Prologue: 'After Auschwitz': Survival of the Aesthetic

Notes

Prologue: ‘After Auschwitz’: Survival of the Aesthetic

1. In 1959 the German poet Hans Magnus Enzensberger called Adorno’s statement ‘one of the harshest judgments that can be made about our times: after Auschwitz it is impossible to write poetry’, and urges that ‘if we want to con- tinue to live, this sentence must be repudiated’. Hans Magnus Enzensberger, ‘Die Steine der Freiheit’ in Petra Kiedaisch (ed.). Lyrik nach Auschwitz? Adorno und die Dichter (73). 2. Herbert Marcuse, too, criticised the tendency toward uniformity and repres- sion of individuality in modern technological society in his seminal 1964 study One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced industrial Society. 3. For philosophers such as Hannah Arendt the culmination of totalitar- ian power as executed in the camps led not only to the degradation and extermination of people, it also opened profound and important questions about our understanding of humanity and ethics (see: Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism). The question of an ethical response to Auschwitz also preoc- cupies Giorgio Agamben who argues that an ethical attempt to bear witness (testimony) to Auschwitz must inevitably confront the impossibility of speaking without, however, condemning Auschwitz to the ‘forever incomprehensi- ble’ (Remnants of Auschwitz 11). 4. See Alan Milchman and Alan Rosenberg’s Postmodernism and the Holocaust. However, Adorno’s response to the Holocaust is not discussed in this volume. His most notable reflections on Auschwitz can be found in Negative Dialectics (‘Meditations on Metaphysics’), Metaphysics: Concepts and Problems (1965), and in the collection Can one Live after Auschwitz? 5. See the chapter in Adorno and Horkheimer’s ‘The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception’ in Dialectic of Enlightenment where the authors discuss the schematic nature of advertisement and film production, and the construction of audiences as consumers and customers. 6. Lyotard also argues that the event has the power to alter the dominant forms and movements of desire, which in the economic system of capi- talist society are shaped according to the needs of the totality (the need to produce and exchange). The event elicits a crisis of desire because it mutates ‘the relation between what is desired and what is given, between potential energy and the social machinery’ (Lyotard, ‘March 22’ in Political Writings 65). 7. Adorno develops the notion of a ‘forced’ or ‘extorted reconciliation’ between art and objective reality in an essay on the work of Georg Lukács, where he criticises Lukács’s socialist realism as undialectical and ‘stubborn vulgar materialism’ (Adorno, ‘Extorted Reconciliation: On Georg Lukács’ Realism in Our Time’. Notes to Literature Vol. 1).

182 Notes 183

8. Adorno argued that the culture industry manufactured standardised (rei- fied) responses to music, which he called modes of ‘regressive listening’. See Adorno, ‘Über den Fetischcharacter in der Musik und die Regression des Hörens’. Dissonanzen. Musik in der verwalteten Welt.

1 Adorno and Beckett: from the Crisis of Schein to the Fidelity to Failure

1. Hartmut Scheible points out that despite his aesthetic and philosophical nominalism Adorno nevertheless emphasises the importance of authentic art to negate the false empirical reality. Scheible argues that Adorno’s theory of art as an immanent transcendence of reality is an example of his ‘idealism without ideal’. See Hartmut Scheible, ‘Geschichte im Stillstand. Zur Ästhetischen Theorie Theodor W. Adornos’, Heinz Ludwig Arnold (ed.). Text+Kritik, Zeitschrift für Literatur, T. W. Adorno (104ff). 2. See Immanuel Kant, Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Critique of Pure Reason), 379. Kant calls the illusion offered by the categories of reason ‘transcendental’ (transzendentaler Schein). 3. See Adorno, ‘Kulturkritik und Gesellschaft’ (1951), 30: ‘[N]ach Auschwitz ein Gedicht zu schreiben, ist barbarisch’ (To write poetry after Auschwitz is barbaric). Adorno, ‘Die Kunst und die Künste’ (‘Art and the Arts’) in Kulturkritik und Gesellschaft 1, Gesammelte Schriften, 10.1 (452): ‘Während die Situation Kunst nicht mehr zulässt – darauf zielte der Satz über die Unmöglichkeit von Gedichten nach Auschwitz – bedarf sie doch ihrer’ (While the situation does not tolerate art – this was meant by the statement about the impossibility of poetry after Auschwitz – it nevertheless calls for art). 4. Beckett’s ‘Dante . . . Bruno. Vico . . . Joyce’ and other criticism and reviews con- tain the seeds of an aesthetic imagination that would flourish in his novels and find their most accomplished expression in his drama. This essay’s significance to Beckett’s ensuing creative progress could be compared to the importance of Adorno’s programmatic essay ‘The Actuality of Philosophy’ for his later development. One gets the impression that both men’s philosophical and aesthetic projects are contained in miniature in their earliest critical writings. 5. Whilst the inclusion of the aesthetic concerns of both writers in a wider (and by implication general, universal) context may perhaps in itself seem prob- lematic, their shared concern for the particular in art has parallels in Adorno’s interest in the dialectic between the particular and the universal in modernist artworks and his defence of the somatic or material moments of thought.

