2. KOKANA TRIBE

The Kokana constitutes the principal tribe in Maharashtra state having the total population of 352, 932 as per 1981 census.

Kokanas are also settled in Gujarat State. One third of the Kokans are living in South-eastern Gujarat and two thirds in North-West

Maharashtra. The tribe is mainly spread over in the districts of

Thane, Nashik and Dhule in Maharashtra and Dang and Surat districts in Gujarat.

2.1; ORIGIN OF THE TRIBE-

There is no uniform view about the origin of the Kokana tribe but whatever opinions expressed is concentrated on two traditions.

Which may have truth in them because both have a faith in the original tradition that "they had migrated to this region from the

Konkan"!. (According to the Greisens their language was a Marathi dialect with north konkani elements. It had however, been modified by the language of whichever region they were living in (Marathi,

Gujarathi, Khandeshi.)

According to one account they were soldier's who had served in Shivaji's armies and who, after campaigning in these areas, decided to settle there. In another account the migration^north was caused by the terrible Durgadevi famine of 1396 -1408 which devasted the Konkan.

1- The coming of the Devi-Adivasi Assertion in Western India- David Hardiman- Oxford India Paper backs -1987.

113 Both traditions may have truth in them, for migration could have taken place in two waves.

The traditional views of migration from Konkan are supporated by many historic and current references. In the early Sanskrit texts the "Kohkanas" have been described as the people of the Southern region and are said to have associated with the Abhirs, a well known tribe of the /Rajputana desert. The territory of the 'Kohkanas' has been identified with modern konkan, the maratha-speaking low-land strips between the Western Ghats and the sea from Bombay

Southward. Kohkani is a territorial or linguistic term, meaning a dweller in the konkan (canara) country or a person speaking konkani dialect of Marathi. The modern konkanis, dwellers in the

Konkan country (canara may therefore be supposed to be the descendants of the ancient 'Kohkanas'. Regarding their original habitat it is stated that they lived on the bank of the ancient river

Saraswati, which is said to have lost its course in the sandy desert of

Rajputana. 2.

In the Mahabharata period 'Konkanah' is mentioned in

'geography' with "Cola". This is well known name of the country on

Western Sea coast South of Bombay. The word 'Cola' occurs frequently in many forms in ancient literature

2. Encyclopedia of Indian Tribes Series. The Tribal World in Transition Padmashri S.S. Shashi-Anmol Publications, New Delhi-1995. 114 of India. Dr. Motichandra identifies it with Kodakai, an ancient Port near cape comorin. But as it is mentioned after Dandaka and before

Murucipattana, it is probably the same as Kolavana, mentioned after surparaka in the western division of the puranas. This is identified with the 'Kalwan' taluka of Nashik district. 3.

It is interesting to note the above description about the origin of Kokana tribe that it clearly shows the connection with geographical area which later named after the social group.

Whereas Dr. D.H. Koppar, in his paper tried to describe the origin of

Gujarat Kukna or Kunabi in different way which do not have any solid foundation. He stated that' the custom of wearing 'Baju- Band'

(a round silver armlet with filigree type work) ornament might have originated among the kuknas. The original name of the tribe might have been 'kanknas' by virtue of their custom of wearing armlet called the Konkan. Kunkna, Konkna, Kokana are other variants of the word Kankna - which is the name of the armlet.^

Above view is not supported by any other scholar or oral tradition also. Therefore earlier tradition of 'migration from Konkan' is further strongly supporated by the foUowings - such as Nashik district Gazetteers quoted that, "Konknis are immigrants from Thano- a who spread into the Dangs and up the western Spurs of the

3. Tribes in the Maharashtra - A Socio- Cultural study - K.C. Mishra - National Publishing House New Delhi 1987. 4. Tribal art of Dan. gs - Dr. D.H. Koppar; Edited by V.P. Devkar - Deptt. Of Museums. Baroda-1971. lis Sahyadri ranges. They call themselves Konkan Kunbis, Choosing sparsely - peopled place which tracts of waste arable land, they often shift their wattle and daub huts and occasionally go to their native homes to renew their connections. They stand the feverish western climate better than Nashik kunbis and have almost monopolized all hill cultivation, excepf a few village headmen who hold hereditary grants, they are badly off. s.

Enthoven (1922) supporated above view by saying that

"Konkana is a primitive tribe and resemble the varlis of Thana in appearance. Their name indicates that they are a tribe from the

Konkan, probably so named upon immigration and the inference is that they are one of the hill tribes from Thana. That they originally belonged to the konkan is clear from their dialect, which is a mixture of Gujarati and Marathi. It is said that they were driven northwards by the pressure of the Great Durga Devi famine (A.D. 1396 -1408).^ were also quoted the same tradition, stating that' "Konkanis' though often confounded with them, hold themselves separate form, and superior to, Bhils living in the same part of the country as the

Gavits, they rank below them and unlike them, have no special dialect. They say that their ancestor's origineilly came from the

Konkan, and this, their name and their appearance, which very closely resembles that of the Konkan Thakurs, bearry out. "^

5. Ibid- Gazetteers of Bombay Presidency, Vol. XVI, "Nasik" (1883) P. 47 6. The Tribes and Castes of Bombay (1922) Vol. II- R.E. Enthoven. P- 265 -266. Cosmo Publications - Delhi. 1922 Contemporary Gazetteers of Khandesh (1880) and Thana (1982) 7. Gazetteer of the Bombay presidency: Vol. XII, KHANDESH' 1880, P. 105.

116 Thana Gazetteers is supporting by giving the clear evidence that, "they have a tradition that their forefathers were brought from

Ratnagiri to garrison the hill fort of Gambhirgad''.^

The 1901 census, further indicate by stressing that, "Kokana people must have migrated to the forests from a Marathi speaking country." ^

Further this "migration from Konkan" tradition is supporated by succeeding census of 1911, 1921, and 1931.

Konknas^ who were left out of the tribal count in 1931 and earlier censuses; it is hard to calculate their total population in pre- independent period; as they were spread over several different administrative areas and in many parts called themselves 'Kunbis',

so that in the census repots many of them were counted as Maratha

Kunbis.

Grierson estimated that there were 2,32,613 Konkani

Speakers in 1921. (Linguistic Survey of India, Vol. IX P. 130). This

is probably an overestimate; David Hardiman is also believe, a more realistic figure i.e. 1,89,000 for the early 20^^ century. ^^

By looking at a wide range of census reports and Gazetteers it

has put together the ofllowing rough population figures for the

Konknas in 1921.

8. Gazetteers of the Bombay Presidency Vol. XIII, Part I, "Thana" (1882) P. 174-175. 9. Census of India, 1901, Vol. XVIIl, Baroda, Part-I, Report by Jamshedhi Ardeshir Dalai (1902), P 505. 10. Ibid, The coming of the Devi- David Hrdiman -1987.

117 Table No. 2:1

Population of Kokanas in 1921

Sr. No. District /State Total Kokana Population (1921) 1. Nashik District 78,000 2. West Khandesh (Chiefly in the Navapur, Pimplner region) 21,000 3. The Dangs 12,000 4. Surgana State 10,000 5. Thane District 8,000 6. Jawhar State 8,000 7. Dharampur State 30,000 8. Vansda State 12,000 9. Navasari District (Chiefly in Vyara & Songadha talukas) 7,000 10. Surat District 3,000 Total 1,89,000 (David Hardimans' collection)

The large majority of the Kokanas were settled in the fertile valleys of the Sahyadri ranges in the region in which these mountains divided Gujarat from Maharashtra. In those days

Surgana, Jawahar, Dharampur and Vansda were the separate states or administrative regions conroUed by independent kings where the

Kokanas were largely inhabited.

As earlier stated this figures are more realistic because the present population (1981) of Kokana tribe in Maharashtra State is adjusting with the Kokana population in earlier period of the century.

118 Table No. 2.2

Table No. 2:2 shows the Kokana Population by its Urban and Rural inhabitation with literacy percentage -1981 census.

Sr. Total Kokana Population No. 1. 2 3 4 5 Area Male Female Total 1. Rural 1,72,270 1,70,804 3,43,074 2. Urban 5,521 4,437 9,858 3. Total 1,77,691 1,75,241 3,52,932

Total Kokana Literature Kokana Literacy in % 6 7 8 9 10 11 Male Female Total Male Female Total 52,481 18,052 70,533 30 11 21 3,049 1,534 4,583 56 35 46 55,530 19,586 75,116 31 11 21

Source: Tribal Research and Traininjg institute, Maharashtra State, Pune- Statistical series No. 28- 1990.

2.2. HABITS AND CUSTOMS OF KOKANAS a) BIRTH: An experienced lady of the tribe called "Sooyin" is engaged for the duty of child birth. She attends the lady (mother) as well as the baby for five days. Cord is cut by the spear. On the fifth day "Pachvi" is observed.

