Volume 5 Number 1, Fall 1992

Hemisphere Volume 5 Article 1 Issue 1 Fall

1992 Volume 5 Number 1, Fall 1992

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A MAGAZINE OF LATIN AMERICAN AND CARIBBEAN AEEAIRS

Fall 1992 Volume Five • Number One Seven Dollars

Gendered Injustice: Law, Society and Prostitution Tina Rosenberg, Hoivard W French, John M. McClintock, Aliana Gonzalez

Free Markets or Protectionism? The EC and Bananas Brent Borrell, Sandy Cuthbertson, Cresencio Arcos, Michael A. Samuels, Canute James, Eben Shapiro

A Greek or an Aztec? Rodolfo J. Cortina

Rodriguez Rabanal on the Peruvian Extreme Maingot on Half Measures in Haiti Taylor Valdes on GATT and Patents Vega on the Impact of Post-Castro Cuba Swafford on the Stale Coffee Market Kyle on the Ecuadoran-New York Circuit

Hemisphere

A MAGAZINE OF LATIN AMERICAN AND CARIBBEAN AFFAIRS Fall 1992 Volume Five • Number One Seven Dollars

EDITORIAL STAFF COMMENTARY Editor: A nthony P. Maingot Deputy Editor: Richard Tardanico Associate Editors: Eduardo A. Gamarra, The Roots of Peru’s Deterioration by Cesar Rodriguez Rabanal 2 Mark B. Rosenberg Assistant Editor: Sofia A. Lopez Haiti: The Futility of Half Measures by Anthony P. Maingot 4 Book Review Editor: Kathleen Logan Bibliographer: Marian Goslinga Editorial Assistant: Rene Ramos Circulation Manager: Raqueljurado REPORTS Copy Editor: Michael B.Joslyn Production Assistants: Mercy Diaz, Cristina Finlay, Patent Pressures by Mia Taylor Valdes 6 Teresita Marill If Castro Should Fall... by Bernardo Vega 10 CONTRIBUTING EDITORS Awash in Coffee by David Swafford 12 Jan et M. Chernela Raul Moncarz Elena dejongh Lisandro Perez The Ecuadoran-New York Nexus by David Kyle 15 Damian J. Fernandez Luis P. Salas Dennis J. Gayle Kevin A. Yelvington

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD FAXFILE 18 Don Bohning Guido Pennano Ettore Botta A lejandro Portes Wolf GrabendorfF Sally Price Alistair Hennessy David Ronfeldt FEATURES Harry H oetink Selwyn Ryan Franklin W. Knight Steven E. Sanderson Vaughan Lewis Saskia Sassen Gendered Injustice Larissa A. Lomnitz Andres Serbin A braham F. Lowenthal Carol A. Smith Women and the Law by Tina Rosenberg 20 Andres O ppenheim er Yolande Van Eeuwen Robert A. Pastor Arturo Villar Exporting Daughters by Howard W. French 25 AnthonyJ. Payne Ju an Yaries Sex and Tourism in Cuba by John M. McClintock 27 Hemisphere (ISSN 08983038) is published three times a year (Fall, Winter/Spring, and Summer) Venezuela’s New Trade Commodity by Aliana Gonzalez 29 by the Latin American and Caribbean Center of Florida International University. Copyright © 1992 Profile: Prostitutes in Bogota 31 by the Latin American and Caribbean Center, Flor ida International University. All rights reserved. Free Markets or Protectionism? Hemisphere is dedicated to provoking debate on the problems, initiatives, and achievements of Latin EC Banana Policies by Brent Borrell and Sandy Cuthbertson 32 America and the Caribbean. Responsibility for the views expressed lies solely with the authors. Hey Mister Tallyman . . . by Cresencio Arcos 35 EDITORIAL, CIRCULATION, AND ADVERTIS Creating a Banana Fortress by Michael A. Samuels 38 ING OFFICES: Latin American and Caribbean Center, Florida International University, University Banana Splits by Canute James 40 Park, Miami, Florida 33199. Telephone: (305) 348- 2894. FAX: (305) 348-3593. Please address m anu The Great Banana War by Eben Shapiro 42 scripts and editorial correspondence to the Deputy Editor. SUBSCRIPTIONS: US, USVT, PR, and Canada: $20 REVIEW FORUM a year; $36 for two years. Elsewhere: $27 a year; $50 for two years. Please make check or money Narcissus Gazes in the Fountain by Rodolfo J. Cortina order (US currency only) payable to Hemisphere. 44 Credit card orders (MC/VISA only) are also acceptable. PUBLICATIONS UPDATE This docum ent was produced at a cost o f $6,058.00 or $3.03 p er copy. Street People in Latin America by Marian Goslinga 46 C 0 M M E

The Roots of Peru’s Deterioration

by Cesar Rodriguez Rabanal

he profound deterioration work, infractions were regarded as up in a violent environment, he or of Peruvian society—an actions against the collectivity that she becomes an adult whose per extreme example of a had to be countered by similarly sonality is scarred by violence. The more general Latin Amer violent actions. manifestations are many, such as ican trend— is rooted in apathy, psychosomatic ills, depres the structure and culture sion, and, of course, physical vio of pre-Columbian society. This as In this war nearly lence itself. Most basically, violent sertion does not imply that contem practices consolidate impulses that porary manifestations of Peruvian all the dead and are not only destructive but self and regional deterioration are ho destructive as well. Thus, in addi mogeneous, inevitable, and irre missing belong to the tion to the physical destruction it versible. Nevertheless, it does causes, violence blocks the develop provide us with a framework both mestizo and Indian ment of human capabilities. for untangling the roots of deterio populations that ration and for planting the seeds of The Peruvian Extreme an alternative society based on par constitute the low end ticipatory democracy, equitable de The Peruvian case represents an ex velopment, and the nurturing of of the socioeconomic treme example of the general de human capabilities in multiethnic terioration occurring in Latin settings. hierarchy. America. Contemporary Peru is in the second decade of an internal The Pre-Columbian Heritage war that began in the Southern The installation of Spanish rule Andes but now encompasses virtu In the historical civilizations based introduced new rules to the system. ally the entire country. The war has in modern-day Peru and Mexico, These rules contrasted dramatically claim ed m ore than 20,000 lives. conflicts between cultivators and with the existing principle of equi Eyewitness accounts describe a ter the state predated the arrival of the ty, centering rather on the domina rifying world in which extreme pov Spaniards; authoritarian forms of tion of one group over the other, erty becomes interwoven with both compulsion were imbedded in na justified not only on economic but preindustrial and postindustrial tive culture. Be that as it may, one also cultural and ethnic grounds. forms of violence. of the central functions of the pre Scholar Alberto Flores Galindo Because Peruvian society is colonial state—the carrying out of documents the fact that, far from multiethnic and multicultural, its redistributionist policies—changed coming to an end with the achieve members live within a rigidly de drastically with the arrival of the ment of national independence fined hierarchy of social strata Europeans, giving way to arbitrari from Spain, culture and ethnicity with minimal and highly distorted ness and violence. became even more decisive factors channels of interstratum commu To be sure, violence played a in Latin American social stratifica nication. Peruvian society’s com fundamental part in the pre-Colum- tion. bination of heterogeneity and bian social system of reciprocity. As It is within these historically rigidity permits the coexistence of such, violence represented socially rooted social and cultural struc certain democratic freedoms, such recognized norms and was part of tures so conducive to violence that as press and speech, with a large- customary law. Within this frame- the psychic structure of the Latin scale dirty war. In this war nearly all American individual tends to be the dead and missing belong to the shaped. While the weight of vio mestizo and Indian populations Cesar Rodriguez Rabanal is director of lence varies across Latin America, that constitute the low end of the the Centro Psicoanalisis y Sociedad, in violence is more or less an intrinsic socioeconomic hierarchy. As is cus Lima, Peru. He is the author of Las part of the process of personality tomary under dictatorial regimes, cicatrices de la pobreza (Caracas: formation throughout the region. this dirty war is being carried o u t in Editorial Nueva Sociedad, 1989). To the degree that a child grows the name of “national security.”