2 Edward Bond and the Aesthetics of Resistance

1. Even though Horkheimer and Adorno do refer to the historical movement of eighteenth-century European Enlightenment, more often they consider enlightenment as a trans-historical phenomenon, or impulse, which is con- nected to processes of self-preservation and the differentiation between the human and the natural world. 184 Notes

2. Adorno notices a development of de-aestheticisation in modern art (‘Entkunstung der Kunst’), which began with modernist avant-garde art’s attack on its status as art and the desire to dissolve the boundaries between art and life (the desire to narrow art’s distance from its viewer). 3. David L. Hirst acknowledges Bond’s presentation of a ‘savage picture of abuse and irrationality’ (Edward Bond 124), which is true for most of his work, but in Saved no clear answers to the dramatised social problems are articulated. This is perhaps because the ‘picture of abuse and irrationality’ as presented in this play is contained within a specific social group and loca- tion, as pointed out above. The realism of the play resists the kind of exces- sive violence that becomes apparent in Bond’s later (both thematically and stylistically more complex) work. 4. Page references to quotes from Bond’s plays are provided in brackets in the main text. 5. Bond articulates the importance of the imagination in his notes to At The Inland Sea where he develops the idea that art (especially drama) is able to interrogate the irrationality of the world by stimulating our imagination and creativity. According to Bond, only when ‘we are made human by our imagination’ (At The Inland Sea 78) will we be able to respond to the problems of the world rationally and constructively. 6. Bond rejects Beckett’s theatre and the absurdist aesthetic as forms of cultural nihilism which glorify and fetishise the idea of ‘nothingness’ (see Bond, ‘The Cap’. Plays: 7). 7. It seems that Bond is driven by a need to justify the existence of theatre in modern society and to emphasise its ‘use-value’ (Marx) in the age of postmodernity. Barker seems to argue differently: in a society where everything is designated a use-value and a function, the theatre should express no utilitarian aspirations, no meaning, no sense of responsibility. The function of theatre today should be to have no function (or, to put it with Adorno, a ‘negative function’). 8. For a detailed study of The Threepenny Lawsuit with reference to Brecht’s social and media theory see Steve Giles, Bertolt Brecht and Critical Theory: Marxism, Modernity and the Threepenny Lawsuit. An extract of Brecht’s account of his lawsuit is also published in John Willett’s translation of Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic (47–51). 9. See Bond, ‘Notes on Post-Modernism’ in Plays: 5. 10. See Jean-Paul Sartre’s What is Literature? 11. Originally published with the plays Jackets and In the Company of Men in Two Post-Modern Plays. Also published in Plays: 5. 12. Bond’s play Coffee (1995), however, does show an interest in the complex psychological landscape of his characters. Outer and inner worlds are inter- twined; dream realities and interpersonal power relations impinge on the objective reality of war, famine and genocide. 13. The same can be said about Hecuba in The Woman (1978), Bond’s ‘sceptical demythologisation of the Trojan War’ (David Ian Rabey, English Drama Since 1940 83). The play contains a sharp criticism of blind faith in myth and religion (religion is here turned into a political tool) and shows a world that is changeable if human beings develop the strength and will to question the ideological structures of their existence. Notes 185

14. Emancipatory knowledge is here understood as the aim of Marx’s praxis- oriented theory. It means the understanding of one’s individual needs as well as the needs of the collective, with a view to changing the material conditions of life in an antagonistic society. 15. Weiss’ experiments with the documentary theatre form in the 1960s and the centrality of historical as well as political questions in his materialist aesthetic practice are discussed in Robert Cohen, ‘The Political Aesthetics of Holocaust Literature: Peter Weiss’ The Investigation and its Critics’ in History & Memory: Studies in Representation of the Past. 16. Born near Berlin in 1916 as the son of a Hungarian Jewish textile worker and a Swiss actress, Weiss emigrated with his family to England in 1935, then to Prague in 1936. In 1938, after the German invasion of the Sudetenland, his parents fled to Sweden while he moved to Switzerland. In 1939 he moved to Sweden and lived in Stockholm until his death in 1982.

3 David Rudkin’s Theatre of Myth

1. David Rudkin has also produced original work for radio, film and television, which will not be analysed in detail here, but is considered in David Ian Rabey’s study David Rudkin: Sacred Disobedience (1997). 2. Eagleton argues similarly in his discussion of Adorno’s call for a ‘return to the body’ (or the somatic moment) in thought, which finds its most distinc- tive expression in Adorno’s aesthetic project. As Eagleton remarks, Adorno is aware of the ‘dangerous illusion’ of positing ‘the body and its pleasures as an unquestionably affirmative category’, but he also recognises the pressing need to affirm the somatic, material, non-identical element of cognition, a project which can best be achieved by the aesthetic. See Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic 344. It seems that Adorno’s work is generally characterised by such a double-consciousness of the limitations and necessity (urgency) of atoning for what is being silenced, not only in history and contemporary culture but also in and through the very processes of cognition. 3. The aim of the de-mythologisation project was to rid people of irrational fear (of the unknown, darkness) and to make them see the light – a metaphor for reason and freedom. 4. In Violence and the Sacred René Girard argues that the basis of human society lies in the collective sacrifice of a victim (a scapegoat), which establishes a community identity. This act of sacrifice is re-enacted again and again in society’s myths and rituals and thus gains a sacred quality. Girard identifies persecution (scapegoating) and violence as playing essential roles in the social practices of the world’s civilisations. 5. Freud has reflected on the implications of man’s erect posture, our turning away from the earth, our sense of smell and our sexual behaviour. Due to man’s erect posture the sense of smell diminishes and no longer plays a cen- tral role in the arousing of sexual desire, which is now determined by visual signs (e.g. facial expression, the visibility of genitalia) and achieves a potential continuity which becomes regulated in the institution of the family. Freud puts it succinctly: ‘[a]t the beginning of the ill-fated cultural processes is the erection of the human being’, Freud, Das Unbehagen in der Kultur, 64–5 (my translation). 186 Notes

6. When Wana-Apu decides to unmake the creature by breathing the name of death into him, it transpires that the name of death is composed of the same letters (but in different order) as the name of birth, which establishes the idea that the moment of one’s birth already contains the writing of one’s death.