There is no special cermonies amongst Kokanas to celebrate the fact of pregnancy or birth. Kokanas are now more aware about the

registration of birth, which is now compulsory under the law. A

peculiar custom amongst the Kokanas is that if a child cries a lot at

119 birth or immediately thereafter, a Brahmin priest is called to cast a horoscope and suggest a name.ii. The mid-wife serves the mother and the child for five days and is paid a rupee and some grain. In the case of male, she is paid more. b) MARRIAGE: Marriage of a boy and girl in Kokana tribe takes place at the age of sixteen to twenty and fifteen to eighteen respectively. The maternal uncle's daughter and the fathers sister's daughter receive the first preference during selection of mate for a boy. The marriage ceremony lasts for 4 days. The bride price is paid either in cash or kind. The marriage offer comes from the boy's father. Polygamy is allowed and practiced and widows are allowed to re-marry. Divorce is allowed to both husband and wife. The practice of serving for a wife "Khandadio" perevails among the

Kokanas. The Kokanas have also traditional marriage customs like pen Bharne, Bolpen and Deo Bolwine etc.

Present practice of Kokana marriage is undergoing the changes by imitating the non-tribal community. Generally boys father proposes the marriage but because of the increasing contacts with non-tribals and other developments, change in the attitudes amongst Kokanas is observed in this regard. Today girls' father is looking more conscious about the arrangement of marriage; particularly in the study area because of the increasing educational awareness girls father goes to the boy's father's house with his close

11. Ethnographic notes on he tribes of Maharashtra Tribal Research 86 Training Institute, Pune (1978), P. 15.

120 friends to propose the marriage. Then boy's father and sometimes boy himself goes to visit girls place, 'pen or 'Sakharpuda' or formal engagement programme is being carried out at the girls parent's house and date of marriage is fixed in the same programme with the help of horoscopic advice by the Brahmin priest.

A day before a wedding with yellow powder, on the appointed day, with music and singing, the bride's party goes in procession to boy's house. The bride and bridgegroom are then made to sit on a blanket and their skirts, or the corner of saree and puncha" are tied by a woman, in front of a lamp. Each says the other's name of the party have sung and danced, the bridegrooms' father gives a dinner of rice, and pulse. Her friends leave the bride and return home. After five days she goes to her father's house and after five days more goes back to her husband. 12.

The community is divided into number of exogamous unit call

"Kul" which is the only social division and no hierarchy is attached with this. Main function of the clan is to regulate marriage alliances.

Group endogamy and clan exogamy are the marriage rules.

Earlier marriages used to take place during childhood now, which has given way to adult marriage. Marriages usually contracted through negotiation but there are other ways of acquiring mates, i.e. by service (khandad) and by exchange (Sata). The custom of paying bride price is present in their society. Monogamy is the general rule

12. Ibid, A short history of Baglan, Naravane

121 but in exceptional cases like barreness and death of first wife polygamy is permitted. Divorce is permitted, if it comes from girl's side then the girl's father will have to return the bride price and if it comes from boy's side then he will have to give some amount

(marriage expenses) as decided by the Panch to girl's father. A married women desiring to many another man of her choice can do so if her Paramour pays the compensation to the husband. i3

Marriage by mutual consent is the most common form amongst the Kokanas. A regular marriage ceremony takes place where a Brahmin officiates. Also, in recent times, dowry has crept in replacing the 'dej' to a certain extent. ^"^ c) LEGITIMACY OF CHILDREN: In the konknas, a child born before a formal marriage is not considered illegitimate, but an effort is m.ade to perform a formal marriage ceremony as soon as the pregnancy is detected or soon after birth, is d) SEXUAL PERMISSIVENESS - There are no "Gharkuls" amongst

Kokana tribe like Gond in the Madya Pradesh or Vidharbha. Girls grow up without any encouragement to experiment with sex or total marriage. Illicit relationships are not as open as are made out to be, neither are they tolerated with that 'sang froid' as is supposed to exist. Infidelity of the wife remains the most frequent cause of fights or 'Zagadas'. There are certain norms observed in the Kokanas that are Kokanas not much tolerant. A relationship between a

13. Ibid, The Tribes & Castes of Bombay - R.E. Enthoven, Vol-II 1922 14. Ibid, Encyclopaedic Profile of Indian Tribes. 15. Ibid, A short history of Baglan, M.S. Nravane

122 Bhil women and a Maratha or Brahmin boy does not attract strictures or punishment, as they would be, in case the boy was a Kokana. It must also be remembered that much of the sexual exploitation of the Adiwasi woman was at the hands of the civilized 'outsider, the money lender, the forest contractor, the landlord or the petty government official. If a man looks on helpless at his wife being sexually exploited because of poverty or force of circumstances, then it would be totally wrong to call it sexual permissiveness. e) SUPERSTITION: - Omens and good and bad signs, 'Shakun' apshakun', are widely recognized. The evil eyes of a powerful enemy is believed to do a great deal of damage or bring about £in abortion. Protection is sought by wearing a black thread around the wrist or neck and by appeasing the gods through 'bhagats'. A cat crossing ones path while setting out on a journey is considered to be exceedingly inauspicious. This is perhaps, one of the most prevalent omens in India. Many omens, however, are not so common and are prevalent only in some communities. Seeing a man without a mustache is considered a bad sign. f) DEATH: Among the Kokanas the dead body is bathed, rubbed with turmeric and carried on a bier to the burning ground. The mourners bath in the river. The pyre is kindled by a son or other near relation and when it is half burnt the mourners return to the house of the deceased. On the next day of cremation eight or ten close relatives of deceased go to the burning ground, gather the ashes, sprinkle water over them and return home i^

16. Ibid, R.E. Enthoven - Vol. II, 1922.

123 The ashes of the cremated body are first cooled with water and the bones are collected from the cremation ground. The Hindu custom of collecting the ashes and depositing them in the nearest river or place of Hindu pilgrimage is being ofllowed to an increasing extent.on the 10^^ day a death dinner is given in memory of the dead.

Giving a ceremonial holiness to the dead body and insisting on a bath for the persons carrying the dead body is ofllowed by

Kokanas.

The resting place for the dead on the way to the cremation ground is also being used by the tribal people and their priests and beginning to ofllow the Hindu rites here.

On the lO^h or 13* day after the funeral ceremony, a community differ, after a ceremonial bath is getting more common in

Kokana tribe ofllowing the Hindu practices, i'^ g) RELIGION: The religion of the Tribes was originally totemic in nature and remains so to a considerable extent. The Kokanas are more 'hinduised' but the main devaks were, and still are, as fallows :-

Panchpallavi (The leaves of five kinds of trees).

Tiger, peepul tree (ficus religiosa).

Dongardev or mountain god, 'Shivarya' or boundary god, and

Vaghdev or tiger god, are the most common. The deities venerated by the men are 'Khandoba' and 'Maruti'. Indeed, Maruti temples or images are to be found in every village. The sculptured figure is

17. Ibid- R.E. Enthoven - Vol. II- 1922

124 usually shown facing right, with an Indian club, 'gada' in one hand the 'Maru mountain' in the other. A quaint belief is that person

suffering from a depression or possessed by evil. Spirit can be cured only within the confines of a Maruti temple. A mention must be made of the 'Khambdev', It is a memorial to the dead and represents ancestor worship in its earliest forms. A human figure or series of

figures, usually mounted on a horse and carrying a sword, is crudely

sculpted on a stone pillar. The pillar may be as high as six feet and it firmly anchored in the ground. The whole pillar is painted over by

'Sindur, or a kind of Vermilion paste. Stones carrying the figure of a snake or a records the cause of death. If a figure is not painted over and this is rare, it means that the person it represents is living and that he has made provisions for himself. ^^•

The Kokanas have now generally adopted Hinduism, with the result that their religion is left without any logical system.

Now a days it is not unusual to see Various pictures of Hindu

Gods and goddesses hanging on their walls.

Though they have adopted various Hindu Gods and goddess with related rites and ceremonies they have not completely deserated

their tribal gods and goddesses i^

Waghdev or Tiger God is a sacred animal God of the Kokanas.

It was originally the totem animal of the Bhills and later on other

tribes like Kokanas and Warlis starated worshipping it, though they

may not have adopted it as their totem animal.

18. Tribal Life in Gujarat- An analytical study of the cultural changes with special reference to the Dhanka Tribe - P.G. Shah (1964) . 19. Ibid, A short history of Baglan, M.S. Naravane. 125 Totems is said to be peculiar phenomenon of ecological balance of establishing relationship between man and his environment. A totems is any class of material object like animals, plants or other classes of natural objects.

The Kokanas have the tiger as their totem animal which they have honoured in their artistic creations. The popular totem animal which the Kokanas call as Wagh dev' is preserved in carvings in wood and stone and also on wall drawings. Wooden and stone carvings are found erected on the roads as marking boundaries between one village and the other.

The Kokanas look to their totem animals with awe and reverence and the twenty day of the second fortnight of 'Ashwin'

(Octrober) is dedicated to honour the waghdev and the day is called

Wagh-baras'. On this day they pray for protection, take vows and honour them and propitiate the deity by offerings and sacrifies.

Some of them have adopted the name of the totem animal as their clan name such as Wagh.'

Totem emblems may also be tattooed on the body. The

Kokanas practice tattooing on the forehead, cheeks and arms. It is the ambition of Kokona young man women and children particularly in Dang of Gujarat to have tattooing marks on his or his or her face in order to enhance personal beauty. 20.