2 Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Not surprisingly, therefore, the and a large-scale exodus of the reinsertion of the country into the notion of human rights has little population’s best educated and international financial community. resonance in public opinion. most talented. This process has Peruvian society must transcend Those who shape public opinion greatly weakened Peru’s potential the reigning technocratic per in Peru are the privileged groups— for political and economic recon spectives, recognizing that state the social elite that orchestrates the struction. The hemorrhaging of policies must not disregard the in state’s policies and actions, rather existing talent, combined with ob terests of the very people for whom than the vast majority that absorbs stacles to the development of new they are ostensibly designed. For the powerful impact of its social human capability posed by the this to happen, the state’s policies and racial discrimination. deepening poverty and misery of must be based on the politics of Against this backdrop, societal today’s children (i.e., tomorrow’s inclusion, not exclusion. The no values appear to be devoid of con adults), has grave implications for tion of a multiethnic, multicultural tent. Most persons come to feel as Peru’s future social, economic, and Peru must be embraced, not de though they do not take an active political development. stroyed. ■ part in making their histories, but Peru’s massive deterioration rather are passive entities in a demands much more than “struc world of torment. In compensation tural adjustment” policies and the (Translated by Flemisphere staff) they commonly develop paradisia cal fantasies and expectations of messianic redemption. The “na tion” becomes not an integrating symbol but rather an abstract entity iQUE PASA EN AMERICA LATINA? charged with sentimentalism. Offi cial Peru comes to be seen through a lens of illusions and conflicts— a distant, diffuse, and distorted Let the image from which a person expects everything or nothing. JOURNAL OF This psychic poverty transcends the borders of the impoverished INTERAMERICAN and marginalized ghettos. The deepening chasm that divides the STUDIES rich from the poor leads the for AND WORLD AFFAIRS mer to hide behind ever-higher walls. This process has reduced Pe Keep you ruvian society to two polarized and compartmentalized groups: the informed massive group of the excluded sector and the relatively small group of the “walled-in” sector. jT UNIVERSITY OF The spaces that allow multisector contact and socialization have near Miami ly all disappeared. So has the in

cipient middle class, whose social A GLOBAL UNIVERSITY descent makes it increasingly a part of the world of the poor. INSTITUTE OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES Among the consequences of this The North-South Center • P.O. Box 248134 • Coral Gables, FL 33124 crisis has been the decomposition of academic and intellectual life

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Commentary

Haiti: The Futility of Half Measures

by Anthony P. Maingot

lan Tournier, in his re on pitifully little else. Independ A consequence of this attitude freshingly original book, ence—so heroically achieved at a was and is the historical capacity of Quand la nation demande great cost in blood—did not bring Haitian political elites—of what des comptes (1989), re about a sense of unity. Haitians ever persuasion—to successfully views the recurring opted variously for republicanism utilize every known technique of A cycle of reprisals and (both democratic and authoritar negotiation with foreigners at confiscations that have followedian), monarchy, empire, and presi tempting to dictate Haitian affairs: each period of dictatorship in dencies for life under different from avoidance to procrastination, Haiti. Noting that Haitians occa institutional arrangements. Regard and, if felt necessary, even a suici sionally—and non-Haitian observ less of the form chosen, the out dal “scorched-earth” approach. If ers nearly always—tend to think of side world considered the island an they ever enter into negotiations, the most recent crisis in ahistorical outcast and kept it in tight political they are grandmasters of stall-and- terms, Tournier asks: “Is the pres isolation. outlive tactics. History tells them ent political reality merely the that the rest of the world has little rebeginning of history?” staying power when faced with the Haiti, more than any other With no unity of intractability of Haitian problems. country in the hemisphere, stands The third feature that in many as testament to the verity of George purpose, a historical ways not only made the first two Santayana’s admonition that those possible but, indeed, intensified who forget or disregard history will aversion to third-party their inflexibility, was the nature be forced to relive it. While this involvement, and of the post-plantation economy. generally holds true, it is especially Since independence the radically relevant in understanding the fail with the sources of reformed landholding system has ure of both the US and the inter- been characterized by generalized American system to force political wealth shrinking, peasant ownership and subsistence changes on the island. Specifically, agriculture. This system certainly the failed economic embargo, origi struggles for control spared the Haitian peasant the hor nally designed to force a return of of the government rors of the typical Latin American democratically elected president latifundio. It was, however, harsh on Jean-Bertrand Aristide to power, have been constant the ecology and not conducive to has to be understood in long-term creating surpluses that could be in as well as short-term perspectives. and increasingly vested elsewhere. destructive. The Haitian economy was char Long-Term Analysis acterized by a very few pockets of tightly (i.e., family) controlled A long-term interpretation of re wealth based on coffee or com cent events has to include, at a min That external pressure certainly merce. Opportunities for employ imum, three essential features of contributed to the second impor ment were largely in government, Haitian history. First and foremost tant feature of Haitian history: the governments that, crucially, were is the unique nature of Haiti’s evolution of a fierce sense of inde sustained and financed by squeez struggle for independence. While pendence and autonomy among ing the peasants and the few con the struggle for individual freedom Haitian elites. This obstinate deter centrations of wealth. With no certainly reflected a commonly mination to safeguard indepen unity of purpose, a historical aver shared sentiment, there was unity dence of action was a blend of sion to third-party involvement, pride, resignation (to a world they and with the sources of wealth could not change), and a logical re shrinking, struggles for control of sentment of those who refused to the government have been con Anthony P. Maingot is editor of acknowledge the debts they owed stant and increasingly destructive. Hemisphere. Haiti. Each cycle of dictatorship has been

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 followed by a settling of accounts, December 7, 1987, noted that it The response to the 1987 crisis which, by increasing the rancor “deplores” the failure of Haitian laid the foundations for the re and vindictiveness of the affected government to bring about demo sponse to the 1991 crisis: state parties, begot the inevitable next cratic elections and supported the ments of regret but reassertions of crisis. US government’s decision to em the principles of state sovereignty Among the various ways in bargo the Haitian government. as an absolute prohibitor of effec which this political history has tive international action. Effective shaped Haitian political culture are ness in this case has to be defined two fundamental paradoxes particu in terms of the political culture of larly relevant to the present situa Effectiveness in Haiti, which, as already noted, is tion. The first paradox is that the this case has to be not susceptible to half measures, very features we so admire about certainly not verbal threats and fu the Haitians—their heroic struggle defined in terms of tile embargoes. for independence, their love of the Where, then, does all this leave land and relatively egalitarian dis the political culture us? First and already patently evi tribution of that land—are the of Haiti, which is not dent, the present incapacity to ones that make their political move the usurpers in Haiti has attitudes not only implacable but susceptible to half dealt a very severe blow to the cred also stubbornly resistant to third- ibility of the inter-American system. party involvements. This paradox measures such as Second, the US will not intervene engenders an opportunistic selectiv unilaterally since there are no per ity that is based on the myth of the verbal threats and ceived vital national security inter “true” and the “false” Haitian. To futile embargoes. ests involved. Third, the Haitian day, Duvalier is the latter, Aristide diaspora in the US has more influ the former. In fact, in terms of po ence on the US than on Haitian litical culture they are both “true” politicians. The ultimate irony of Haitians. The Organization of American this crisis is that Aristide, whose cha T he second paradox is that, States (OAS) also “deplored” the risma was based largely on his anti given the incessant struggle-with- acts of violence and disorder and elections, anti-US, and anti-foreign out-quarter for possession of the expressed its “solidarity” with the involvement stances, should now government, any form of authority Haitian people. In the same make the US his main stomping in Haiti—democratic or authori breath, however, the OAS tele grounds. tarian—requires the protection of graphed its irresolution to the The issue will be settled only in an armed force. The built-in prob enemies of democracy in Haiti by Haiti and within the parameters of lem is that the armed forces have stating that they reaffirmed the Haitian political culture. The out never been neutral in struggles for principle “that states have the fun come will surely not satisfy those power, and seldom sympathetic damental duty to abstain from in who wish to promote democracy towards democratic government. tervening, directly or indirectly, for with high-sounding phrases and In light of this history and these any reason whatever, in the inter halfhearted m easures, b u t it will paradoxes, how can third parties nal or external affairs of any other surely be Haitian. History tells us intervene in such a political sys state in accordance with Article 18 that most probably the next crisis is tem? The answer has to be: force of the Charter.” already gestating. ■ fully or not at all. No half measure, embargo or otherwise, has ever worked to bring about a desired course of events in Haiti. Hemisphere welcomes letters to the editor. Letters must be Short-Term Analysis typed double-spaced, and are subject to editing for clarity If this is what the long-term analy and length. sis of Haitian history tells us, more immediate history shows how the Please address letters lo: The Deputy Editor, Hemisphere, US and the inter-American system Latin American and Caribbean Center, Florida, Interna ignored this record. Their re sponse to the criminal sabotage tional University, University Park, Miami, FL 33199; of the 1987 elections were timid to FAX (305) 348-3593. the point of being pusillanimous. The US Senate’s resolution of