4 Howard Barker’s Theatre of Desire

1. See David Ian Rabey, English Drama Since 1940. 2. There are, for example, points of connection between Barker’s ‘theatre of catastrophe’ and Lyotard’s aesthetic of the sublime. Lyotard’s suggestion that postmodern art presents the ‘unpresentable’ – the sublime sentiment, which is located ‘in an intrinsic combination of pleasure and pain’ (‘Answering the Question’ 131) – resonates strongly in Barker’s theatre. See Jean-François Lyotard, ‘Answering the Question: What is Postmodernism?’. 3. See Horkeimer and Adorno’s culture industry essay in Dialectic of Enlightenment, and Herbert Marcuse’s One-Dimensional Man. 4. This is the title of Francisco de Goya’s ‘Capricho’ no. 43. In this etching one sees the artist (perhaps Goya himself) resting on a table, asleep, while mon- strous dark birds hover around him. 5. W. Martin Lüdke comments on Adorno’s critique of the means–end logic of instrumental reason thus: ‘Eventually authoritarian thought (Herrschaftsdenken) also subjugates the thinking of domination (das Denken der Herrschaft); the reason of instrumentalisation instrumentalises reason so that in the end [. . .] the type of reason necessary for the development of self-preservation turns on itself and forces self-preservation into the logic of instrumental rationality.’ Anmerkungen zu einer ‘Logik des Zerfalls’: Adorno- Beckett 87. Translation KG. 6. In the 1992 production at the Almeida Theatre the character of ‘Goya’s voice’ was performed by an opera singer, and Goya by the actor Ian McDiarmid. 7. According to Lacan’s theory of the formation of subjectivity, the self, upon entering language, is subjected to the laws of the symbolic order, a process that is necessary for the creation of subjective identity. See Anthony Easthope and Kate McGowan (eds), A Critical and Cultural Theory Reader, 68. 8. Such a transcendental concept of subjectivity has been rejected by Freudian and post-Freudian theories, which basically consider the self to be a divided subject who is decentred by language and whose identity is a construct affected by historical and social forces. 9. The ‘Burgtheater’ in Vienna is Austria’s National Theatre – generally considered to be a place of ‘high culture’. 10. By addressing the question of the hysteric Žižek reflects on the opposition between perversion and hysteria in contemporary society, lamenting the loss of hysteria in the postmodern economy of the ‘polymorphously perverse subject [who] follow[s] the superego injunction to enjoy’ (The Ticklish Subject 248) The subject of late capitalism is ‘perverse’ – s/he is engaged in processes of shaping and reshaping identities, playing with roles, immersing oneself into the other, transgressing the borders between self and other, subverting Notes 187

distance and difference. Žižek argues that the virtual realities of cyberspace provide the perverse subject with opportunities for games with identity. The hysterical position, on the other hand, is one of extreme and painful tension; it is the tension and contradiction experienced by a subject who is troubled by his/her position in the symbolic order, which is an order determined by a dynamic of power and control. The hysterical self (the speaking subject) is engaged in a dialogue with the system, and this dialogue is frus- trating because the subject cannot accept the place ascribed to her by the system. The subject – even though she asks for an answer – is never content with the answer and cannot be content with it because the answer to the question of the hysteric (who am I? You are what I say you are!) is a reifying answer. The answer turns the self into an object and thus threatens to erase her. This is the dilemma of the hysteric. The hysterical (unlike the perverse) subject does not ‘follow the superego injunction to enjoy’, she does not play the game of the culture industry and refuses to laugh. Barker rejects the notion of theatre as entertainment. His theatre of tragedy or catastrophe refuses to find consolation in ‘society’s obsession with comfort/the political obsession with the elimination of pain/ the popular pursuit of pleasure’ (Arguments for a Theatre 128). 11. This paradoxical sense of choosing death or inviting death on oneself in situations of impending catastrophe is typical for many Barker characters. Dancer in Hated Nightfall suffers the contradictions of history with a heroic sense of self-sacrifice driven by an excess of imagination. When he is finally ready to receive the gift of death he is afraid that ‘death even . . . will be poorer than my imagination predicted’ (Barker, Hated Nightfall 47). 12. Seduction has been identified as a key force in Barker’s work. Characters’ language and movements gain a seductive and transgressive quality, but cru- cially they are concerned with maintaining the distance between themselves and their love object, which is necessary for the continuation of the flow of desire – the life-giving energy which catapults many of them into death. (See Lamb, Howard Barker’s Theatre of Seduction.)

5 Sarah Kane or how to ‘scrape a life out of the ruins’

1. Sarah Kane quoted in Aleks Sierz, In-Yer-Face Theatre: British Drama Today 106. 2. Adorno’s concept of mimesis does already imply an element of rationality because it is through mimetic behaviour that the individual dissociates her- self from the danger of the mythic world. Mimetic behaviour thus entails the naming, structuring and controlling of alien nature. It is a way of grasp- ing the unknown by assimilating it and thus making it less terrifying and dangerous. 3. For a comprehensive discussion of Adorno’s analysis of artistic developments in the 1950s and 1960s and a consideration of what is referred to as Adorno’s ‘perspectives on an interdisciplinary aesthetic’ see Christine Eichel, Vom Ermatten der Avantgarde zur Vernetzung der Künste. Perspektiven einer interdiszi- plinären Ästhetik im Spätwerk Theodor W. Adornos. 4. Examples of epic elements, for example, are the representational, demonstra- tive function of plot in Hauptmann’s social drama, or the introduction of the 188 Notes