20. Ibid, Tribal Life in Gujarat - P.G. Shah

126 Thus, they are Hindu by faith. They not only worship the deities of the wider pantheon but also have regional village and class diety. Besides, they have faith in supernatural powers, ghosts,

Dakan, black magic and witch-crafts. To wardsoff the evil influence they take the help of the Bhagat who is sacred specialist. Kansari

Devi is the community Goddess considered as Kuldevi who protects the family from disaster. The idols are kept on the heap of rice and nagli grain inside a big bamboo basket. In addition to this the common Hindu festival- Shiv ratri, Dushera, Navratri, Diwali, Holi

Gudhipadwa are also celebrated with great joy. h) Dongarideo Festival :

Most of the festivals are common to the Adiwasis of Khandesh and Nashik tribals but some regional differences are found. The

'bhongraya' festival so common in the east khandesh is not seen in

Baglan and west east Khandesh. The 'Dongaridev' festival is

perhaps, unique to the Bhils and Konkanas of Nashik, Dhule and

Dang districts. The festival is celebrated in the month of December, the full moon day of the month of Kartik. There are decorations,

singing and dancing and troupes. Perform acrobatic feats.

Surprisingly the consumption of liquor is negligible. Some taboos are

also observed. For example, menstruating women are not allowed to

attend, in some cases, are even asked to leave the village. It is also

believed that evil elements, the 'bhut', 'Agyavetal' can only be

pacified by sacrificing a goat, hen or sheep. 21

21. Ibid- Encyclopaedia profile of Indian Tribes - Sachchidananda and Prasad - 1996.

127 They engage completely for 8 -10 days in this ceremony. They go from village to village with the group of 40 to 50 people and dance with singing of songs of God. They pray to 'Dongari Deo' in this ceremony in order to satisfy the purposes;

1) to get the happiness for all people and catties.

2) to get more agricultural crops in the coming mansoon.

3) avoiding of epidemics and free from all types of diseases.

No doubt there is blind belief behind the celebration of this ceremony. But there are also certain good things behind celebration of this ceremony such as the feeling of integration among them, eating together, honesty, simplicity, free from liquor and other bad habits.

Every year or after the gap of one year they celebrate the 'Dongari

Deo' ceremony. Generally their celebration depends upon their annual earning of agricultural crops. If they got more ofod grains in that year, they enjoy more. It is their feeling that if the Dongari Deo ceremony is neglected by them, then, they will suffer from bad evails. Therefore, they cannot neglect it. i) BHAGAT: In Konkna community, as indeed in all tribal societies, the Bhagat who is a priest and a medicine man occupies a predominant position. He is considering as a friend, philosopher and guide to the tribal people. There is probably no village without a

Bhagat. He is a healer of the body and soul of the people. He is the one to whom the people turn for help to overcome problems in their religious, social and cultural life. The personality of the Bhagat is all pervading.

128 The Bhagat is considered to be a man of God. He is a 'broker' between the tribals and their gods. He leads a very austere life and is the spiritual preceptor. To become a Bhagat is not an easy thing.

Any one cannot aspire to become one. He has to undergo rigorous training and to dedicate himself to a godly life. He is a man endowed with good physique and commonsense. He must be able to sing songs and recite mantras or invocations in order to create confidence among the people. Above all, he must be a medicine man who knows the psychology of his patients.

After long practice and experience the Bhagat might develop some occult powers also. The faith of the people in the efficacy and infallibility of the Bhagat is unshakable. They believe that the

Bhagat is in a position to name witch who might be causing untold sufferings to a family and to raise the ghost and to appear it, to avert an evil to treat the sickness of man and animals. The Bhagat is a priest and his house is a temple where god resides.

The impact of modern medicines and the availability of doctors even in villages now a days have not lessened the importance of the bhagat in tribal community. The treatment he prescribes is an endless series of propitiation to innumerable gods and goddesses. He invokes the intervention for gods in the affairs of the people. The various anthropomorphic images of gods, wherever we see them, whether in wood, clay or stone and the variety of wall-drawings are still his own creations.

It is true that modern civilization is slowly and steadily making in roads in the tribal areas. The solidarity of tribal society including the

129 Institution of the bhagat is breaking up. But it is a supreme artist among the tribals that the bhagat will always be remembered, j) KANSARI MATA- Kansari mata is goddess connected with agriculture. She is indeed the goddess of plenty, prosperity and food grain. If the crop of nagali is good in particular year they celebrate and worship nagali grains respectfully. Worshipping of nagali

(Kasnsari mata) is regular event practiced traditionally. 22

The Kokanas worship nature and natural events. They do not respect Brahmins nor employ them as priests in some places. The

Kokanas are so assimilated with the Hindus that they began to call themselves as "Hindu-Kokana" and have lost most of the tribal characteristics. Few Kokanas take pride in calling themselves as

Kokana kunbis. However, they do not claim the social status of a kunbi. They do not suffer from social disability. k) ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION: Traditional panchayat is seen in them, which deals with social disputes. The respectable elders are the panchas who deal with social dispute. They are neither elected nor is their positon hereditory. They are regarded as panchas as long as they enjoy confidence of the tribesmen. Its head is called

"Karbhari", Both the parties are heard. Panchas settle the issue by imposing fine. Panchas decide also partition of property, enforce promises of marriage etc. Breaches of caste rules are referred to

22. Ibid. A short history of Baglan M.S. Naravane.

130 caste panchayat. The social organisation of the Kokanas consists of

Mahalkari, Deshmukh, Patil and Karbhari. Mahalkari presides over

40 villages, Deshmukh 12 and patil over one village. 23.

1) House Shrines of Kokanas: The house Shrines of the Kokana are interesting for two reasons:- The Kokana Worship their traditional, tribal deceits , who are connected with a vast treasure of legends and myths, and at the same time they have integrated deities of the

Hindu Pantheon like Khandoba and Bhavani, who are widely known in Maharashtra, into the ofld of their family deities.

Images of gods are assembled and visible in the shrines only at certain times in Kokana tribe. At other times they are kept in speically closed containers like baskets and clay jars. It is here that the 'power' of the deities 'rests', only at certain times are the containers opened. In many cases a house shrine is set up by a family only if a deity has expressed such a wish to the family by creating some kind of trouble. This is why there are only a few house shrines in tribal areas. 24.

23. Tribes of Maharashtra Dr. G.M. Gare and M.B. Aphale Tribal Research & Training Institute, Govt, of Maharashtra, Pune 1982. 24- House and Home in Maharashtra -Ed. By Irina Glushkova and Anne Feldhaus -Oxford University Pres- 1998- Hidden Gods withinj the house - HOuse Shriues of Kokana Tribe of Maharashtra.

131 m) Dance & Music; The Kokanas dance to the call of the seasons as well as in response to the intiation of their loves. A little liquor and a moonlitnight are sufficient to inspire them and their feet begin to move. The Kokanas are good dancers and they take it seriously and dress better for it. Men put on long gowns and round turbans and ornaments. They stick tufts or peacock's feather's into their turbans.

Girls beautify themselves by wearing new clothes and ornaments.

They dance to the accompaniment of the Tarpa' or 'Pawari'.

Dancing is an enjoyment in which the whole community men and women, young and old can share alike, their dance takes an interesting formation, catering round a group of men, singers and drummers. This group stands in the middle of an open space and they begin to play on their instruments. The musical instruments of the Kokanas are 1) Tarpa/pawari - in the construction of which two gourds, four flutes and palm tree leaves are used. 2) Dholak 3)

Sharnai 4) Madal 5) Manjira. Gradually the girls gather and stand in a clump a few yards away from the men. To the lusty cheers and challenges of the men, women make a rhythmic entry into the formation.

In the first formation, the dance is circular. A Hne of men having their arms on each other's waist goes round the musicians and women holding each other's hands circle round the men. They form a big circle round the men, and sometimes they go round clock-wise and then return anti-clockwise. They sometimes recede from or advance towards the musicians. The musicians, the tarpawala, while playing on his instrument, conduct the whole performance. Some times he produces certain base note suggesting a change in movements. They dance with great vigour and give out lusty cries intermittently. For sometimes, the circular movement proceeds very slowly and it appears that the stress now is on the movement of the feet or on the advancing and receding line with the men and women having sufficiently warmed up the circular movement proceeds rapidly.

It is said that previously they had still another formation. And the notable thing about it was that it only dance where men and women used to hold each other. The formation of the line was alternate men and women, the men having their arms round the women's shoulders and the women clasping the men by the waist.

Thus they used to dance in a wide circle. But such dances are getting less frequent except in remote villages away from cities.

There is another formation which can be observed during marriage and it cannot be called a marriage dance because other dances get mixed up in it. This dance is accompanied by sharnai and the drums, this is as much exciting as it is confusing. The dancers gather near the musicians and drummers and with their yells, the music begins and everybody begins to dance just where they are, bending low, stepping up and down very fast. Sometimes the women also do not lag behind in responding to the most obscene gestures of the men. ^s.

25. Ibid: Tribal Life in Gujarat P.G. Shah

1.33 Mask: Masks are more popular among Koknasthey get their mask prepared by the artisans of Vani in Kalwan Taluka.

Wall Drawing: The practice of drawing designs on walls is prevalent since long among the tribal folk in India. The themes of such drawings are in the main religiov^s and inter related with some festivals.

During the Nag-Panchami, the sacred Hindu Festival, devout

Hindus draw pictures of a hooded cobra and worship it. The

Kokanas observe this festival from times immemorial and draw pictures on the walls of their huts, which they call as "Pacchavi" or

"Panchavi"

Pawari (Music) - The Kokanas have their own musical instruments which they prepare themselves, Pawari is one of the best and most important of their musical instruments. It is called the dev-vajantra, the divine musical instrument. It is played at the time of Dongari deo worshiping. The pawari is mainly a gourd instrument. The gourd is made to grow in a blended way by a special process.