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 R E P Patent Pressures

by Mia Taylor Valdes

n Costa Rica a Polo dress shirt A US Intellectual Property Code T he US is working in several sells for $25. The same shirt for All arenas to promote its intellectual costs $60 or more in the US. property code. The proposals are Cases such as these have led multi part of the mandate of the current national corporations to clamor round of the General Agreement for stronger intellectual property on Tariffs and Trade, a treaty regu A stylish Benetton knit top rights worldwide. They claim Third lating 80% of world trade for 108 Ithat sells for $40 at a US mall World “pirates” deprive them of bil countries. They are also a precondi can be had for a mere $12. On lions of dollars a year by violating tion for Latin American govern closer inspection, however, the dis their patents and copyrights. ments seeking to renegotiate their cerning consumer might notice bilateral debt with the US. Strict that Ralph Lauren’s upscale em intellectual property laws are re blem looks more like a camel than quired as well for nations wishing an elegant polo player and the If developing countries to participate in President George Benetton shirt has the feel of— Bush’s Enterprise for the Americas horrors!—synthetic fabric. Neither adopt US-style patent Initiative, a plan promising free Mr. Lauren nor Benetton receive a access to US markets and generous penny from the sale of these shirts laws, there will be debt forgiveness in exchange for re structuring one’s economy in the because they are part of a wide a huge transfer of range of articles and services, from neoliberal mode. running shoes to computer soft resources to the North. If the “carrot” of trade benefit ware to cable TV, that are copied does not entice countries to tight for sale daily in Costa Rica and en their laws, then the US is pre much of the Third World. pared to brandish the “stick” of Costa Ricans who buy and sell trade sanctions. In 1988 the USTR counterfeit goods may not even The US government, ever the imposed sanctions on Brazil for know they are breaking the law; champion of big business, has not protecting the patents of US the country’s copyright and patent taken on the global battle for uni pharmaceutical companies; the laws, while fairly comprehensive on form and stronger intellectual sanctions were removed only paper, are seldom enforced. In property laws. The US Trade Rep when Brazil promised to enact 1990 a large US food company resentative (USTR), in cooperation stricter laws. Currently, Guatemala tried to market its products in with the Intellectual Property Com and El Salvador are scrambling to Costa Rica only to discover that its mittee (composed of IB corporate regulate the dissemination of cable brand name was already well giants such as General Motors, TV and records and tapes. Their known, having been appropriated IBM, Merck, and Dupont), has loose laws have landed them on by a local firm some 15 years be come up with new standards for the USTR’s annual list of countries fore. T he case is still w inding its the rest of the world. The stan with barriers to LTS exports: the way through the courts with no dards include: lengthening the life final warning before sanctions are end in sight. The distributors of span of patents, ensuring that coun applied. Mongol pencils, while also mired tries prohibit copies of trademark, in the legal process, opted for and removing restrictions on the Copycat Industrialization swifter justice by denouncing the manufacture of patented goods fake Mongol products in full-page (e.g., some governments require There are clear benefits to the ads in the daily papers. that a product sold in its country industrialized world if developing also be produced there). The pro countries adopt US-style patent posal would also extend patents to laws. There will be a huge transfer “all products and processes which of resources to the North. Third World consumers will have to buy Mia Taylor Valdes is a free-lance are new, useful and unobvious,” the imported “genuine article” journalist in San Jose, Costa Rica. including genetic material.

6 Hemisphere • Fall 1992 domestic drug firm can duplicate a rather than the cheap locally made it,” says R oberto Rojas, Costa Rican patent medicine if it develops a facsimile. Royalties from licensing foreign trade minister. new technique for doing so. Under agreements could add billions to the Indian law the government corporate coffers. But what advan Law Puts Wealth before Health may require patent holders to tage is there in all this for the de manufacture their product under veloping world? Even developing countries that license in India if they are not pro Advocates of strong intellectual support stricter intellectual prop viding enough of a certain medi property regulations claim the pro erty rights question some of the cine at a reasonable price. These tection provided by these laws will aspects of the US proposals—es innovative laws, which benefit mean more foreign investment pecially the patent coverage of Third World consumers and their leading to increased innovation medicine, which the US wants to fledgling pharmaceutical indus and technology transfer to the observe for 17 years. Costa Rica, tries, would be prohibited under Third World. Not so, say critics, like most small developing coun the new intellectual property code. who claim the stronger laws will tries, has few resources to devote to lead instead to a monopoly of tech research and development. But in nology by those who already have Costa Rica drug patents last for Patenting the Rain Forest it. Innovation, they declare, results only one year. After that, medi The most ominous feature of the from loose patent laws that allow a cines can be reproduced by private new intellectual property regula developing country to copy tech firms or in the labs of the country s tions is a proposal to allow the pat nology, leapfrogging over many socialized medicine program. enting of life forms, a practice steps in the industrialization pro already in effect in the US. This cess. Proponents of liberal laws would permit companies to collect point to the US itself and Asia The most ominous genetic material to be later trans where industrialization took place formed through biotechnological in a climate of lax intellectual prop feature of the new wizardry into new patentable prod erty laws. Jap an is the suprem e ex ucts. ample of a technology copycat. regulations is a The recent cracking of the After World War II it began dupli proposal to allow the gene, as revolutionary as the split cating Western products and un ting of the atom, has spawned a derselling the originals. As the patenting of life forms. rapidly evolving form of industrial technology was mastered and dis engineering that uses genetic infor seminated, local brands became mation as its raw material. Contro competitive. In one generation it versy stems from the fact that the went from master counterfeiter to Prices of locally made drugs tend technology-rich North is also gene- the world’s high-tech leader. to be much cheaper than the origi poor. The Third World, however, In the 1960s Hong Kong fol nals. This is one reason why Costa while lacking in technological ex lowed Japan along this path to Rica has one of the healthiest pop pertise, is a genetic treasure trove rapid development. Hong Kong, ulations in the developing world. possessing 80% of the planet’s spe in turn, was followed by Taiwan A law that would require importing cies and almost all its unexplored and Korea in the 1970s, and Thai expensive brand-name drugs would life forms. “We are now entering land in the 1980s; all copying West cause severe public health conse an age in which genetic wealth, es ern and, later, Japanese products. quences. It would also cripple the pecially in tropical areas such as Modernization was hastened by local pharmaceutical industry while rain forests ... is becoming a cur" copying. Now the process is de securing a monopoly for multina rency with high immediate value, cried as “piracy.” “This is a historic tional pharmaceutical companies. says biotechnology company execu problem between the developed Other developing countries, tive Winston Brill. countries that try to maintain con such as India, observe patents of manufacturing processes but not The tropical countries, however, trol over technology and the poor cannot demand compensation for countries that try to appropriate products. Under such a system a