authorial I and epic narrator who intensify the spectator’s sense of distance from dramatic action and draw attention to the world beyond the spectacle. 5. Aleks Sierz defines this sensibility and new way of dramatic writing as ‘in- yer-face theatre’ and many other critics, among them established writers such as Pinter and Bond, have recognised Kane’s talent and praised her work as ground-breaking and radical. The critical consensus seems to be that the media outrage surrounding her first play (Blasted) was utterly unjustified, hysterical and an expression of the fundamental conservatism and materialist/utilitarian ideology underpinning contemporary cultural discourse. 6. Kane’s classical sensibility is evidenced by the Shakespearean resonances in Blasted and more directly her rewriting of Seneca’s Phaedra myth in Phaedra’s Love. There are biblical references in Cleansed and Crave, and an influence of T. S. Eliot’s poem Waste Land on 4.48 Psychosis can be noted. 7. Crave is published in Sarah Kane: Complete Plays. Hereafter page references to Kane’s plays are provided in brackets in the main text. 8. Lacan’s theory of subjectivity is based on the notion that the unconscious is structured like a language; hence the subject is defined as ‘the effect of the signifier’ (Lacan, Seminar, Book XI 207). 9. At this stage it is interesting to note the economy of violence which is played out in the construction of the subject. Adorno’s theory of the subject as implicated in processes of domination (of the other and the self) also thinks of subject construction in terms of violence, as has been discussed above in the context of his theory of the dialectic of enlightenment. 10. In Écrits (1966) Lacan maintains that the condition of subject formation (the subject’s appearance as an object) is a ‘moment of a “fading” or eclipse of the subject that is closely bound up with the Spaltung or splitting that it suffers from its subordination to the signifier’ (347).

Epilogue: Adorno, Tragedy and Theatre as Negation

1. Adorno is mentioned in these studies mainly with reference to his theory of the enlightenment and, in the case of Wallace, as an original interpreter of Beckett. 2. Antigone was for Hegel the most perfect aesthetic embodiment of tragic con- flict, due to the fact that the heroine is torn between her duty to her family and to the law of the State. Hegel refers to it in order to support his view that tragedy consists of the clash or collision of two substantial, and equally justi- fied, positions or ‘goods’. See: Paolucci, Hegel on Tragedy 368. 3. Adorno notes that all art in modern consumer society is subject to the pres- sures of commodification and reification; in other words, there is no art today that can fully exist outside the culture industry. He does, however, focus on art forms which have the capacity to resist these tendencies (Beckett’s work is a primary example). For fuller discussion of Adorno’s analysis of the culture industry see Deborah Cook, The Culture Industry Revisited: Theodor W. Adorno on Mass Culture. 4. ‘The tragic myth, in so far as it belongs to art at all, also participates fully in art’s metaphysical intention to transfigure’ (Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy 127). Notes 189

5. That tragedy has the power to awaken the individual has also been suggested by Jean-Marie Domenach in Le Retour du Tragique (1967). Inspired by exis- tentialist thought, he contrasts the individual in ‘les temps nouveaux’ with the ‘homme tragique’ who ‘is a separate being who refuses the world’ (‘est un être séparé, qui refuse le monde’ 285), (translation KG). Domenach’s critique of modern bureaucratised culture shares much of Adorno’s sensibility. 6. According to Nietzsche, the rationalism of modern life is designed in support of ‘the weak’ and is therefore ‘decadent’. See: The Birth of Tragedy (1872). Bibliography

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absurd, 32, 92, 107 Agamben, Giorgio, 2, 100, 137, n182 absurdist, 43, n184 alienation, 8, 14, 25, 43, 61, 67, 70, theatre of the absurd, 57, 109 78, 79, 81, 117, 147, 156–9, administered world, 4, 5, 23, 36, 7, 172–3, 176 44, 161 alterity, 6, 8, 10, 137, 142, 147 Adorno, Theodor W. antagonism, 36, 51, 5, 121, 144, 148, ‘The Actuality of Philosophy’, 20, 166, 167, 169 21, n183 aporia, 2, 6, 15, 35, 36 ‘Art and the Arts’, 148, 149, 152, apparatus, 4, 36, 62, 64, 154, 175 153, n183 appearance ‘Commitment’, 65 aesthetic appearance, 25, 26, 29, Dialectic of Enlightenment (with Max 84, 180 Horkheimer), 1, 8, 19, 36, 47, sensuous appearance, 26 72, 93, 103, 108, 117, 153, 175, see also illusion 176–77, n182, n186 see also semblance ‘Kulturkritik und Gesellschaft’, 3, archaic, 67, 127, 130, 134, 164 36, n183 Arendt, Hannah, 8, n182 Minima Moralia: Reﬂ ections from Aristotle, 116, 165, 174, 175, 179 Damaged Life, 5, 6, 9, 15, 42, 46, aura, 30, 62, 63, 112 47, 48, 87, 113, 119, 134, 141, Auschwitz, 1–23, 34, 47, 82–4, 100, 144, 162, 167, 176, 179, 181 117, 131, 138, 164, 165, 174–6, Negative Dialectics, 1, 4, 5, 6, 13, 15, n182, n183 18, 35, 36, 110, 111, 130, 165, post-Auschwitz, 1–3, 5–6, 13, 166, 179, n182 15–16, 18, 24, 45, 56, 85, 86, 110, ‘Trying to Understand Endgame’, 2, 113, 134, 144, 178, 179 20, 24, 25, 32, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43, authentic, 20, 37, 51, 100, 104, 106, 84, 106, 142 111, 137, 157, 168, 176, 178 aesthetic authentic art, 12, 14, 22, 27, 34, aesthetic appearance, 25, 26, 29, 109, 112, 169, 177, n183 84, 180 autonomy, 3, 15, 16, 17, 25, 30, aesthetic comportment, 17, 21 31, 32, 36, 40, 49, 50, 63, 65, 89, aesthetic experience, 3, 4, 8, 15, 20, 104, 112, 113, 114, 150, 166, 175 21, 23, 38, 49, 116, 173 autonomous art, 20, 30, 31, 57, aesthetic form, 17, 19, 20, 25, 32, 33, 82, 148 36, 37, 39, 44, 65, 82, 106, 146, avant-garde, 2, 7, 8, 19, 29, 36, 108, 148, 152, 161, 162, 164, 178 109, 147, 148, 149, 150, n184 aesthetic process, 30, 50, 60 historical avant-garde, 32, 35, aesthetics of resistance, 46, 79, 148, 150 80, 81 de-aestheticisation [Entkunstung], Baudrillard, Jean, 9–10, 15 32, 33, 150, n184 barbarism, 1, 7, 35, 47, 57, 110, 127, affect, 142 131, 172, 175