When the worship of god is over sometime towards midnight the bhagat invokes the gods and takes the ceremonial water which he sprinkles on all those present. By this act the whole assembly is purified and charmed. Then every one begins to nod his or her head to the magic tune of the pawari. There are find holes in the instrument one of which is half filled with wax ^6

25. Ibid: Tribal Life in Gujarat P.G. Shah. 26. Ibid- Tribal art of Dangs- Dr. D.H. KopparEditor - V.L. Davkar. Publication Depts. Of Musemus, Baroda 1971 n) KOKANA FAMILY - An analysis of the structure and organization

of a Kokana family reveals that it is patrilocal and authority runs in

the male line. Further it is a patrilineal family and descent is traced

through the father and the right of the possession of property runs

in the male line. It is generally a monogamous family and there is no

plurality of mates. A husband his wife and their children compose

the family, sons, after their marriage, generally set up separate

household. However, on ceremonial occasions the different bremches

of the family met to offer prayers and worship the fsimily gods and

ancestor -spirits. The major crisis of life such as birth, marriage and

death also bring them together. They have an irresistible sense of

unity of their family and community. Outside their village, they

move in groups; built on these considerations. 2?

Thus, Kokanas believe in the extended families but it is under

the process of disintegration because occupational mobility has

execrated a great influence on it. Now the nuclear is the most

prevalent type. The eldest male member heads the family and he

takes important decisions in consultation with the rest of the

members. Family ties are strong and cordial. Women observe

respectful distance in presence to the elder relatives of husband.

They enjoy considerable freedom of movement. 28.

27. Ibid- Tribal art of Dangs - Dr. D.H. Koppar. Editor - V.L. Davkar. Public- Deptt. Of Museums, Baroda 1971. 28. Ibid- P.O. Shah. Tribal Life in Gujarat

135 o) KOKANA HOUSING: The Kokanas who used to live in wretched thatched huts but with the leaking walls made of weeds, now finish off their walls with a coating of mud and soil wash which makes the home attractive. No windows are set in the walls and the roof is made of thatched grass. Walls are generally now made of straw reeds with strips of bark of split bamboos and coated with cow dug. Pucca houses with bricks are rare among Kokanas. 29.

A Kokana house is generally a big rectangular or square shaped simple room-structure on a simple earth foundation or on a stone platform, with a partition inside. The Kokana- hamlets are situated near the fields to facilitate close attention to agricultural operations. 3o.

The conical huts seen in the jungles are very small and serve all purposes, the cooking being done in the open. The bigger houses in the larger villages have usually two rooms, an ou^fwr living room and inner kitchen. A kind of outhouse is used for tethering cattle. In some cases milky cows and buffaloes being given shelter inside the house these being the most precious possession of the family. 31

29. Ibid: Tribal life in Gujarat- P.G. Shah 30. Ibid Tribes of Maharashtra Dr. G.M. Gare, Shri. M.B. Aphate - a. Tribal Research & Training Institute Maharshtra State, Pune -1982. 31 Ibid: A short history of Baglan- M.S. Naravane p) Social Life & Food Habits: The clan names of Kokanas are recorded into a number of exogamous kuls, viz. Bagul, Borsa,

Bhoye, Bhusara, Megha, Muda, Awari, Dhoom, Doke, Kambadi,

Gavit, Bhoge, Bhandara, Ghagod, Gavcindha, Gavali, Gaikwad,

Khambayat, Hande, Khavar, Khirari, Kahandole, Mahalu, Kadu,

Sirsat, Palvi, Lahare, Mahale, Raut, Vaghera, Malve, Pakhane,

Nikule, Pawar, Padvi, Bhimsen etc. Besides these the following kuls like Kunbi surnames are also observed in Kokana tribe, viz. Ahire,

Chavare, Deshmukh, Gangurde, Jadhav, Jagtap, Kakade,

Chaudhari, Dalvi, Suryawanshi, Surve and Thakare. The Kokanas have no separate surnames. They use their kul names instead. The sons and unmarried daughters acquire the 'Kul' of their father.

After marriage the girl acquires the "kul" of her husband. Property, inheritance and reckoning of decent is along with male side in

Kokana tribe.

Kokanas are much better off than the Bhils of Nashik and

Dhule districts. Drinking and smoking is prevalent but not to the same extents as the Bhils. The^ha.'bits are almost the same., but they do not eat the flesh of dead animals or the left over from the previous day. They eat mutton and fowl but do not eat beef and pork. Dried fishes are more popular among them. Tea drinking is common.Bhakar made out of Bajra and Most of Nagali is routine feature. Drinking of liquor is also common among them. Bidi smoking is their amusement. Youth chew tobacco.

Cycles have made their appearance. A bullock cart is seen with the richer farmers. Kokanas may be better off than, the Bhills, but

IS? they still have a long way to go before they can come up to the

standard of, say, the Marathas.

q) Kokana Kinship- The Kinship system of Kokanas is also a

classificatory type. It appears that Kokana social custom has

obviously had its influence on their terminology. Thus the same

Kinship term "mama" is used for a mother's brother, mother's

sisters' husband and fathers' sisters, husband. In the case of a

cross-cousion system of marriage which is rare, these relations are

combined in one and the same person. Different terms are often used for the same class of relatives according to their age. Joking relationships exist. There are rules regarding the terms of reference.

The mode of greeting and salutation is regulated by kinship. The kinship is patrilineal and patrilocal and descent is traced through the male.

Kinship Terminology among Kokanas

Relation Term

1. Father's brother • Elder - Motha dada • Younger - Kaka

2. Father's brother's wife - Kaki 3. Father's Sister - Fui, Mavsi 4. Father's Sister's husband - Mama 5. Mother's Brother - Mama 6. Mother's Brother's wife - Fui, Mavsi. 7. Mother's Sister • Elder - Jiji • Younger - Motiai /Mavsi.

8. Mother's Sister's husband - Kaka /Dada

131 9. Paternal Cousin Male - Bhau Female - Bai

10. Maternal Cousin Male - Bhau Female - Bai 11. Father in law - Sasra

12. Mother- in law Sasoo

13. Step Father Jija

14. Stepmother Jiji

15. Brother Motha Bhau, Bhau, Dada (Elder)

16. Sister Bai, Baya

17. Husband's brothers Jeth (E), Dir (Y)

18. Husband's brother's wife - Jethani (C) Derani (Y)

19. Husbands Sister - Bai (Nanand)

20. Husband's Sister's - Nandoi husband 21. Wife's brother Bhavad, Mehuna, Daji, Sala

22. Wife's brother's wife - Bai

23. Wife's Sister (e) akadsasu (Y) Sali 24. Wife's sister's husband Sadu, Sadbhau.

r) Kokana Dress & Ornaments: The Kokanas are black in

complexion. They have height ranging from 5' to 5 V2'. Women's

139 dress is comprised of an nine yard sari a choli and a 'fadaki; is 6'x4' cotton cloths with red and white prints, takes it on the head. The sari is worn between waist. Women have no special ceremonial dress. They are , however, found of ornaments made up of copper, braces, silver and gold. The men's dress consists of a 'Langoti', a

'kopri' and a 'pagota', Kokana youth now prefers shirt, trouser and cap popularly called 'Gandhi topi' wearing of ornaments is not common among men.

The Language: - The language of the Kokanas is said to Kokani dialect. The dialect of Kokana is based on Marathi and is crip..

Health &, Hygiene- The state of personal hygiene among the

Kokanas is much better but still falls short to the desirable standards. The Kokana who are not solvent and illiterate solely depend upon their indigenous treatment but educated and solvent people are making the full use of modern Medicare facilities. Under health and hygiene programme, immunization and nutrition facilities are provided to the expectant mother and children. Earlier people had to depend upon natural resources like river pond et for drinking water now there are arrangement for supply of water from resourver in town and in villages had pump and well are provided by the government.

m Table No.2:3 Yearly expenditure of Kokana family on various items (approximately). J2.S • Fodgrains etc. 15,000

Clothes 2,500

Medicine 500

Fuel 86 Electricity 600

Bus fair 600

Liquor 900

Tobacco 600

Holi Festival 1,500

Diwali 1,200

Panchavi Performing 100

Marriage 15,000

Dead 3,000

Source -Hakara, April- June 1996

s) KOKANA OCCUPATIONS:- The Kokanas like other tribes in this area, have evolved a pattern of relationship with their environment, and of the utilization of natural resources, getting a bare subsistence and securing a material culture which they may call their own.

Theirs is a simple agricultural economy. But some of them are however, still found to enutikiy^ themselves in collecting forest produce such as wild fruits, roots, plants & honey etc which forms a major portion of their diet in times of necessity, one feature of their

economic level is that the majority of them will have no surplus left with them after satisfying their needs. Whatever little surplus is

available is sold or battered in exchange for necessities. The m technology employed in their economic system is backward and consequently their material culture is the simplest. In many cases the plough has replaced the old digging stick and the hoe. The influenced of the domestication of animals on the development of agriculture somewhat recognized but it has still to revolutionize their productive activity in this agricultural sphere. Apart from the proverbial exploitation of the money lender, it appears that the main reasons for this present staggering economic condition are the lack of interest, incompetence, and spending without any foresight. Their mentality is not yet sufficiently adjusted to steady and consistent cultivation of the soil. Their subsidiary occupations are (I) forest labour (ii) collection and selling honey and other jungle produce(iii) bamboo and grass matting (iv) other miscellaneous occupation like a) Domestic service b) work on roads and c) field labour.