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Reports: Politics and Trade

the exploration and exploitation of feel it is a novel and mutually bene W orld’s biodiversity will be a their genetic resources because ficial arrangement; others accuse marketable resource like oil that these “naturally occurring organ the country of selling its “patri could sustain long-term develop isms” have already been classified mony” for a pittance. Suspicion ment. Genetic abundance may be “universal common heritage.” Un abounds because the technology is the asset that will provide some like minerals, species cannot be so new and the monetary value of tropical countries with their last considered assets of the country in the raw materials and the end prod chance out of perpetual poverty. which they are found. Many fear ucts is unknown. For its part, the And the poor countries of the the race is on to control the US governm ent is putting enor South need time to develop their world’s genetic wealth. Multina mous pressure on countries to own technologies in order to break tional pharmaceutical, food, and adopt US-style patent laws that will out of their traditional role as sup chemical companies have their give legal backing to the multi pliers of cheap raw materials. eyes on countries such as tiny Costa nationals’ pursuit of the tropics’ Rica—a mere 0.1% of the world’s treasures. Critics fear that some All This Work for Nothing? land mass that is home to 5% of countries, in their eagerness to re the planet’s biodiversity. negotiate their debt or get more fa In exchange for restructuring their A recent contract between Costa vorable trade deals, will adopt new economies and adopting strict pat Rica and drug giant Merck and patent laws without realizing the ent laws—measures that are short Company to inventory life forms ramifications. term losers for poor countries— and split the profits from any use Critics of the new laws urge a the industrialized world promises ful products derived from them has wait-and-see approach. It is too to provide long-term gains by drop divided environmentalists. Some soon to tell whether the Third ping its trade barriers to agricul tural and textile products from the South. But while the developing world is carrying out its end of the bargain and eliminating trade bar riers, wealthy nations hold fast to protectionist tariffs and quota. Links And free-trade plans with so much HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT REPORT promise, such as the Enterprise for the Americas Initiative, have yielded precious few rewards for “Links provides the best countries enduring structural ad overview I have seen of justm ent sacrifices. critical issues affecting the After complying with US de mands to liberalize its economy health of disadvantaged and receiving little in return, Costa peoples. It is a must for Rica now faces the reform of its in anyone concerned with the tellectual property laws. According to Luis Guinot, US ambassador to links between health and Costa Rica, “Heading the list for social justice.” any possible negotiations (of free- trade pacts) would be countries — David Werner, whose legal systems give protection author 0/ Where There to copyright and accept interna tional standards.” Is No Doctor Whether in regional trade talks, debt refinancing, or inter □ Subscription to Links. national agreements, intellectual property rights is an issue that $12 for one year; $25 institutions and foreign; w on’t go away. Costa Rica and $3 for individual copies other Third World countries should be wary of who will profit ^ Send your name and address along with a check to: and who will lose in adopting US- Links, P.O. Box 202, New York NY 10276. style laws. Before signing their rights away they would be wise to examine carefully what lurks be tween the lines. ■

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Hemisphere • Fall 1992 9 Reports: Politics and Trade

If Castro Should Fall. . . by Bernardo Vega

hat would be the has probably made local produc m inican Republic in several ways. impact of Fidel tion profitable—if barely so—even First, the US would surely open its Castro’s political without the US quota. The fact is door to goods assembled in Cuba, demise, the rees especially true for the private mills, if for no other reason than to slow tablishment of US- which receive only one-third of the down the exodus of Cubans to Cuban political and US quota. As far as the state-owned Miami. Second, it is no secret that Wcommercial relations, and the eco mills are concerned, the elimina Cuba’s work force is more disci nomic opening of Cuba on the tion of the quota would probably plined, educated, and healthy than economy of the Dominican Repub accelerate the inevitable diversifica the Dominican work force. Third, lic? Let’s make the highly specula tion away from sugar. The question transport costs from Cuba to the tive and risky assumption that such here is not whether diversification US are less than from the Domini changes will occur in C uba as they will take place, but w hether it will can Republic. Fourth, if the new did in the former Soviet Union and occur in a logical, planned way, Cuban government sets its curren Eastern Europe, that is, with a mini and whether it will prove successful. cy at a realistic rate of exchange, mum of violence but with a diffi Other Dominican commodity then Cuban exports would be all cult transition towards a market exports may also suffer. While it is the more competitive with Do econom y. true that Dominican cigars have minican exports. And finally, due been gaining in popularity—partly to strong US-based political pres Exports and Tourism because of the decline in quality of sure, Cuba would probably follow Cuban cigars—the gain in Domini Mexico as the second Latin Ameri The Dominican Republic gained can cigar exports could be reversed can country to enter into a free- access to the US preferential sugar if the quality of Cuba’s product im trade agreement with the US. quota only because of the Cuban proves. Similarly the Dominican There is, however, a window of revolution. Should democracy be economy stands to lose if Cuba optimism for free-trade zones in established in Cuba, it is logical to increases its production of nickel, the Dominican Republic. A US- assume th at C uba’s quota will be thereby depressing the mineral’s Cuba free-trade agreement could reinstated (as US legislation still international price. lay the groundwork for the widen mandates), which implies that the It may well be in tourism and ing of the existing Caribbean Com D om inican quota will be elimi free-trade zones, however, that the mon Market (CARICOM)—to nated. This will not, however, have Dominican Republic would experi include Cuba, the Dominican Re the enormous negative impact it ence the most negative impact. To public, and Haiti—and the estab would have had during the 1960s be sure, it is unclear that increased lishment of a US-CARICOM and 1970s. Today the loss would tourism in Cuba would come at free-trade agreement. amount to $59 million a year, a the expense of the Dominican Re mere 2.6% reduction in the total public since tourism in the latter value of the Dominican Republic’s country is composed mainly of Eu Capital and Migratory Flows export of goods and services. ropean “package” charters rather Unquestionably the powerful Keep in mind as well that Do than individual US visitors. Indeed, Cuban lobby in the US would in minican consumers themselves are there are already a number of ini sure massive US assistance to Cuba. paying 16 cents per pound for tiatives to sell packages that in Such resources would come at the sugar produced in the country, in clude stays in both Cuba and the expense of US aid to other coun stead of the 8.7 cents received in Dominican Republic. Jamaica, tries, such as the Dominican Re the world market. This differential Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and Ber public (although the latter’s muda would probably be the major current assistance from the US is losers in the event that US tourists already quite low). Meanwhile, the Bernardo Vega, a former president of are diverted to Cuba. return of US private investment to the Banco Central, is president of the Nevertheless, the opening of the Cuba would probably also take Fundacion Cultural Dominicana in Cuban economy would likely un place at the expense of the Domin Santo Domingo. dercut free-trade zones in the Do ican Republic, though, again, with

Flemisphere • Fall 1992 the exception of investments in same for the Cubans who stayed the Cuban revolution do the same? free zones and some agroindus behind. Their planes cannot take them di tries, US private investment in the The impact of an arriving wave rectly to North Korea or China, the Dominican Republic has not been of agronomists, engineers, bio only places where they would be substantial during the past decade. chemists, physicians, and others on completely safe from the revenge The greatest effect of political the Dominican Republic would be of the exiles. As has occurred with and economic liberalization in extraordinary. Indeed, it promises the currently exiled Haitian gen Cuba on the Dominican Republic to be more beneficial than the erals and politicians in Santo Do will probably be in the sphere of Cuban immigration of the 1960s, mingo, would an exiled Cuban migration. Unwilling to face uncer which energized the country’s en hierarchy in the Dominican Re tainties in Cuba, and possessing a trepreneurial class, or the Cuban public make the new authorities new freedom to emigrate, a sig immigration of the late nineteenth in Cuba nervous? nificant n u m b er o f C ubans will century, which opened up the Finally, even though change in leave for the Dominican Republic. country’s modern sugar industry. Cuba might damage certain sectors Something similar is occurring in The key variable would be the of the Dominican economy, the Do Eastern Europe and the former So size of influx that the Dominican minican Republic should welcome viet Union, where persons opt to government would be willing to that change. When Trujillo fell, the migrate rather than confront local accept. Dominican Republic received a uncertainties. In Cuba the profes sugar quota, donations, and grants, sional segment is most likely to emi Political Aspects which to some extent came at the grate because they know they can expense of other countries in the find work elsewhere. Contributing Would the fall of the Castro dicta Caribbean. Those countries did to the flow of people from Cuba to torship repeat what occurred with not complain. A neighbor’s free the Dominican Republic will be the the fall of the Machado dictator dom is above everything. ■ hostility of Cuban exiles in Miami ship in 1934 and the Batista dicta and the US government. Having torship in 1959? Both Machado received the anticommunists with and Batista fled to the Dominican op en arms, they will hardly do the Republic. Would the leadership of (Translated by Hemisphere staff) RIENNER

