92 Microwave systems, 13,78 In-tests, for AGPT, 137, 138, 140, 142 defined,25 IRDAC, 177, 192 Middle-management, 29, 31,33 ISDN, 191, 192 MILES engagement simulation hardware, 123 Isolation, 113, 116 Military, 3,73-93, see also specific branches of Italy, 163-173 administrative issues for, 85-92 ITIS, 160 interactive courseware for, see Interactive courseware Joint Academy Network of Open Universities, residency requirements in, 87-88, 91-92 191 strategy for resources in, 88, 92 Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) stand• technical issues for, 81-85 ards, 83 training trainers in, 90, 92 Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC), 124 video teletraining for, see Video teletraining Index 197

MIL-STD 1379D, 87, 89 Pennsylvania State University Report, 166 MINERVA, 61-64 Pennissioning, 80 Mission Essential Task List (METL), 123, 127, 128 Personal digital appliances (PDAs), 82, 84 Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG), 80, 83 Personalized System of Instruction, 112 MS DOS, see DOS machines Photo-CD, 82, 84 M1l3 simulators, 120 Physical-symbol-system paradigm, 54 Multimedia systems, 84, 166 PL99-502, 160 copyright and, 90-91 Plan View Displays (PVDs), 144-145, 147 DELTA and, 190, 191 Police officers, 61-63 description of, 82-83 Pornography, 91 intellectual property rights and, 90 POSIX operating system, 123 Multimedia Teleschool, 191, 192 Privacy, 73 Music CDs, 82 Privatization, 73, 86 Problem setting, 32, 33 National Technical Information Service, 161 Problem solving, 31-32, 33 National Technical University (NTU), 87 Processing units, 52 National Technology Transfer Center (NTTC), Process workers, 28-29, 31 158, 159-162 Professional innovators, 29 National Training Center (NTC), 124 Professionals, 29, 34 Native mode, 161 Professional types, 27-32 NATO, 1-4 Programme Telematics Systems for Flexible and Navigation, AGPT, 139, 141 Distance Learning, see DELTA Navy, U.S., 79-80, 86, 89 Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), 80 Netherlands ECOMin,68 Quicktime, 10 Royal Netherlands Army Training Command in, 97-103 RAM engineering, of CCTT, 122-123 Networks, defined, 25 Recommended Practices for Multimedia Portabil- NEWTON+TM+,82 ity (RPMP), 89 NIMA-C,71-72 RECON,160 theories of memory representation, 53 Reconstruction, 44 Norway, 10 Reconstructive memory theory, 55 NTIS database, 160 RECORD project, 163, 169 NTTC, see National Technology Transfer Center Red Book standard, 82 Nuclear Electric PLC, 113 Representationalist strategy, 53 Nuremberg funnel, 40 Repurposing, 90 Research and development (R&D) Observer/Controllers (O/Cs), 124 DELTAand,I92 Office of Research and Technology Applications federal,159-162 (ORTA), 160, 161 Research Study Group on Advanced Technologies One-way vide%ne-way audio, 78, 79 Applied to Training Design (RSG-16), 1-2,4 One-way video/two-way audio, 14, 15,78 Residency requirements, 87-88,91-92 On the job training (OlT), 114-115 Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers Open learning, 169 (REME),114-115 Open University model, 3 Royal Netherlands Army Training Command Opposing forces (OPFOR), 124, 125, 127, 128, (ATC),97-103 139 RSG-16, see Research Study Group on Advanced Orange Book standard, 82 Technologies Applied to Training Design Organic models, 27-30, 31 Rule-based cognitive activities, 31, 33 Organisational models, 27-35 cognitive activities and, see Cognitive activities SAF, see Semi-automated forces mechanical, 27-30, 28, 31, 33 "Salisbury Plain Training Area" (data base), 136, 137 organic, 27-30,31 Satellite Education Network (SEN), 86 Out-tests, for AGPT, 137, 138, 140 Satellite Education Program (SEP) Study, 79 Overlay modelling, 33 Satellites, IS defined (Direct-broadcast satellite), 24 Parallel content-valid representation, 44 DELTA and, 191 Parallel processing, 53 interactive courseware and, 74 Peer tutoring, 52 video teietraining and, 78, 80 198 Index