199 200 Index

Barker, Howard ‘Notes on Post-Modernism’, 57, 70, Arguments for a Theatre, 18, 114, 72, 79, n184 115, 116, 138, 143, 154, n187 rational theatre, 57, 66, 85, 154 Bite of the Night, 107, 127, 131, Saved, 50, 51, 52, n184 Death, The One and the Art of Stone, 70 Theatre, 142, 144 Theatre Event (TE), 78, 79 The Europeans, 141 The War Plays, 50, 56, 66, 70, 72, 77 Found in the Ground, 107, 131–3 The Woman, n184 Gertrude: The Cry, 138–41 Booth, Stephen, 37, 130 Hated Nightfall, n187 Brecht, Bertolt, 36, 57, 59–60, 61–5, I Saw Myself, 142–3 78, 79, 80, 164, 171, n184 Knowledge and a Girl, 138, 139–41 Epic Theatre, 53, 59, 60, 63, 64, 78, The Power of the Dog, 119–26 151, 171 Rome, 107 Burke, Edmund, 141–2 Terrible Mouth, 118–9 theatre of catastrophe, 106, capitalism, 12, 14, 22, 35, 36, 57, 61, 115–17, 126, 138, 142, 143, 64, 72, 93, 108, 121, 144, n186 late capitalism, 14, 20, 29, 30, 34, beauty, 26, 28, 55, 98, 115, 128, 129, 164, 170, 176, n186 141, 163 Carson, Anne, 140–1 natural beauty, 28, 163 catastrophe, 2, 6, 24, 25, 34, 35, 41, Beckett, Samuel 68, 84, 100, 117, 119, 127, 131, Disjecta, 38–45 132, 135, 136, 142, 162, 164, 165, Dream of Fair to Middling Women, 169, 170, 172–6, 178, n187 40–2 see also Auschwitz Endgame, 24, 25, 32–5, 40–3, 107, theatre of catastrophe, 106, 115–17, 142, 155 126, 138, 142, 143, 144, n186 Not I, 24 character Three Dialogues, 40, 44 commodity character, 63, 82 Waiting for Godot, 35, 41 double character of art, 112, 148 Being, concept of, 110, 111, 160, dramatic character, 56, 65, 70, 83, being-in-itself, 4, 30, 32 106, 107, 138, 142 Benjamin, Walter, 20, 52, 62, 63, 66, enigmatic character, 7 78, 146, 166, 174 semblance character, 29, 33, 49, Blanchot, Maurice, 8, 142 149, 180 body, 6, 16, 18, 22, 33, 54–5, 64, 92, comedy, comic, 25, 124, 166, 177 93, 98, 118–19, 120, 128, 129, commitment, 3, 19, 25, 65, 66, 85 130, 131, 134, 137, 139, 140, committed art, 18, 65 141, 152, 159, 161, 163–4, 166, commodity, 10, 30, 31, 58, 59, 63, 64, 179, n185 109, 110 embodiment, 17, 25, 31, 102, 123, commodity character, 63, 82 125, 130, n188 commodity culture, 12, 14, 32, 59 Bond, Edward commodity form, 30, 63 At The Inland Sea, 79, 83, 84, n184 commodification, 1–2, 17, 30–1, 34, Black Mass, 70 36, 63, 64, 108, 112, 164, n188 The Bundle, 56, 72, 75–7 communication, 12, 32, 44, 63, 67, Coffee, 52, 53, 56, 81, 83, n184 70, 106, 147 Human Cannon, 50, 56, 72–5 non-communication, 37 Lear, 50, 52–6 comportment, aesthetic, 17, 21 Index 201 configuration, 20, 21, 25, 27, 41, see also Adorno, Dialectic of 57, 64 Enlightenment constellation, 20, 27, 29, 33, 41, see also Adorno, Negative Dialectics 81, 150 disintegration, 30, 31, 42, 54, 82, 97, construction, 9, 14, 16, 25, 27, 30, 32, 158, 161, 175, 176, 179 61, 64, 76, 78, 100, 117, 144, 150, logic of disintegration, 31 156, 157, 168, n188 dissonance, 29, 42, 168, 169 consumerist, 18, 108, 109, 112 drama (dramatic) consumer society, 10, 30, 31, 34, dramatic character, 56, 65, 70, 83, 70, 72, 82, 114, n188 106, 107, 138, 142 content dramatic form, 32, 33, 43, 49, 51, truth content, 35, 106, 178 82, 146, 152, 154, 155, 159, 161, sedimented content, 82, 148 164, 165, 180 see also form–content dialectic dramatic text, 6, 18, 22, 48, 89, 105 contradiction, 6, 9, 13, 16, 18, 25, see also postdramatic 35, 36, 57, 65, 111, 112, 121, 122, 149, 165, 166, 167, 169, Eagleton, Terry, 6, 15, 16, 24, 25, 122, 172, n187 171, 172, n185 corporeality, 163 ego, the, 5, 16, 21, 32, 41, 48, 90, 131 see also materiality emancipation, 15, 19, 28, 47, 87, 89, crisis 117, 150 crisis of art, 31 empiricism, 3 crisis of drama, 146–7, 151 empirical reality, 7, 17, 26, 29, 37, 49, crisis of meaning, 1 50, 78, 82, 104, 114, 145, 146–8, crisis of Schein (semblance), 24, 150, 161, 180, n183 30, 152 enigma (enigmatic), 3, 89, 112, 124, critique, immanent, 17 140, 144, 170 culture enigmatic character [Rätselcharacter], 7 culture industry, 1–4, 10, 15, 17, see also riddle 18, 30–2, 34, 36, 63, 108, 109, enlightenment 110, 113, 114, 164, 168, 170, 173, enlightenment rationality, 