The use of the bow and the arrow is now fast disappearing and along with it the hunting habits also. They are people who live from day today on what they get often there is no store of grain in their dilapidated houses. A few axes, some cooking pots, a small store of ornaments and cash these are the belongingness of an ordinary

Kokana like many other tribes living on a mere subsistence economy.32.

32. Ibid: Tribal Life in Gujarat, P.G. Shah. The Kokanas are associated with "rab" cultivation, which was confined to the flatter areas of the valleys. Debris from the forest was piled on a small plot of land and burned, seeds, normally of "nagli"

(a grain) or rice, are sown, once the monsoon rains came, the airea around this plot was either ploughed or worked with hoes. It seems to have been common for Kokanas to use bullock drawn ploughs.

When the seeds had sprouted, they large transplanted to the prepared land. Weeding had to be carried out periodically, and the crop was harvested soon after the monsoon. The 'rab' of burned forest-waste is a particularly good medium for seed growth, and yields are high. 33. t) EDUCATION AMONG THE KOKANA TRIBE: Among the Kokanas proper training and education to the children is practically nil. A few of the parents are no doubt sending their boys to schools but it is feared that they will soon have to leave it to work and add to the family income. But it is heartening to note that some awakening is to be seen among them at least in certain villages. Their economic and social position is far below the normal level and as such ordinary school education does not find a ready response in their minds.

Literacy among the older generation is totally absent - Being

33. Village voices offset choices -joint forest management in India - edit. Mark Poffenberger and Belay Mc Geean -Oxford University Press, Bombay-1996. Pages 102,103.

143 inspired by the different Govt, agencies both male (29.05) and female

(10.62%) going to school are as a result of being of educated

(19.94%), they avail themselves of employment opportunity. Literacy among the female of the age group upto 20 years is also a recent trends. ^4.

Table No. 2:3,

The literacy rate at educational and non-educational level is very poor in pre-independence period among Kokana Tribe in

Maharashtra. Table NO. 2:3 shows the literacy performance of

Kokana Tribe in 1931.

Total Rural Urban Population Iliterate Persons Males Females Male Females 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total 2,12,836 1,08,013 1,04,823 90,474 1,02,107 Rural 2,11,095 1,07,053 1,04,072 89,926 1,01,450 Urban 1,741 960 781 548 657

Literate (without Educational Levels Matriculation or Educational Level) Primary & Junior Higher Secondary Basic Male Female Male Female Male Female 7 8 9 10 11 12 12,089 2,211 5,401 505 49 - 11,971 2,161 5,128 431 28 - 118 50 273 74 21 -

Source - Census of India, 1931, Volume XIX Baroda Part -1

Report by Satya Mukarjee.

34. Ibid, Encyclopadiadic Profile of India Tribes- Succhidananda and R.R. Prasad, Vol. I Discovery Publishing, New Delhi.

144 Table No.2:4

Literacy rate of Kokana tribe in Maharatshtra State is shown below

(1981 Census)

Total Kokana Total Illiteracy in Literacy in Population Illiterate Percentage percentage. Total 3,52,932 2,77,816 79 21 Urban 9,858 5,275 54 46 Rural 3,43,074 272,541 79 21

Source: Tribal Research 86 Training Institute Maharashtra State ,

Pune, Statistical Series No.28, (1990)

The Kokana have responded positively to formal education.

Their literacy percentage is 21.28 in Maharshtra, and they have almost caught up with the scheduled tribes literacy rate of the state, which is 22.29 percent. A few members of community hold salaried government jobs. The community has derived benefits from family planning programmes, employment generation schemes, new innovations in the field of agriculture and child welfare schemes.

However they have shown little interest in banking facilities and continue to depend on private moneylenders. 35.

35. Ibid - The Scheduled Tribes (People of India National Series, Vol. Ill) Oxford India backs, 1997.

14$ Table No.2:5 Districtwise Illiteracy & Literacy rates in males, females 85 total amongst Kokana tribe in rural area of Maharashtra State (1981 Census) Sr District Total Population Illiterate No Male Female Total Male Female Total 1. Thane 19,889 20,026 39,915 13,997 18,304 32,301 2. Raigarh 40 37 77 17 22 39 3. Ratnagiri 11 5 16 - 1 1 4. Nashik 1,09,162 1,07,599 2,16,761 77,549 96,357 1,73,906 5. Dhule 42,747 42,735 85,482 27,973 37,755 65,728 6. Jalgaon 153 168 321 119 159 278 7. A'Nagar 47 45 92 43 41 84 8, Pune 32 23 55 10 11 21 9. Satara 8 7 15 3 6 9 10. Solapur 2 4 6 - 1 1 11, Kolhapur 10 - 10 9 - 9 12. Aurangabad 34 31 65 25 28 53 13. Parbhani 4 1 5 2 1 3 14. Beed - 2 2 - - - 15. Osmanabad 3 1 4 1 - 1 16. Buldhana 9 13 22 2 6 8 17. Akola 3 3 6 2 2 4 18. Amravati 31 36 67 11 21 32 19. Yavatmal 8 7 13 3 2 5 20. Wardha 34 25 59 11 14 25 21. NaRpur 13 16 29 5 11 16 22. Bhandara 29 23 52 6 9 15 23. Chandrapur 2 1 3 2 1 3 Illiteracy in percentage Literacy in % Male Female Total Male Female Total 70 91 81 30 9 19 43 59 51 52 41 49 - 20 6 100 80 94 71 90 80 29 10 20 65 88 77 35 12 23 78 85 87 22 15 13 91 91 91 9 9 9 31 48 38 69 52 62 38 86 60 62 14 40 - 25 17 100 75 83 90 - 90 10 - 10 74 90 82 26 10 18 50 100 60 50 0 40 - - - - 100 100 33 - 25 67 100 75 22 46 36 78 54 64 67 67 67 33 33 33 35 58 48 65 42 52 38 40 38 62 60 62 32 56 42 68 44 58 38 63 55 62 31 45 21 39 29 79 61 71 100 100 100 0 0 0

Source Tribal Reserasch & Training Institute M.S. , Pune, Statistical Series - 28 (1990).

146 2:3 NGOS IN KOKANA EDUCATION

Today the tribal people of India are caught unaware, in fast moving Whirlpool around them. Their efforts to cling their deep rooted traditional value systems have pulled them further down leaving an ever-increasing gap between the tribals and non-tribals.

Despite the fact that considerable attention is being given on their overall development, there are not much positive results observed in their economic and educational achievements.

The Government of Maharashtra has taken special interest in tribal education. The scheme of establishing Ashram schools is the best indicators, in the field of education in the tribal areas, since last

20 years. At present there are 720 Ashram schools in the tribal areas catering educational and lodging and boarding needs of

2,72,000 tribal girls and boys. Out of which nearly 318 schools aided by government are run by NGOs. Thus NGOs along with

Government certainly have a major share in imparting formal education for tribals in Maharashtra.

Government grants to NGO, managed Ashram Schools is certainly a boon, as it strengthens the economic base of the schools.

Since 1991 there has been a reasonable increase in the grants given by Government to Ashram schools managed by NGOs. It is a good indication from the viewpoint of NGOs.

im APPROACH OF NGO's TO TRIBAL EDUCATION: -

Although both government and non-governmental organizations have been involved in imparting education to the tribals, however, it is observed that there is thin line which demarcates the approach and achievement of this count.

The NGOs handle the situation in a more flexible, positive and sympathetic manner. The NGO management all the while concentrates on upgrading the educational skills and efficiency of education to both tribal and non-tribal taught. In contradiction one observes that apathetic and haptiazed approach to the problem of education of tribals by ashram schools run by government prevails.

Secondly tribal students of Ashram schools run by NGOs are exposed to interaction with the non-tribal students. With the result, the tribal students, naturally learn to adopt some of the progressive ways of attaining education from the non tribal students. However, in Ashram schools run by government, do not have non -tribal students for hostel residence and hence they are deprived of the progressive interaction with non-tribal students.

Thirdly NGOs make efforts to pull resources from other funding agencies and organizations to develop other spheres of social life of tribal students in Ashram schools, for instance, holding health check up, promoting talents of the students, organizing cultural activities and excursions outside tribal areas to expose the students to urban life etc. These activities although are also prevalent in Govt.

148 Ashram schools, the difference lies in the degree of interest and zeal taken by the management.

It is felt that both NGOs and Government Ashram school management should share views for developing a common approach towards positive tribal education. In doing so, both agencies will certainly be able to do better. For this reason, there is need for management and officials of both agencies to meet frequently to device strategies for promoting tribal education for real development.

a) CASE STUDIES

Voluntary work in the field of tribal education has been rarely done by few of the freedom fighters in the Tribal area of Nashik district. It was only after the independence, central and state government made certain efforts to educate the tribal people. In

1982 a separate Ministry for Tribal Development was set up in

Maharashtra, which resulted into massive awareness about education among tribal people. Though the Government is endeavoring the efforts to educate the tribal people the role of Dang

Sewa Mandal, Nashik based NGO in the present study area is unforgettable. Therefore the case study of Dang Sewa Mandal is incorporated in the present study.