Development from Within LACC Studies on Latin America and Toward a Neostructuralist Approach for Latin America the Caribbean edited by OSVALDO SUNKEL • Caribbean Geopolitics 1992 • hc/$55 Toward Security Through Peace? ANDRES SERBIN, translated by SABET RAMIREZ PERU'S I Peru’s APR A “Cogent, insightful analysis.” A P R A —Caribbean Studies Newsletter • 1990 • hc/$28.50 Parties, Politics, and the Elusive Quest • Elusive Friendship and the for Democracy Elusive Quest A Survey of U.S.-Chilean Relations CAROL GRAHAM for Democracy HERALDO MUNOZ and CARLOS PORT ALES 1992 • he,'$37.50 “Concise and well-written.” — The Review of Politics 1990 • hc/$23 • Chile’s Middle Class Sarmiento and A Struggle for Survival in the Face His Argentina of Neoiiberalism edited by JOSEPH T. CRISCENTI LARISSA LOMNTTZ and ANA MELNICK 1992 • hc/$25 1991 • hc/$30

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Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Reports: Politics and Trade

Awash in Coffee by David Swafford

n April 1992 the International Under the 1983 ICA, export Bank economists and other observ Coffee Council agreed that a quotas were assigned to producing ers predict that a new agreement global consensus exists for the countries participating in the agree satisfying the array of political inter negotiation of a new Interna ment and were meant to control ests involved will not be reached in tional Coffee Agreement the amounts and types of coffee en the 1990s. (ICA), which would be differ tering the world market. All coffee ent from its 1983 predecessor in produced beyond those quotas had I Political Forces two ways. First, export quotas to be stored to prevent natural dis would be allowed to fluctuate ac asters like drought from causing The political forces at play in the cording to market conditions. And shortages and consequently de coffee trade negotiations are var second, there would be no separa stabilizing prices. Lhe prescribed ied. There are basic differences of tion between the regulated market separation of markets, however, cre interest not only between pro and the unregulated market; only ated the opportunity for the partic ducing countries and consuming one universal market would be ipating countries to “dum p” all countries, but also among the pro recognized. ducing countries themselves. Since July 1989, when the eco Regarding the revision of export nomic clauses of the 1983 ICA quotas, a US Trade Representative were suspended and the global (USTR) report says the US delega coffee market was liberalized, There are basic tion to the International Coffee prices that coffee producers re differences of interest Organization began pushing for a ceive have fallen to their lowest revision in the total amount of levels in decades. In May 1989 the not only between Mild Arabica coffee being ex composite market price was $1.15 ported in the early 1980s. The US p er pound. By A ugust 1992 the coffee-producing and delegation wanted to increase the composite price had dropped by total amount from 43% of the 61% to $.45 per pound. Some free- consuming countries, world market share to 48%, which market proponents argued that ex but among producing meant that countries growing Mild porting nations would be able to Arabicas would benefit at the ex make up the price difference with countries as well. pense of other coffee-producing volume increases. While some nations. Europe also supported the countries have boosted the volume idea of increasing the share of Mild of their coffee exports above their Arabicas available. The demand for old quota limits, the net increase in Mild Arabicas has grown even in coffee exports worldwide has been coffee that exceeded their export France and Italy, the two largest 13% per year, which is now here quotas on buyer nations outside European-continental importers of near enough to offset the fall in the ICA, to whom the quotas did Robusta beans. According to a prices. Latin American coffee pro not apply. Virtually all surplus cof World Bank study, in 1986-88 the ducers have lost $5-10 billion since fee could be sold in this way. To share of Mild Arabicas in the ICA was suspended. Plunging mar avoid future dumping on the un French market grew from 39% to ket prices have compounded the regulated market, the Interna 45%. economic woes of countries that de tional Coffee Council decided that One reason the producing na pend on coffee production as a key there would be only one universal tions in the ICA began selling their source of foreign exchange and m arket. surplus coffee to nonmember coun employment. The council’s decisions gave tries at cheaper prices is that it had coffee producers throughout Latin become too large and unwieldy to America and other regions of the store. The very existence of the David Swafford is a free-lance journal world hope that a new agreement ICA mechanism gave an increasing ist in Miami, Florida, specializing in could indeed be reached. In spite number of small farmers in Third international business. of their optimism, however, World World countries an incentive to

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 grow coffee, while at the same time, demand in consuming na COFFEE: WORLD MARKET PRICES tions declined steadily each year. The forces eventually led to a world “awash in coffee beans” (Barron’s, September 4, 1989). The USTR reports that in 1988 alone about 12 million bags had been traded on this secondary mar ket for 20-40% less per bag than 140

consuming nations participating in -Q the ICA were paying. According to 2 the US Department of Agriculture, I 120 major producers Costa Rica and co Guatemala were selling roughly 35% of their coffee crop, and smaller producer Honduras about 40% of its crop, on the secondary market. Not surprisingly, Brazil, the world’s largest coffee producer, was selling the highest volume of 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1985 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 all on the secondary market. In the Source: International Coffee Organization face of the fact that the rest of the ICA coffee-producing nations had accepted the idea of one universal market, Brazil continued to favor two separate markets. COFFEE: WORLD EXPORT VOLUME Buying nations went on record objecting to the two-tier system because of the unequal prices being paid for coffee in the two markets. But the real reason they objected to the system was that the producing nations controlled the 70 ! _ ____ surplus. Whoever controls the sur plus can also control the price in 0 5 through the amount of coffee 5 50 - being released onto the retail mar o ket. If the coffee supply is in the |03 hands of the roasters, they can boost their profits by keeping S 30 - wholesale prices low and retail prices high. Thus, in spite of the world-market coffee surplus, by the 10 end of 1989 average retail coffee prices in the US had increased by 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 12% and continued to rise. Al though both the US and Europe Source: International Coffee Organization have expressed willingness to par ticipate in a new agreement, they have done little to ensure that a matum would not be met, the US Congress decided by a quick, unani new agreem ent will be reached. withdrew from further negotia mous voice-count not to enter the T he USTR says th at on several tions. In July 1989, when the US US in further economic commit occasions during the mid-1980s the delegation to the International Cof ments to the ICA. US delegation urged producing na fee Organization informed Capitol In any case, according to the tions to stop the two-tier market Hill of the continued deadlock be USTR report, any attempt to ex system, eventually issuing an ultima tween producers and buyers con tend the life of the export quotas tum. When it was clear that the ulti cerning the export quota system, and to continue negotiating would