7, 176, 178, 179, n182, n183, n186, 19, 21, 46, 98, 103, 117, 118, n187, n188 126, 176 post-Auschwitz culture, 1, 2, 5, 6, see also Adorno, Dialectic of 13, 15, 24, 56, 179 Enlightenment ephemerality (ephemeral), 11, 20, 28 damage see also transient damaged subjectivity, 3, 5, 24, epistemology, 8, 57, 58 97, 164 eros, erotic, 90, 138, 139, 140, damaged world, 43, 142, 173 141, 142 de-aestheticisation [Entkunstung], see essence, 19, 33, 39, 62, 65, 124, 146 aesthetic ethics, 8, 88, 109, 167, n182 Deleuze, Gilles, 14, 180 see also morality Derrida, Jacques, 8, 10, 11, 12, event, (philosophy), 11–12, 15, 35, 107, 138 161, 162, n182 dialectics absolute event, 10 negative dialectics, 12, 13, 30, 162, event of Auschwitz, 2, 9, 12, 14 165, 166, 167, 181 catastrophic event, 2, 6, 35 dialectical thinking, 2, 6, 13, 14, 162 dramatic event, 177 202 Index existence Goya, Francisco de, 117–19, 133, n186 human existence, 8, 24, 43, 48, 88, guilt, 5, 7, 50, 111, 158 93, 170 guilt context (nexus of guilt), 5, 7, individual existence, 5 111, 178 mere existence, 178, 181 experience Hammer, Espen, 34–5, 37 historical experience, 1, 4 Handke, Peter, 151 individual experience, 5, 13, 25, happenings, 33, 114, 148, 149 104, 113, 143, 164 happiness, 3, 5, 33, 34, 54, 88, 106 subjective experience, 17, 19, 26, promise of happiness, 17, 179 28, 43, 58, 64, 86, 173 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 8–9, expression 13, 21, 22, 26–8, 30, 35, 58, 120, aesthetic expression, 13, 21, 147 143, 149, 165, 166–7, 174, 175, anti-expressive, 14, 45 178, 180, n188 expressionism, 4, 7, 147 Heidegger, Martin, 36, 110, 174 expressive-mimetic, 102, 168 history individual expression, 10, 28, 46 anti-history, 119, 120 new expressionist drama, 22, 100, historical experience, 1, 4 104, 106 ‘our history’ (Nancy), 9, 11 Hitler, Adolf, 135–6 fantasy, 91, 163 Hölderlin, Friedrich, 24, 143, 166, 180 exact fantasy, 20 Holocaust, 1, 3, 6, 9, 14–15, 34, 66, fascism, fascist, 10, 113, 124 84, 132, 136, 137, n182, n185 fetish, 14, 30, 36, 65, 77, 119, n184 hope, 5, 17, 41, 44, 68, 75, 91, 95, 96, fetish character, 30 107, 111, 119, 130, 132 film apparatus, 62, 64 Horkheimer, Max, 1, 8, 19, 72, 88, form 93, 105, 113, 117, 166, 175, 176, aesthetic form, 17, 19, 20, 25, 32, n182, n183 33, 36, 37, 39, 44, 65, 82, 106, humanism, 9, 51, 52, 70, 72, 90, 132, 146, 148, 152, 161, 162, 164, 178 133, 135 artistic form, 31, 38 liberal humanism, 154 formalism, 36, 112 Hullot-Kentor, Robert, 32 formlessness, 32, 33, 101, 103, 160, 168 idealism, 20, 21, 26, 27, 28, 98, 99, form–content dialectic, 146 118, 125, 177, n183 Foucault, Michel, 8, 11, 97 German idealism, 8, 28, 165, Frankfurt School, 1, 10, 105, 113 174, 180 freedom identity subjective freedom, 16, 67, 70, 87, identity thinking, 9, 11, 17, 40, 113, 126, 166, 177, 181 166, 176 unfreedom (lack of freedom), 22, 69 non-identity, 3, 11, 13, 15, 21, 22, Freud, Sigmund, 19, 60, 87, 88, 89, 23, 37, 87, 125, 142, 156, 165, 178 90, n185 self-identity, 4, 16, 48 social identity, 80 gaze, 143 ideology genre, 148–9, 150, 151, 153, 166, 177 Enlightenment ideology, 89, 94 gesture Ideology of the Aesthetic (Eagleton), aesthetic gesture, 168 6, 15, 16, n185 theatrical gesture, 22, 151 political ideology, 63, 122, 123, 124 Index 203 illusion, 26, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 40, 42, knowledge 43, 60, 65, 67, 73, 78, 98, 107, knowledge and desire, 126, 110, 111, 113, 127, 131, 143, 128, 140 151, 152, 155, 157, 158, 169, 176, knowledge production, 58, 59, n183, n185 60, 126 see also appearance self-knowledge, 48, 56, 60, 177 see also semblance theory of knowledge, 58 imitation, 3, 28, 140 transgressive knowledge, 52 see also mimesis Kristeva, Julia, 94, 129, 130 image self-image, 5, 123 Lacan, Jacques, 55, 123, 129, 156–7, stage image, 69, 132 159, 168, n186, n188 visual image, 84, 153 language imagination, 6, 49, 56, 57, 61, 64, 68, dramatic language, 67, 104, 71, 79, 83, 84, 95, 103, 118, 124, 105, 136 128, 135, 144, 152, 160, 176, 179, poetic language, 115, 119, 181, n183, n184, n187 129, 