149 Case study No. 1

Dang Sewa Mandal

Name of the Institution : Dang Sewa Mandal, Nashik.

Address : 217, Swami Samarth Apartment,

Mahatmangar, Nashik-422 007.

Establishment : Established on 23^^^ June 1937 and

registered in 1941 under societies

registration act 1860. IN 1951 it was

also registered under public trust Act

1950.

Target Area : Tribal Belt

Target Population : Tribal.

Historical Development of the Mandal; -

In order to improve the Socio-economic condition of the tribals in

Nashik (Maharashtra) and Dang (Gujrat) districts, the Mandal was

established in 1937. In the month of June 1937 the first meeting

was convened by Shri. Dadasaheb Bidkar and conducted under the

chairmanship of Miss. S. Lathem to discuss the problems of tribals

in the region at Taharabad Tal. Satana (Baglan) Dist. Nashik. The

meeting was attended by Shri. Narayan Budha Kokani, a tribal

worker from Ambapur Tribal village. Current problems of tribals in

those days like grave economic poverty, illiteracy, superstitions,

exploitation from money lenders were discussed in that meeting and

decided to form a organization to intervene the problems. Finally the

Dang Sewa Mandal was incepted.

150 The First Primary School of Dang Sewa Mandal was started in

1939 at Golwad village in Satana (Baglan) taluka. At the same time the concept of Bank Grain (Danya Kothar)_ was also initiated by the

Mandal in the same village to combat the economic poverty.

In 1942 hostel for the tribal children was started in Mulher, Tal.

Satana (Baglan) by the Mandal after receiving its formal registration in 1941. The first executive body of the Dang Sewa mandal was constituted including following members.

1. Shri. Bhausaheb Hire -President

2. Shri. Sardar Vinchaurkar - Vice - President

3. Shri. Datrattey Bidkasr - Secretary

4. Shri. Balwant Agnihotri -Joint Secretary

5. Shri. Vaikunthabai Metha -Member

6. Shri. Luxmidas Shrikant -Member

7. Shri. Govind Deshpande -Member

8. Shri. Purushotam Gadre Member

9. Shri. Amrut Patil Member

10. Shri. Madhav Joshi Member

11. Shri. Narayan Kokani Member

Achievement:

Initially mandal decided to concentrate on Mulher area of Baglan

taluka. After the primary school in Golwad, Mandal started near

about 25 primary schools in other village around the Golwad. Due

to the heavy rainfalls and forests, problem of road transportation

and drinking water, nobody was willing to work in the tribal area.

Late Shri Luxmikant Pandit and others were taken up the job and

151 they themselves devoted to be a teacher and worker in the tribal area. The work of Mandal was limited to Mulher area between 1937 to 1941. But then after Mandal started to work in other tribal predominated talukas in Nashik district such as Kalwan, peth and

Surgana. All the schools were affiliated to the local Board but after the existence of Zilla Parishad all the local Boards were merged into the Zilla Parished and naturally schools affiliated with Local Boards were became the parts of Zilla Parishad.

Presently Dang Sewa Mandal is running 25 educational

Institutions including hostels for the tribal students. Break-up of the institutes are as under-

Type of Institution Number

Ashram Schools 7

Hostel for Girls 4

Hostel for Boys 7

Secondary schools 5

Senior Colleges 2

152 The present position of schools run by Mandal is shown in the table given below.

Table No. 2:6 Present Positon of Dang Seva Mandal - Ashram Schools.

Sr. Institution No.of Residential No. of Non residential No Students Students.

1. Ashram School, 135 65 200 Ambegaon, Tal. Dindori.

2. Post Basic 146 Ashram School, Ambegaon Tal. Dindori. 1

3. Ashram School & 164 100 264 168 Umbarthan Tal. Surgana.

4. Post Basic 71 43 114 49 Ashram School, Umbarthan.

5. Ashram School, 178 78 256 Dhandripada Tal. Baglan

6. Ashram Shool 166 96 262 5 Kukudane Tal. Surgana

7. Ashram School 175 90 265 Shinde Tal. Surgana

8. X 252 12 264 - -- -

9. Ashram School 171 113 284 Sule Tal. Kalwan. '

1312 597 1909 368

Source : Dang Sewa Mandal, Annual Report 1998-99.

153 Table 2:7 Hostels run by Dang Sewa Mandal.

Sr Institution No.of Residential No. of Non No Students residential Students. Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1. Janta Kanya 35 35 Hostel Peth, Tal. Peth. 2. Janta Vidyarthree 61 - 61 - - - Vastigraha, Peth. 3. Girls Hostel 30 30 Barhe, Tal. • Surgana. 4. Boys Hostel 55 - 55 - - - Barhe 5. Janta 60 60- Vidyartheree Vastigriha, Borgaon Tal. Surgana. 6. Vidyarthree 46 46 Vastigriha Mulher Tal. Baglan. 7. Janta Kanya 75 75 Vastigriha Mulher Tal. Baglan. 8. Janta Vidyarthree 32 32 Vastigriha Abhone . Tal. Kalwan. 9. Kanya Vastigriha 30 - 30 - - - Abhone. 10. Janta 25 25 Vidyartheree Vastigriha, Otur. Tal. Kalwan. 11. Janta Vidyarthree Vastigriha dale Tal. Peth. Total 366 143 509 - - -

Source: Dang Sewa Mandal Annual Report -1998-99

IS*- Table No. 2:8

General Schools 85 Secondary Schools run by the Mandal.

Sr. Institutions No.of Students No Boys Girls Total

1. Janta Vidyalaya 8G Higher 1320 Secondary School, Peth.

2. Janta Vidyalaya 85 Higher 1217 Secondary School, Abhone.

3. Janta Vidyalaya 86 Higher 847 Secondary School, Mulher.

4. Secondary School, Otur Tal. 551 Kalwan.

5. Secondary School, Barhe Tal. 248 Surgana.

6. Arts College, Peth. 303

7. Arts College, Abhone, Tal. 187 Kalwan.

Total 4673

Source: Dang Sewa Mandal Annual Report 1998-99

Total 1909 tribal students were taking the education in Ashram

Schools of Dang Sewa Mandal which are residential schools. Among them 1312 were boys and 597 were girls. These Ashram schools were managed and gives the education from std. 1 to 7 and from std.

ISS 8 to 10 very few of the students from other backward and open categories were accommodated in the Ashram Schools.

Non -Ashram (non residential ) students were also found to be benefited from the Ashram school education of Mandal, which amounted 368 students.

There were 11 hostels working for boys and girls. Students in

Peth, Surgana, Satana (Balgan) and Kalwan talukas of Nashik districts. These hostels have been accommodated 509 tribal statements, among them 366 were boys and 143 were girls.

Apart from these 5 secondary schools 2 higher secondary schools and 2 senor colleges were run by the mandal as given in table No.

2:8. In these educational institutions of the Mandal, students from all the categories were taking the education. Total 4,673 students

(including tribal) were taking the education from std. 8 to degree level during the academic year 1998-99.

Other Programmes 86 Activities of the Mandal-

1. Educational - Balwadis (pre-primary educational centres), Adult

education classes, student- worker- Teacher Training Camps,

2. Social Cultural- Awareness Campaign about alcoholism, trips,

exhibitions, festival celebrations, legal aid, medical help,

3. Economic- Forest workers co-operative society. Grain Banks,

Agricultural Development Centres,

4. Organizational - School advisor committee. Camps, meetings,

propaganda.

• Dang sewa Mandal is affiliated to Bhartiya Adim Jati Sewak

Sangh, New Delhi. • The work of Dang Sewa Mandal is recognized and awarded by

Government of Maharashtra.

• Six members of the executive body of Dang Sewa mandal

(including Dadasaheb Bidkar) were honoured and awarded by

Government of Maharashtra.

• Dang Sewa Mandal submitted the report to Govt, of India on

'Condition of Kokana/Kokani Tribe' in 1998.

• Dang Sewa Mandal has its own agricultural land of 73 acres.

• Limitations :-

a) Inadequate funds.

b) Shortage of Physical infrastructure.

c) Untrained wardens in the hostels.

Case Study No. 2

ADIWASI SEWA SAMITI. NASHIK.

Name of the : Adiwasi Sewa Samiti, Nashik. Institution Address : Sathe Bag, Second floor, M.G. Road, Nashik. Establishment Established on !«' June 1945. Target Area Tribal Target Population Tribal.

Historical Development of the Samiti:-

At the time of India independence scholars identified one of the

separate India which was tribal India. Tribals were far away from the mainstream of National Hfe. Late Shri. Bhausaheb Hire one of the renowned politician during 1940 to 1960 in Maharashtra thought

about the development of tribals, particularly in Nashik district. He

started to work in tribal area of Nashik district by establishing the

157 organization, named 'Adiwasi Sewa Samiti, Nashik.

From 1961 to 1980 the son of Bhau Saheb Hire late Shri.

Vyankatrao Hire Contributed and Strengthen the 'Samiti' after the death of Shri Bhansaheb Hire. During this period he expanded the work of Samiti by starting new educational branches with adequate infrastructurual facilities in entire Nashik district.