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Reports: Politics and Trade

have been "doomed” for the same quotas. Coffee-producing nations lombia. Wary of alienating its pow reason it would be doomed in themselves could never agree on a erful neighbor, Brazil, Colombia re 1992: commodity agreements are a revision of the export limits. For fused to support a Costa Rican form of price control, which free- example, while most other coffee- proposal for across-the-board in market proponents are inclined to producing nations favored some creases in Mild Arabica exports at disfavor. In fact, Myles Frechette, kind of revision, Brazil, the largest Brazil’s expense, despite the fact assistant US trade representative producer and exporter of Robusta that it stood to gain economically for Latin America, the Caribbean, beans, favored no change at all. by supporting the proposal, None and Africa, says the US will not Moreover, Mexico favored increas theless, pressure on Brazil’s delega actively seek a new ICA because ing its own export quota at the ex tion to lower its share of the export free-market proponents in Con pense of Brazil’s, arguing that, in market and support a universal gress and the White House favor light of current world demand, it quota system began to swell on all the interests of US coffee roasters. was unfair that Mexico could ex sides. At the time Congress was due to port only 40% of its Mild Arabica The fact that Brazil came for vote on further US participation crop while Brazil could export 90% ward in April 1992 with a compro in ICA negotiations, the New York- of its Robusta crop. mising spirit and endorsed the idea based National Coffee Association At this point the Robusta-proof a universal, flexible quota system sent a memorandum to Capitol ducing countries of Africa were stirred hope in many coffee-produc Hill saying: . . be it resolved that also opposed to Brazil’s large share ing nations. At that meeting the the NCA advises the appropriate of the Robusta market. They fa head of the Brazilian delegation, United States Government officials vored increasing their percentage Dorothea Werneck, said: “The Bra of its views that. . . the interests of of the Robusta market while de zilian government has shown itself the United States Coffee Consum creasing either Brazil’s percentage sensitive to the frequently ex er and Industry are best accommo or the percentage of Mild Arabica pressed views of other developing dated by free and unrestricted producers like Mexico, Colombia, countries highly dependent on cof trade in coffee.” and Central America. fee exports and did not lose sight US resistance was not the only Adding to the swirling pools of of this important political factor in factor leading to the suspension of dissension in the mid-1980s was Co reaching its final decision.” Still, market prices continue to spiral downward as world produc tion continues its unbridled in The Changing crease. The International Coffee Hemispheric Organization estimated last year’s world production at 10 billion bags, Trade Environment: up from 1990-91’s level of 9.5 bil Opportunities and lion bags. Although market con ditions are worsening yearly, Obstacles international com prom ise is a long way off. That Brazil says it Mark B. Rosenberg, Editor agrees with the idea of a universal quota is just the beginning of what Leading international trade specialists analyze options for hemispheric will surely by a lengthy process. trade, including the likely impact of a North American free trade Brazil’s claim, moreover, could be agreement and a single European market and the roles of Japan and the a mere ploy. According to a former Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. ICA official, there are three op tions for the future: the status quo, Contributors: Luis Abugattas, Myles Frechette, Marian Goslinga, Wolf i.e., a continuation of the ICA Grabendorff, Gary C. Hufbauer, Tetsuro lino, Carolyn Lamm, Henry Nau, framework under a liberalized mar Riordan Roett, Mark B. Rosenberg, Jeffrey J. Schott, Barbara Stallings. ket; the adoption of a new ICA with a revised export quota system; or, least likely of all, the cancella September 1991. 165 pp. 6x9. tion of the entire ICA mechanism. ISBN 1-879862-01-8 Paperback, $11.95 (S/H, add $1.25 per book). Given the political clout of US and European roasters, and given that Order direct from: Latin American and Caribbean Center (LACC), the producing nations themselves Florida International University, University Park, Miami, Florida 33199. are so splintered, the status quo is Visa and MasterCard orders: (305) 348-2894 or fax (305) 348-3593. likely to continue for quite some tim e. ■

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Reports: Migration

The Ecuadoran-New York Nexus by David Kyle

t is a scene typical of Sunday gatherings in Ecuador—the men are playing soccer and ecuavoly (volleyball played with three-men teams and a net twice as tall as the players) Ior just taking it all in while the women prepare traditional dishes such as roasted cuyes (guinea pigs). Yet this description applies to any weekend in Flushing Meadow Park, Queens, where thousands of Ecua doran immigrants come together to temporarily forget the drudgery of their work and the loneliness of separation from their families. Back in Ecuador their families go to urban centers to buy and sell goods, produce, and livestock at the Sunday market, just as they have done for hundreds of years. The high point, however, may now be an early morning visit to a travel

agency to retrieve a letter, package, Rene Ramos or simply a money order sent from New York City. The remittance bands, showing off their New York the demographic make-up and so from the family member abroad, apartments or the good times at cial values of those Ecuadoran com typically a couple of hundred dol Flushing Meadow Park. The wives munities left behind. lars, is then cashed or deposited at will need to start thinking about the bank. Dollars can also be ex the instructions included in the let The Northward Flow changed at the various casas de ter for the construction of their fu cambio, usually found in interna ture homes in town, often simply Migration from Ecuador to the US tional tourist centers or airports, in the form of photographs of de has occurred in two waves. The thus allowing easier conversion at sired homes taken in New York first sizable Ecuadoran migration the best rates. This can all be com City suburbs. to the US—about 4,000 persons an pleted before Sunday mass begins The Ecuadoran community in nually—came mostly from the port at 11:00 a.m. the New York City area now repre city of Guayaquil during the 1950s After returning home in the eve sents the third largest concentra banana boom. The principal des ning, the wives may watch a home tion of Ecuadorans in the world, tination for some 80% of these im video tape sent along with the re after those of Guayaquil and Quito. migrants was New York City, where mittance by their sons and hus- While New York’s Ecuadoran com in 1980 an estimated 45,000 Ecua munity is merely one of numerous dorans lived. immigrant communities in the There is evidence, however, of David Kyle is a Ph.D. candidate in soci area, its remittances amount to mil a new migratory flow comprised ology at The Johns Hopkins University. lions of dollars per year and rep mostly of undocumented immi His doctoral research project is “The resent one of Ecuador’s largest grants. This second wave gained Transnational Village: A Study of Mi sources of hard currency. The so momentum in the early 1980s and gration from the Ecuadoran Sierra to cial impact of the migration has originated in the south-central re New York City. ” been significant as well, distorting gion of the Ecuadoran highlands

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Reports: Migration

centering on Cuenca—Ecuador’s Ecuador migration from specific re and from both rural and urban third largest city with a population gions. Ecuador’s rural areas have areas. Yet, while the northward of 200,000. This US-bound exodus been especially hard hit by eco stream has largely depleted some of people from the provinces of nomic crisis. Not only did employ rural villages of adult men, other Azuay and Canar is widely based: ment in agriculture steadily decline villages nearby have been largely 39% of surveyed households have during the 1980s, but real wages untouched by the exodus. at least one member living in the dropped by 45%. While such eco US. Moreover, computerized data nomic factors are important, they New York Life from Ecuador Travel—a leading fail to fully explain why Cuenca Ecuadoran travel agency and cou and neighboring towns are sending Consistent with the pattern of rier service in the New York City so many compared to other areas other undocumented Latin Ameri area—confirms a sharp increase in of Ecuador. can immigrants in the US, most of migration from the south-central the undocumented Ecuadorans region. During 1991 well over twice find an initial, low-paid jo b as, say, as many letters were sent from the a seamstress, a dishwasher, or in New York area to Cuenca as to Gua semiskilled manufacturing, with yaquil, Ecuador’s largest city. The Some of th e strategies the assistance of family and friends. owner of Ecuador Travel observes for leaving Ecuador Others coming from wealthier fami that as recently as 1983 his agency lies are more likely to have advan was sending very few letters to exhibit tragicomic tages of education, knowledge of Cuenca. English, and high-placed contacts Most of the migrants from levels: a tour bus from to find decent administrative or south-central Ecuador are undoc service jobs, while some from the umented and use a variety of strate Cuenca to Caracas city of Cuenca bring jewelry-mak- gies to enter the US. Some of these had to be retrieved by ing skills that allow them to work in strategies for leaving the area ex a Manhattan jewelry factory. In hibit tragicomic levels: in 1991 a the tour operator when creasingly, however, Ecuadorans in tour bus from Cuenca to Caracas New York are having difficulty find had to be retrieved by the tour op everyone—including ing even the most menial jobs, a erator after everyone—including the driver—“jumped problem leading to defaults on the driver—“jumped ship” in Vene loans made in Ecuador. zuela. ship”in Venezuela. Most of New York’s Ecuadorans Most would-be emigrants use an live in Queens alongside Colom informal but highly organized net bians and Dominicans in the Jack work of moneylenders and false- son Heights area. Large numbers document providers controlled by of them also live in Manhattan, a handful of families, often borrow The answer may lie in the fact Brooklyn, the Bronx, and Newark. ing $6-8,000 at 12% interest rates that for generations many Ecua There are more than 100 Ecua (compounded monthly). The dorans of this region have left their doran social clubs and civic associa money is then used to pay a “coy home locales during the agricul tions in the New York area and ote” who will take them from Ecua tural off-season and periods of several restaurants serving comida dor to the Mexican border. A more economic downturn. Nationally, tipica. Ecuador’s main government expensive but less grueling route is south-central Ecuador has been a institution dedicated to arts and sci simply to buy a false resident visa, primary source of migrant labor to ences, La Casa de la Cultura, now ex which often comes with the neces the coastal and Amazonian regions tends to the US through its “Nucleo sary guidance to illegals on how to almost continuously since the ca deNueva York.” maintain the facade of a seasoned cao boom at the turn of the cen visitor to the US. Those who can af tury, supplying the banana boom Back Home ford this route are able to arrive in of the 1940s and the more recent New York within 24 hours after de petroleum and gold booms of the To any observer traveling through parture from their village or town. 1970s and 1980s. Many of the cur the rural areas of Ecuador’s south- rent international migrants may central highlands, the first evi Social Origins never return home to live; never dence of the migration and the theless, most of them consider remittances being sent home is The origins of new migration stem their journey a temporary hardship the explosive construction of new from both economic crisis, which to save money. The flow from Ecua homes, which are considerably arrived with a vengeance in the dor’s highland area includes migra more extravagant than those in early 1980s, and a tradition of intra- tion at all levels of the work force other comparably sized towns in