132 immanence, 5, 143, 173, 176, Lehmann, Hans-Thies, 151–2 179, 180 liberalism, 93, 109 immanent critique, 17 Lukács, Georg, 10, 36, 59, 70, immanent form, 106, 146 78, 80, 82, 146, 164, 171, 179, immaterial, 63, 180 n182 impossibility, 4, 5, 12, 21, 34, 42, Lyotard, Jean-François, 6–7, 8, 10, 11, 44, 45, 108, 111, 123, 124, 12, 14, 15, 18, 126, 162, n182, 129, 130, 136, 140, 178, 181, n186 182, n183 impossibility of poetry, n183 magic, 5, 47, 91, 100 see also possibility Marcuse, Herbert, 113, n182, n186 indeterminacy, 112 Marx, Karl, 58–9, 60, 65, 172, n184 instrumentalisation, 3, 4, 13, 105, Marxist theory, 57, 58, 64 n186 mastery, 14, 94, 97, 98, 117, 124, 136 instrumentalised rationality, 125 materialism, 20, 27, 36, 46, 58, 65, irrationality, 50, 57, 81, 89, 100, 103, n182 117, 118, 124, 126, 128, 134, 144, materialist aesthetics, 78, 122, 146, 154, 168, n184 n185 materialist philosophy, 27, 59 Jameson, Fredric, 2, 4, 29, 70, 117 materiality, 16, 27, 60, 64, 78, 130, Joyce, James, 38–9, n183 150, 180, 181 meaning Kafka, Franz, 8, 109 aesthetic meaning, 30, 149 Kane, Sarah crisis of meaning, 1 Blasted, 153, 154, 155, 161, n188 meaningless, 3, 19, 23, 32, 41, 43, Cleansed, 154, n188 57, 81, 106, 127, 132, 135, 142, Crave, 154–5, 157–8, n188 144, 174 4.48 Psychosis, 154, 155, 158–9, metaphysical meaning, 32, 40, 177 161, n188 memory, 6, 69, 132, 156, 158 Kant, Immanuel, 26, 58, 141, 165, remembrance (anamnesis), 6, 8, 10, 180, n183 11, 18, 117, 177, 178 Kierkegaard, Søren, 165 messianic light/order, 42 204 Index metaphysics, 5, 6, 8, 15, 22, 27, 36, objectification, 3, 17, 30, 49, 64, 70, 81 40, 110, 174, 179, n182 Odysseus, 19, 176 post-metaphysical, 15, 26, 100, 110, Other, the, 119, 120, 125, 137, 156, 174, 178 157, 160, 166, 181 see also philosophy micrology, 15 participation, 37, 115 mimesis, 3, 4, 41, 59, 96, 144, 146, non-participation, 37 148, 162, 167, 168, n187 particular, the, 8, 9, 15, 25, 29, 32, 39, see also imitation 110, 125, n183 mimetic particularity, 21, 23, 28, 29, 32, mimetic behaviour, 102, n187 39, 167 mimetic element, 148 performance, 5, 48, 108, 115, 131, mimetic impulse, 3, 4, 17, 102 138, 144, 158 see also mimesis performance art, 33, 37, 114 modernism, 8, 14, 28, 30, 31, 42, 105, performative, 23, 31, 38, 70 146, 152, 177 phenomenon, 32, 51, 70, 150, n183 modernity, 9, 21, 58, 61, 64, 66, 130, philosophy 147, 151, 164, 166, 169, 172, 173, idealist philosophy, 58, 174 174, 175, 176, 177 materialist philosophy, 27, 59 monad, 30, 104, 109, 161 philosophy and art, 1, 13 morality, 19, 38, 89, 115, 116, 143, 176 see also Adorno, ‘The Actuality of see also ethics Philosophy’ more, concept of, 7, 28, 119, 163, 180 see also metaphysics music, 8, 11, 29, 36, 40, 41, 42, 50, Plato, 96, 174, 179 108, 109, 116, 108, 122, 123, 132, playwright, 73, 153, 154 133, 146, 148, 149, 151, 155, 158, poetry (after Auschwitz), 3, 4, 34, 159, 165, 168, 169, n183 n182, n183 myth, 5, 15, 19, 34, 38, 47, 52, 86, 87, poetic drama (use of language), 105, 89, 91–4, 96, 100, 101, 103, 114, 115, 119, 129, 132, 136, 142, 144, 126, 131, 168, 176, 177, nn184, 151, 152, 155, 158 n185, n188 popular, 109, 110, 116, n187 possibility Nancy, Jean-Luc, 9, 11, 143, 173, 180 possibility of the impossible, 7, nature, dominated, 3, 92, 177 42, 144, 156 Nazism, 7, 113, 132, 133, 135 see also impossibility see also Hitler, Adolf postdramatic, 150–2 negation, determinate, 17, 19, 30, 31, postdramatic theatre, 148, 151–2, 33, 37, 156 161 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 88, 101, 102, postmodernism, 63, 70, n182, n186 103, 104, 118, 131, 165, 168–9, postmodernity, 72, 151, 164, n184 175, 178, n188, n189 practice nominalism, 25, 26, 29, 30, 32, n183 artistic practice, 1 nominalist critique, 29 conceptual practice, 10 non-conceptual, 3, 6, 8, 20, 143 praxis, 58, 59, 64, 121 non-identity see identity presence (appearance), 156 process, aesthetic, 30, 50, 60 object promise of happiness, 17, 179 primacy of the object, 17, 28 see also happiness subject–object binary, 58, 165 psychoanalysis, 156, 159 Index 205