Samiti had a clear objective of social development of tribals through educational developments. And for this purpose facility of extension education have also been made available by the samiti, like

Agricultural education. Horticulture, Dairy development, carpentry and Music etc.

Present Position:

Presently samiti has 3 pre-primary educational centres, 4 Primary

Schools, 17 Ashram Schools (Residential Schools), 11 post basic

Ashram Schools, 11 Secondary schools, 1 Higher Secondary school,

1 Agricultural school, 1 Vocational school, 1 Music School and 36

Hostels for backward boys (including tribals) and 22 hostels for girls

(including tribals).

The samiti is working through its 108 educational branches in the district.

1. Pre-primary educational centers- Total 425 children between the

age of 3 to 6 have been benefiting by the centre. Among them 200

were boys and 225 were girls. 14 staff members were working

with the three centres of the samiti.

2. Primary Schools:- 4 Primary schools, one of them was non-grant

basis were working which arranges to benefit 2039 students;

158 among them 963 boys and 1076 girls were taking the benefit.

Total 35 staff members (teaching 86 non-teaching) were working

with the primary school.

3. Ashram Schools- 17 Ashram Schools (16 for tribal students and 1

for nomadic tribe students) were run by the samiti. Considering

the poor economic condition of the tribals samiti started to make

available the lodging and boarding facilities along with the

educational facilities for tribal children. Total 5820 students

(3722 boys and 2098 girls) were taking the benefit of education

out of 5820 students 4248 students were taking the benefit of

loading and boarding facilities of them. 2746 boys and 1502 were

girls. 235 teaching and non-teaching staff was working in the 17

Ashram schools of Samiti.

4. Post-Basic Ashram Schools- Samiti is also running 11 post-basic

Ashram schools which means residential schools for the students

of 8 to 10th std. Total 1822 students (1212 boys and 610 girls) of

them 1315 were residential (916 boys and 399 girls) school

children taking the benefits of education. 130 teaching and non-

teaching staff was working in the post-basic Ashram schools.

5. Secondary Schools:- 11 secondary schools of them 2 were

exclusively for girls were managed by the Samiti. Total 6449

(3207 boys and 3242 girls) were taking the benefit of education

under the guidance of 236 teaching and non-teaching staff

members.

6. Higher Secondary School- One Higher Secondary school at Harsul

Tal. Tryambakleshwar is also managed in which total 410

159 students (304 boys and 1206 girls) were taking the education.

7. Backward Class Hostels- Total 58 hostels (36 for boys and 22

girls) were also working in Nashik, Aurangabad, Dhule and Thane

District of Maharashtra. Most of (47) them were located in Nashik

district. 8 were working in Thane district, 2 and 1 each were

working in Aurangabad and Dhule district. B.C. Students from

5th to 12th Std were beneficiates of these hostels. Total 3742 (2736

boys and 1006 girls) S.C. S.T. and economically poor students

were accommodated in the hostels. 162 superintendents and

other supportive staff is appointed for the purpose.

8. Agricultural School- Samiti also manage to run the school for

Agricultural education at Manur Tal. Kalwan leading to Diploma

in Agriculture of Rahuri Agricultural university from 15th August

1990. Total 112 students were taking the benefit of this facility

with the help of 9 teaching and non -teaching staff.

9. Horticultural school- Total 270 students were taking the benefit

of this facility during the year 1998-99. The centre for

Agricultural education is started for the purpose which is

affiliated to Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra open University,

Nashik. Age, Sex and Qualification is no bar for the Horticultural

education. Bio-gas plant is also installed in the Manur for cooking

purpose. Milk dairy is also developed at the same place.

10. Vocational Training Centre:- Initially this centre was started

with the help of Tribal Development Department, Govt, of

Maharashtra in 1988-89. Finance was given for 150 students for

a year only then after samiti is manufacturing the expenses of 10

160 students and regularized the centre. Only the training of

carpentry is given in the centre at Wadala near Nashik.

11. Music School- Music schools are also run by the samiti for the

tribal children at Manur and Khadakjamb in kalwan taluka, 20

tribal girls and boys were learning the classical music under the

guidance of trained music teacher.

Other Development Features

• Shri Prashant Hire, the secretary of the Samiti is elected for the

Maharashtra Assembly in the year 1999.

• Shri Murlidhar Soukude one of the Director of the Samiti received

the 'Dalit Mitra' award from the government of Maharashtra.

• Shri Pandit Nere one of the Director of the Samiti was received

the Government of Maharashtra.

• Beautification of schools campus were undertaken.

Limitations:-

1) Some branches of the Samiti were not receiving the Financial

grants from the Govt.

2) Physical infrastructure is problem of few Institutions of Seimiti.

3) Inadequate trained personnel.

161 b) CASE STUDIES (INDIVIDUALS)

Case No.3

SUPERSTITIOUS ATTITUDE LEADS SCHOOLING PROBLEMS:

Rangnath Babaji Gaikwad

Rangnath 30, a polite youth living in Sakode village of Satana

(Baglan) Taluka located at 25km West from Satana town. Hundred

Percent Population of Sakode village is Kokana.

Rangnath had a joint family with three aunts uncles and 10 cousins. His family always prefered isolated routine, which intends to be peaceful life, family did not want to interfere in others routine.

They disliked the interference in others life. They enjoyed happy family moments in very painful and hard economic condition.

Economic condition of the family before 15 years was very poor.

Family members of Rangnath hardly got one time meal during the hard time of family. Family had a land of 6 acres but due to the lack of irrigation facility and encouragement, they had some indifferences among themselves; Their agricultural production was very low. Whereas Rangnath was sent to Malegaon for his

secondary (5 to 7^^) education after completing his primary education in his own village, Sakoda. He was admitted in Mahatma

Gandhi Vidyamandir, Malegaon. The new school was nearly 60km away from his native place. His younger brother and other village friends were also admitted in the same school. The place and school atmosphere was new to them. They were accommodated in the private hostel. Other hostel mates and school mates were having the mix culture i.e. rural and urban. They adjusted well with the

162 atmosphere within a short time but Rangnath and his new friends were yet to be adjusted with the atmosphere.

After a month in his hostel life of the school days; one night

cultural programme was organized in the hostel. Rangnath was

forced to participate in the Programme, Literally, he was physically

forced and snubbed on the stage. He was unwilling and showed

disinterest for a moment but at the very next moment he started

dancing with tribal folk song. The whole student audience got

involved and started shouting on the open ground theatre. Rangnath

performed well, he was then greeted and congratulated by his

friends. His performance was also appreciated by his teachers. He

started getting adjusted with the situation. His academic

performance was an average. But he found to be a hard worker.

In one summer vacation when he was studying in 8^ std he

was caught by high fever, temperature and headecque with omitting.

His parents approached to the Bhagat. (A local magic person)

immediately. But Bhagat was unable to stop and prevent the

temperature. After four-five days he detected jaundice and started

giving the treatment in the various forms. Firstly he used the

'Mantra', He played as a 'Mantrie' (Magician) nearly for five hours by

using and whispering the 'mantras'. And next day he gave some

herbal medicines to cure the jaundice. He not only gave the

treatment to the Rangnath but he also gave the reasons of jaundice

from which Rangnath was suffering.

According to the Bhagat , Rangnath was caught by 'Chetakin'

and the victim of whichcraft which caused the serious illness for

163 Rangnath. And he advised to fulfill his requirement to sacrifice 2 hens, cocks and one small goat in order to recover the jaundice.

Because according to him it was the case of black magic, further he also suggested to keep him home for a long time; otherwise going outside including school will be harmful to the Rangnath. And if possible You may approach the Doctor, "but my prescriptions and treatment pattern has to be followed at any cost", further he added.

Rangnaths parents started following the 'Bhagat'; because they had a fear of lossing their child. Meanwhile they approached the

Ayurvedic Doctor. He also diagnosed the Jaundice and prescribed the medicines. Because of the Ayurvedic Medicine Rangnath could recovered from jaundice within a month. But Rangnaths' parents trusted in Bhagat because they thought that it was only the Bhagat who dictated the jaundice earlier and gave the reasons of Jaundice.

Therefore they were very serious about the advice and treatment of

Bhagat.

They fulfilled all the requirements of Bhagat which amounted the cost of Rs. 2000/- which was borrowed from relatives and others. All it took three months of period. But from the next academic year i.e. from June-July, Rangnaths parents were not willing to send him to school, as Bhagat advised them to keep

Rangnath at home for a long time. Para tents refused the suggestions of relatives and friends of Rangnath to send him back to the school. Rangnath was not much bold and able to take the decision for going to school. Lastly he stopped going to school and started helping his parents in agricultural and household work.

164 CASE N0.4

High Expectations from parents create inferiority complex

among children

Dattu Deshmukh

Dattu 30, is presently engaged in agricultural occupation. He has other two elder brothers. One is engaged in agriculture and other is government servant. They divided their property amongst all three brothers and part of property is also kept for the parents. He has one younger married sister. Compare to other neighbourers

Dattu's family was quite happy and economically better.

Dattu passed out 4^^ Std. from the primary school of his own village and took admission in Janta Vidyalaya Dangsoundane four

kms away from his native place Sakode for the fifth std, in the year

1978-79. He arranged for his staying in a small hostel of 24 boys

managed by private Institution . Dattu used to come home every

fortnight to meet his parents and family members. He stays and

shares his school experiences with his fam.ily members. His parents were very proud of him since he got associated with the such a big

school in Dangsoundane.