Hemisphere . Fall 1992 Ecuador. A widespread rumor cir and cultural changes in towns cause or a consequence of the culating in the area describes a that have high levels of interna population outflow, the immi three-story house with an elevator— tional migration. Changes that grants themselves have been trans built in a zone still awaiting the in have alarmed migrants and non formed by the experience of living troduction of power lines. Whether migrants alike range from broad abroad. When asked whether they true or not, the rumor epitomizes concerns of cultural alienation and will ever resettle in Ecuador, most the boom nature of the migration. consumerism to an increasing rate express a desire to return “some An economist from the Banco of divorce. The migration to New day,” but add that it would be dif Central of Ecuador estimates that in York has raised concerns within ficult to permanently return to 1990 emigrants remitted $120 mil traditional communities over the Ecuador. This is understandable lion to the Cuenca area. Yet the local economic conditions that in that the conditions that forced common perception is that capital seemingly force workers out, pro them abroad still persist; to this, gained from the migration goes mote US values, and impose new however, must be added the cul into consumption and construc roles that women must now play tural impact of living in New York tion, not investment in productive in the absence of men. In a place City. enterprises. While a few Ecua where men have traditionally dom There are few signs of recovery dorans have returned to open res inated, women left behind must from the Ecuadoran recession that taurants or drive new taxis, money not only take charge of economic began in the early 1980s. For the sent home goes more to social than decisions but also rear children foreseeable future, the only escape economic investments. That is, the alone—an especially difficult task valve for the region’s traditional purchase of land and the construc with sons who become surrogate migratory activity will probably tion of large homes in Ecuador is adult males. continue to be the journey north driven mainly by the desire for US culture has been promoted to the US. The Ecuadoran impact upward social mobility; true eco in south-central Ecuador by re of this northward stream will con nomic investment has a better re turning migrants, known locally as tinue to increase as it transforms turn in the US. “residentes” or “YANYs” (for “Yo amo traditional communities through The boom nature of the exodus Nueva York”). W hether new values the flow of US dollars and the cre to New York has led to some social associated with US culture are a ation of transnational families. ■

THE FACES AN OF THE CODS UNWANTED Vodou and Roman WAR Catholicism in Haiti The Diplomacy of the United Leslie C. Desmangles States and Spain over Cuba, Leslie Desmangles analyzes the 1 8 9 5 - 1 8 9 8 mythology and rituals of Vodou, John L. Offner focusing on both West African John Offner clarifies the complex and European influences. He sees relations between the U.S., Spain, Vodou not simply as a grafting and Cuba and argues that the war of European religious traditions was not wanted by any of the onto African stock, but as a true parties. creole phenomenon. approx. 260 pp., $32.50 cloth, “Replace[s] all previous treat $12.95 paper ments about the coming of the war and its impact on the history of the United States.” at bookstores or by toll-free order — Lewis L. Gould The University of North Carolina Press Chapel Hill 320 pp., $39.95 cloth, $14.95 paper Phone (800) 848-6224 FAX (800) 272-6817

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 FA X

Insider briefs on people and institutions shaping Latin American and Caribbean affairs

10,000 Years of Solitude Winners and Losers I negative rhetoric emanating from US policymakers. Nonethe Time magazine (Special Issue, The National Labor Committee less, in the face of anticipated Fall 1992) asked notables “what Education Fund in Support of diversion of investment to Mexico should humankind aim to accom Worker and Fluman Rights in Cen as a result of the North American plish in the coming decades?” The tral America has published Paying Free Trade Agreement, Gore’s neg response by Gabriel Garcia Mar to Lose OurJobs, a stinging critique ative sentiments will make it even quez was uncharacteristically di of US foreign policy toward Cen harder to promote new investment rect: “The only new idea that could tral America. The report charges for the Caribbean and Central save humanity in the 21st century is that “American workers, as taxpay America. for women to take over the manage ers, are paying to lose their jobs.” ment of the world. I believe that According to the study, the Reagan male hegemony has squandered an and Bush administrations have opportunity of 10,000 years. . . . “channeled over one billion dollars The masculine power structure has of taxpayer money” through pro proved that it cannot impede the grams of the US Agency for Inter destruction of the environment be national Development to establish Nicaragua Today, cause it is incapable of overcoming “export processing zones” through Cuba Tomorrow its own interests. For women . . . out Central America and the Car The Republican staff of the Senate preservation of the environment is ibbean. The two administrations’ Foreign Relations Committee has a genetic vocation. ...” largess included efforts to promote issued a report blasting the man the offshore relocation of US busi agement and governance of Nica ■ ness activities. Amply documented ragua’s democratically elected with tables, charts, and statistical in government. Innocuously titled formation, the report provides a Who Speaks for the Victims? “Nicaragua Today,” the report country-by-country list of AID’s in states that the country is controlled The Berkeley-based Committee to vestment, trade, and related pro by General Flumberto Ortega and Support the Revolution in Peru is gram support efforts in Central the Sandinistas through President now distributing an urgent circular America since 1980. It can be ob Violeta Chamorro’s son-in-law and calling upon the international com tained by calling (212) 242-0700. m unity to Defend the Life of Abimael minister of the presidency, Anto Guzman [sic], leader of the Peru nio Lacayo. It also states that doz vian revolution. According to the ens of Chamorro’s relatives have September 18, 1992, document, been appointed to “the most pres “bold action is needed immediately Winners and Losers II tigious posts.” The document is to mobilize prominent figures highly critical of the government’s A September 30, 1992, ABC “Night- around the world to help shine a failure to return “tens of thou line” program featured a debate spotlight on the treacherous ma sands” of confiscated properties between Secretary of Labor Lynn nipulations already being planned to rightful owners, including 450 Martin and Democratic vice-presi against Abimael Guzman.” Among Americans. “Nicaragua Today” sent dential candidate A1 Gore on the those signing the circular endors shock waves through senior govern findings of Paying to Lose Our Jobs. ing these efforts are John Gerassi, ment circles in Nicaragua, particu According to Gore, “programs au th o r of The Great Fear in Latin larly because it serves as the basis such as the CBI [Caribbean Basin America, and William Kunstler, an for a cutoff of US development aid Initiative] were a mistake then and attorney associated with the Center for the beleaguered country. The for Constitutional Rights. are a mistake now” because “it is difficulties encountered in US- an outrage to ask US taxpayers to Nicaraguan relations are but a throw Americans out of work.” harbinger of things to come with By now Central America and the Cuba, once US relations with that Edited by Mark B. Rosenberg Caribbean should be used to such country are normalized.