Rabey, David Ian, 86, 89, 106, n184, The Saxon Shore, 86, 96–9 n185, n186 Sons of Light, 86, 94–6 Rancière, Jacques, 85, 115 The Triumph of Death, 86, 87–93 rationality enlightenment rationality, 7, 19, sacrifice, 19, 77, 91, 107, 158, 173, 21, 176 176, n185, n187 irrationality, 50, 57, 81, 89, 100, Sartre, Jean-Paul, 36, 65, 70, 142, 174, 103, 117, 118, 124, 126, 128, 134, n184 144, 154, 168, n184 Saunders, Graham, 154, 155, realism 161, 162 anti-realist, 131 Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph, realist, 49, 51, 61, 82, 118, 131, 165, 166 146, 152 Schönberg, Arnold, 8, 109 social realism, 32, 36, 112 self socialist realism, 109, 122, 124, damaged self, 164 n182 self-destruction, 48, 92, 176, 177 reality self-formation, 16, 86, 89, 129, empirical reality, 7, 17, 26, 29, 37, n186, n188 49, 50, 78, 82, 104, 114, 145, selfhood, 25, 98, 160, 175, 179 146–8, 150, 161, 180, n183 self-realisation, 81, 89, 104, 172 social reality, 19, 25, 49, 50, 81, 82, see also subject 106, 109, 167 semblance [Schein] reason semblance character, 29, 33, 49, autonomous reason, 8, 21 149, 180 instrumental reason, 11, n186 crisis of semblance, 152 subjective reason, 26, 166, 168 non-semblance, 163 totalising reason, 176 see also aesthetic appearance Rebellato, Dan, 154 see also illusion reconciliation sensation, 15, 119 false reconciliation, 63, 178 Shakespeare, William, 38, 138, 139, forced reconciliation, 18, 36, 169 154, n188 redemption, 5, 20, 29, 42, 50, 87, 91, shock, 2, 24, 52, 54, 55, 109, 117, 95, 111, 144, 163, 170, 172, 180 170, 174, 175 reification, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 17, 18, shudder, 15, 21, 22, 23 27, 30, 31, 35, 36, 63, 64, 70, 87, see also affect 147, 147, 150, 162, 164, 166, 172, Sierz, Alex, 153, n187, n188 173, 176, n188 Simmel, Georg, 172 representation, mimetic, 60, 105 singularity, 10, 101, 138, 144, 173, resistance,1, 5, 12, 17, 22, 24, 31, 36, 181 39, 44, 113, 120 Sohn-Rethel, Alfred, 59 aesthetics of resistance, 46–85 somatic, 4, 6, 9, 99, 126, 138, 163, see also Weiss, Peter 163, 166, n183, n185 riddle, 16, 20, 85, 96, 137, 137, 160, spectator, 60, 61, 87, 115, 116, 136, 162, 177 144, 157, 162, n188 see also enigma spirit [Geist], 8, 21, 25, 143, 180 Rudkin, David absolute spirit, 27 Afore Night Come, 86 spirit of capitalism, 164 Penda’s Fen, 87 spiritualisation, 5, 28, 33, 149 Red Sun, 86, 100, 103, 104 style, 38, 39, 52, 53 206 Index subject time, historical, 33 subjective experience, 17, 19, 26, totality, social, 3, 12, 16, 17, 20, 37, 28, 43, 58, 64, 86, 173 57, 66, 70, 82, 122, 144, 169 subject/object dualism, 58, 165 tragedy, 14, 25, 43, 101, 115, 116, see also self 125, 130, 144, 154, 163–81 sublime, 15, 130, 141–2, 177, n186 tragic-comic, 24 suffering, human, 1, 4, 15, 69, 138, transcendence, 1, 28, 94, 120, 144, 149, 172 174, 178, 179, n183 surrealism, surrealist, 29, 80, 142, 174 transient, 11, 20 neo-surrealist, 108, 114 see also ephemerality Szondi, Peter, 146–7, 151, 165, 178 trauma, traumatic, 12, 67, 68, 168 truth technique, 25, 59, 61, 66, 72, 78, 79, false truth, 113 86, 105, 111, 150, 174, 180 truth content, 35, 106, 178 technology, 4, 52, 62, 66, 74 temporality, 11, 100 universal, the, 5, 9, 30, 39, 111 text utopia, 66, 72, 178 see dramatic text negative utopia, 31, 66 theatre epic theatre, 53, 59, 60, 63, 64, 78, violence 151, 171 archaic violence, 134 in-yer-face theatre, 153, n187, human violence, 18 n188 reality of violence, 51 theatricality, 87 social violence, 49, 50 theatre of catastrophe (see also visual arts, 148, 149, 165 Barker, Howard), 106, 115–7, 126, Weiss, Peter, 79–82, n185 138, 142, 143, 144, n186 see also aesthetics of resistance theology, 14 theory Zapf, Hubert, 8 aesthetic theory see Adorno Žižek, Slavoj, 121, 137, 168, 170, critical theory, 2, 10, 12, 35, 36, 58, n186–7 62, 113, 164, 176, n184 Zuidervaart, Lambert, 17