Dattu was an average in his study. The subjects like English

and Mathematics were creating some difficulties in studying. Most of

the time his performance was negative in English and Mathematics

at class test. He always got headecque while study English and

Mathematics. He got boredom in the classroom particularly for

English and Mathematic classes. Some times he has also been

165 punished by the teachers for not concentrating and non-attending the classes, because he started to miss the classes.

In his meeting with parents at home he started showing his

disinterest in taking further education by blaming teachers that they

do not teach well, school environment is not good etc. but on the

other side parents were not interested in listening to him. They only knew that their son must become a big person in future. Dattus'

parents expected that' " He should be the at top in the village". But

Dattu knew that he was not able to fulfill the expectations of his

parents. According to his parents big person means Range forest

officer, Tahasildar etc. Dattu used to get upset while talking with his

parents. He shared his views to others and complained that his

parents were not listening to him and they only expect all high

achievement from him.

He passed 5*^ std. With average percentage in 1979 and took

admission for 6^^ std. But the intensity of past things was

increasing. He started telling his illiterate mother about his achieved

educational status. According to him he has taken so much of

education and now no need to tcike further education. And he will

search out employment (Service) or will support in doing agricultural

work. He started convincing his mother that she should tell his

father to stop his education. She showed her inability to do it

immediately but assured to have a talk with his father in coming

days. Dattus parents neglected the inferiority complex among Dattu

and only expected to be a big man in the village.

After Diwali vacation Dattu unofficially got withdrawn from the

166 school. He used to go to school but not attending the classes and started making truancy. He has been seen in somebody's farm or taking round anywhere without any purpose. Some times he used to

go to a Taluka place to see the cinema in theatre with his non-

school-going friends. He totally became the truant. Villagers and known persons informed the Dattus' parents about his truancy but they had a trust that he would never do something wrong which will be harmful or lead any loss, they confidently said that, "Our son will not do any wrong thing."

Lastly after two and half months i.e. in January 1980 Dattus' parents received a letter from school with the major complaint of

absence and truancy of Dattu. It was specified that Dattu will not be

allowed to appearing for the annual examination.

His parents accepted the fact with great disappointments, that

their dream of becoming Dattu a big person will never come into the

real life.

Basically Dattu was not much interested in taking much education but he could have done secondary school education with

some vocational Diploma like ITI. And he desires to have such a edacation but the expectations of his parents were very high.

Due to the high career expectations from Dattus' parents, his inability to build the attractive or expected career is lost and he also

lost his confidence to take further education and ultimately developed the inferiority complex.

Therefore, it was concluded that high expectations of parents

may create inferiority complex among the children. In the tribal

167 community it was not happening in the past but recently due to the increasing interactions with the non-tribals and others, few of the tribal parents are getting experience of disappointments.

Case No. 5

"INABILITY TO ADJUST WITH ENVIRONMENT ADVERSELY AFFECTS ON CAREER BUILDING". LUXMAN BAHIRAM

Luxman 32, is working as a primary school Teacher in Ashram

School, run by Govt, of Maharashtra at Ganore village in Kalwan taluka. He did his Diploma in Education after S.S.C. in 1987 and joined the government service as a teacher. His wife Asha is also primary teacher in the Govt. Ashram School; Both are working at the same place in Ganore. Luxman has younger brother and one elder sister. His native place is kelzar, a tribal village in Satana (Baglan)

Taluka. His parents are totally illiterate having a two and half acres of land. Due to the sloppy and barran land, it was not cultivated properly and on the other side rainfall was also irregular. Because of this circumstances, agricultural income of Luxman's family was very low and they didn't had any secondary source of income. This poor economic family background was one of the major reasons in the building of Luxmans Carrier.

Luxman was scholastically very sound during his schooling days. He always stood first or second in his class right from his primary classes. He was good'kabaddi player in his school and played at inter district level as a captain of his team. He was inter­ active with his friends, school mates and teachers in his school.

168 Teachers were always proud of his idealness. All the teachers of

Ganore Ashram school, (where he was taking the education and presently working), decided to send him to some good place for his further education.

In 1984 he passed his 10*^ std. and became matriculate with

79.00% marks. He was the first recipient of Merit prize in his school. His parents, villagers, friends and teachers were very happy with that moment. Parents didn't know the future of his son but they started thinking that their son will be something different than us in future. Because all the people were rewarding and giving the blessing, good wishes. Parent were very happy at the moment. But didn't know the exact picture of his future life.

Then all the teachers decided that Luxman should be sent to

Pune for his college education and after Higher Secondary

Examinations he will join the Medical College for his M.B.B.S. and will become the Doctor. Luxman was happy to listen the decision of his teachers but shown his inability to go because of poor financial position. But after teachers assurance of giving help, he prepared himself to go to Pune.

In the month of July 1984 he came to Pune with one of his

teacher and took the admission in fergusson college for Xlth science.

His staying arrangement was made in the private hostel for temporary purpose. And for the long term he has to stay at

Government hostel where lodging and boarding facilities along with stationary is given free to tribal and other backward classes

students. After completing all the official formalities his teacher went

169 back to Ganore.

The place, Pune and its environment were totally new for

Luxman. He started going to the college from very next day after the

completion of his admission formalities. He was surprised to see the

students in the college particularly girl students with shirtdress and

fashionable styles. He got surprised that how boys and girls can

freely and frequently talk and come together. Students coming by

motor cycles or car was un-believable to Luxman. At very first time

he was looking and experiencing the two extremes of economic

poverty and riches ness, luxurious lifestyle of the people and

students in his college. Fluent communication in English among the

girls and boys and riding together on bike was wonderful experience

to Luxman. Total college and class environment was very glorious

and cosmopolitan to him. He felt some pressure on him and found a

big distance between him and other college students. He started

developing inferiority complex. He used to sit in the corner of

classroom. He did not communicate with others. Few of similar

village students were identified by himself. He tried to talk to them.

They gave the positive response but did not make the friendship.

Many times Luxman became emotional but he had no place to make

free his emotions. He used to remember his parents, friends and

school teachers. He wrote a letter to his teachers, parents and

friends and gave the information about college and Pune City.

One day his teacher of Biology asked him a question in

English in the classroom. He got fear and could not understand the

question in English. He stood up but never open his mouth. Some

170 of the students laughed at Luxman. He got upset and came back to his hostel after the class was over. He was disappointed and has no dinner at night. He thought that he has been insulted by the teacher because of his rural background and backwardness. He felt inferior from others and thought that he was not capable to cope up with the situation. He feel that he was not able to adjust with the environment. He decided to go back to his native place and do something else than takajeducation. . It was August of the year, he immediately decide and very next day of his decision he went back to his home. He lost that academic year and joined D.Ed, course in next year at Nashik. He completed his D.Ed and joined the

Government Ashram school as a teacher. He has completed his 10 years of service. In between he did his B.A. 86 M.A. in Marathi externally from the University of Pune. He wrote on the Kokana tribe but yet to be published it. Presently he is happy with his job and work place but want to do something for the tribal people. He is trying to develop the personality of tribal students through various academic, social and sports activates so that they will cope up with the complex situation.

li- can be concluded that Luxman has the tremendous potentials to be a successful white collor professional but due to problem of adjustment with the environment at the initial stage of his higher education in the city, he missed the opportunity to be an executive or physician. Therefore tribal students need the healthy atmosphere trust, proper motivation, timely support to adjust themselves with the environment. n\ CASE N0.6 DISINTEREST OF PARENTS LEAD THE LOSS OF CHILDREN'S EDUCATION Vishwas Bagul

Vishwas from Pimpale Kokana village of Kalwan taluka. He is

23 years of old. He failed his 10^^ std. In 1990; and did I.T.I, with

Motor Mechanic Specialization. Then after he is working as a farmer in his field. He has one younger sister and one elder brother. His parents and other family members are illiterate. His elder brother also left the school from 4^ Std. Vishwas got married in May 1998.

Actually Vishwas was interested in taking the higher education and doing something good job in his present and future life. But his parents were not much interested in sending him for higher education and doing job. Because their son who left his school earlier started to living separately and that's why his parents need the help of other son who was doing his I.T.I, at that time. And therefore after the completion of his vocational course he was advised by parents not to go for doing job anywhere but assist them in agricultural work.

In fact, Vishwas was average but hard working student in his school days. He visited Nashik and some other cities during his school life. Therefore he was knowing the city environment. And he was interested to live in city or at any place for the job purpose. In short, he was willing to do job and live anywhere. But at the same time he has no ability to convince his parents. He respected his parents and due to this he thought that he will disobey his parents. Therefore he followed the order of his parents and started working with them.

But due to the past experiences of parents with his elder brother, they did not allow him to take the job. Because his parents feared that Vishwas will also forget them after taking the job in the city or other place. It was somewhat sentimental decision, which they have taken. And indeed on their part they were somewhat right track of thinking. Because they badly experienced with their other son who decided to live separately after two years of his marriage.

The family was small and also well cultured, is therefore parents of taken the decision of keeping Vishwas doing with them in agriculture.

Vishwas was submissive boy who immediately submitted him to his parents and engaged in agricultural occupation. Actually the separation of elder son has caused the disinterest.

in