ScriptX,83 Technology transfer, 157-158, see also Educa• Searchmate, 161 tional materials/systems transfer Semi-automated forces (SAF) in Italy, 163-173 in CATT, 139, 144-145 in NTTC, 158, 159-162 in CCTT, 120, 122, 128 Technology Transfer Offices, 160, 161 in LECLERC tank, 155 Telecommunications-mediated interactive learn• Sequential processing, 53 ing (TeIMIL), 15, 16 SETHI-TR-PELOTON, 118, 151-156 Teleconferencing, 45 SI~ET,4, 117, 125, 132, 135, 136, 141, 144 defined,25 AARin, 129 Telekolleg, 105-109 CCTT refinements over, 120-123 Telematic tutorial systems, 168, 169-171 description of, 124-125 Teleschool project, 14 shortcomings of, 119 Teletraining Network (TNET), 79, 86, 89 training philosophy of, 126 TeJe-universite, 21 Simulation Television CATT, see Combined Arms Tactical Trainer CD and, 82, 83 CCTT, see Close Combat Tactical Trainer DELTA and, 191 command and control, 61-64 interactive, 14 LECLERC tank, see LECLERC tank Teleworking, 65-66 Situated cognition, 55 TelMIL, see Telecommunications-mediated inter• Situational Training Exercises (STX), 127, 128, active learning 129 Third-generation distance learning systems, 165- Skill-based cognitive activities, 30-31 167,171-173 Slow-scan video, 10 TNET, see Teletraining Network Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR), Tolls, for information use, 73, 86 161 Trainees, attitudinal considerations and, 111-112 SMART 2000 Conferencing System, 11 Trainers, in military, 90, 92 SMEs, see Subject Matter Experts Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), Smog-check mechanics, 77 U.S. Army, 79,124 Social managers, 29 Training Control and Evaluation station (TC&E), Social representations theory, 52 143, 144-145 Sociocultural perspective on cognition, 52 Training Technology Transfer Act of 1988, 87,157 Soviet Union, collapse of, 68 Trans-european Network of Training Technologies Spain, 14 Support Units, 191, 192 SPARC workstations, 84 Tutors, see also Instructors Specialist technicians, 29, 31,33 attitudinal considerations and, 112, 115-116 Stanford University Instructional Television Net- in CUD, 164, 165 work, 14 educational materials/systems transfer and, Star Computers Program, 87 182, 183 State of Bavaria, 106-107 Field, 11 5-116 Status monitors, 145 Intelligent System, 1,33-34,50 Stealth stations, 125, 132, 145 peer, 52 Students, see also Learners telematic systems, 168, 169-171 ECOM and, 69-70 third-generation distance learning systems and, needs of, 66-67 166-167 in Royal Netherlands Army Training Com• Two-way video, 15 mand, 99, 102 Two-way video/two-way audio, 78, 79 Study centres, 165, 168 Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) UCIT, see Universal constructivistic instructional CATT and, 138, 144 theory DELTA and, 191, 192 UCOFT, see Unit Conduct of Fire Trainer Sun machines, 170 Ultrix, 161 Super-professional managers, 29-30 Unit Conduct of Fire Trainer (UCOFT), 126-127 Synchronous learning settings, 9, 10, 11, 15 United Kingdom CATT in, see Combined Arms Tactical Trainer Task Force on Distance Learning, 166 video conferencing in, 13 Taylor model, 27 United States TC&E, see Training Control and Evaluation sta• audiographic conferencing in, 11 tion video conferencing in, 13 Index 199

Unit Performance Assessment System (UPAS), Video teleconferencing (VTC), 83-85 117,125,129-132 Video teletraining (VTT), 73, 74, 86, 88, 91 Universal constructivistic instructional theory costs of, 80-81 (UCIT), 40-46, 47 effectiveness of, 78-81 UNIX workstations, 84 interoperability standards for, 90 UPAS, see Unit Performance Assessment System Virtual reality, 1, 192 User profiles, 168-169 Windows operating system, 64, 170 Vehicle mechanics, 114--115 "Wooden Horse" (operational analysis exercise), Vehicles animation principle, LECLERC tank, 137 153-155 Workbenches, 190, 191 Video conferencing, 13-14, 15, 18,20 Workstations, 78, 84 defined,25 DELTA and, 191 Yellow Book standard, 82