18 Hemisphere • Fall 1992 A Long Time Coming Play by the Rules Will He or Won’t He? Eleven Latin American and Carib Another nail has been driven into Oscar Arias, whose Central Ameri bean ministers of finance and econ Cuba’s economic coffin. In July can peace efforts earned him the omy met in Washington, DC, with 1992 a French court banned the Nobel and Martin Luther King US secretary of the treasury Nich import of three leading brands of Peace Prizes, may now be position olas Brady, June 24-25, 1992, to Cuban cigars because of a trade ing himself for another major nego exchange views on regional eco mark violation. Monte Cristo, H. tiation. According to La Opinion nomic reform and integration. Upmann, and Por Larranga can no (June 1992), a publication of This meeting was convened prior longer enter the French market be Cuban-American Social Democrats, to the G-7 Summit of Industrial cause of a dispute over who owns Don Oscar is quoted as stating that Countries, held July 6-9, 1992, in the three famous brands. When Central America’s ex-presidents Munich. Although the meeting ad their owners left Cuba in 1959, the should work to convince Fidel Cas dressed a range of issues, the real government continued their pro tro of the need for a peaceful, dem concern may have been equitable duction under the control of ocratic opening. Arias states “we economic growth. A US treasury of Cubatabaco. The suit was settled in have to work to persuade authori ficial summarized the US motiva favor of Tabacalera, a Spanish com ties from that government that it is tion for the meeting: “Obviously in pany that now controls the brand necessary, in a new world, to bury order to keep the people of Latin names for all non-US business. The dogmatisms, [and] stop living in America convinced that this is three brands comprise about 50% the past. . . . Today the task is to something good for them, the eco of all Cuban cigar imports to convince, not vanquish.” nomic fruits of these reforms can’t France. all be in the stock market: they have to flow down to the people” (TheFinancial Times, June 26, 1992). ■ One Year After The Washington-based Inter-Ameri- can Dialogue played a major role September 1992 marked the one- in organizing the meeting, which year anniversary of the ouster of may become an annual affair. The Fruits ot Trade Flaiti’s elected president, Jean- Bertrand Aristide. Aristide’s ouster The Port of Philadelphia and the has had the by-product of generat Port of Wilmington (Delaware) are ing renewed interest in Haiti. The vying for the growing Latin Amer latest exam ple is Haiti Info, pub Raul Julia Narrates “Americas” ican export market in fruit. Ac lished by the Haitian Information cording to the Journal of Commerce Bureau (67 Pleasant Street, Cam Actor Raul Julia—“one of the busi (September 29, 1992), both ports bridge, Massachusetts 02139). The est actors in America” according to are aggressively marketing their fa lead article in a recent issue fo Hispanic Business (July 1992)—will cilities throughout the region, par cuses on the “rampant corruption” narrate the ten-part PBS series ticularly in Chile. In a potentially in the country. According to the ar “Americas,” focusing on Latin lucrative coincidence of geogra ticle, “within days of the violent American politics and culture, phy, Chile’s summer coincides with coup [against Aristide], corruption which is scheduled to air in January the US winter, when demand for and black market activities esca 1993. Julia, a Puerto Rican by birth, imported fruit is at its highest. Dur lated to levels higher than under has starred in numerous movies set ing 1991 Chile shipped 33.5 mil the Duvalier regime. Ministers, mili in Latin America, including Romero lion cases of grapes, nectarines, tary and middle managers quickly and Kiss o f the Spider Woman. A dd and other fruit to the US through vied for control of various staples ing to the star quality of “Americas” Philadelphia. On the West Coast, such as sugar, rice and gasoline. is that its theme music was com the Port of Los Angeles continues One of the most flagrant abuses is posed and performed byjuan Luis to dominate in imports of Chilean the waste and thievery of humani Guerra and his 4.40 band. fruit. tarian food aid.”

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 FEAT

Women and the Law

by Tina Rosenberg

In a regional context of struggles for democracy and human rights, the Latin American women’s movement is growing momentum. While feminists have registered initial gains at some levels, the dynamics of structural adjustment are a source of profound new setbacks.

osemary Correa had been Mulherwould open in a brick castle America, both in the law and in a police officer in Sao surrounded by palm trees in Sao everyday life. Delegacias are still as Paulo for 20 years when Paulo’s downtown ParqueDom signed a low priority within the po she was given an unusual Pedro. “We were scheduled to open lice, are short of money, and have assignment: to head the our doors at 8:00,” says Correa. “I no specialized staff. Most com world’s first police station arrived with my staff at 7:30. We plaints go uninvestigated. Only a R encountered a line of about 500 handful of cases ever result in con staffed entirely by women. It was 1985, and democracy had returned women with all kinds of bruises: victions. The female officers re to Brazil after 21 years of military black eyes, broken arms and legs, ceive no special training and are rule. Women’s groups in the state burned faces. Many just wanted to sometimes just as insensitive to of Sao Paulo were demanding that know that we existed. Most had women’s problems as their male the new government take action to never been to a police station. I counterparts; even some female po reduce what they maintained was a was shocked. At that moment we lice chiefs have said publicly that it widespread problem: domestic vio began to realize that there was a is a m an’s right to beat his wife. lence. The state’s interior minister problem here.” To help change this reality, hit on the idea of a women’s police Today, C orrea is a Sao Paulo women’s rights activists from all station, both to make women more state legislator and there are close over Latin America met for four comfortable reporting abuse and to 200 delegacias in Brazil, their hall days in Sao Paulo in April 1992 to to provide them with officers more ways usually filled with women, discuss penal law concerning wom likely to treat abuse seriously. holding babies, nervously waiting en. At the conference, sponsored Correa and 12 other officers were to make a complaint or ask about by the Comite Latinoamericano para drafted for the job. “I was not a their rights. The delegacias have la Defensa de los Derechos de la Mujer feminist,” she recalls. “I thought helped raise awareness of women’s (CLADEM), and funded by the that if this really were a problem, rights and the problems of domes Ford Foundation, over 50 lawyers, why w eren’t wom en bringing tic violence, sexual harassment, activists, and scholars from 14 charges in the regular police sta and rape; tens of thousands of Latin American countries—many tions?” women who might have suffered of which are contemplating reform The government announced in in silence have instead taken action ing their penal codes—debated the the press that on August 6, 1985, to stop their abuse. issues of domestic violence, rape, the first Delegacia de Defesa da Delegacias are a creative and im sexual abuse, incest, sterilization, portant step forward in reducing abortion, and prostitution. violence against women, a wide Although the meeting focused Tina Rosenberg has covered Latin spread problem among all social on these issues, there was a sense America since 1985for such publica classes in Latin America. One Boliv that the inequality of women was tions as Atlantic, ^Washington ian expert estimates that domestic hardly an isolated problem—that Post, and the New York Times Maga violence occurs in 70% to 80% of the current push for women’s zine. She is the author o/'Children of all Bolivian families. But the dele rights was very much a part of a Cain: Violence and the Violent in gacias’ limitations also show why broader campaign to bring back Latin America (William Morrow, women’s most basic rights still re democracy and ensure respect for 1991). main largely unprotected in Latin human rights throughout the re-

20 Hemisphere • Fall 1992 gion. Most delegates were also “The media and the judge focus on attorney general at the time. “It aware that they were not alone, how she lives, how she dresses.” contains almost eveiything the that their work in Latin America The CLADEM meeting also women’s movement wanted.” But was intrinsically linked to the work weighed the fact that in many coun specific laws to guarantee those of similar groups in the US and tries, Brazil and Bolivia included, rights do not exist, or are ignored Europe as well as in many other rape is considered a private crime. in practice. developing countries. If the victim is too intimidated or O ne reason is lack of infor discouraged to bring suit, no one mation, which hides the problem can do it for her. In Brazil rape is from public view. In Brazil there is Legal Roots treated as a breach not of the vic no central registry of crimes, not The most obvious problem, con tim’s rights, but of “custom,” an of even of murders. “It's not just ference participants agreed, is that fense against community morality. crimes against women,” said Luiza the law itself is often archaic and Such a concept often leads to at Eluf, head of Sao Paulo’s Conselho discriminatory. Ar ticle 176 of the tacks on the victim’s morals. para Defesa de Cidadania. “I co u ld n ’t Bolivian penal code, for example, even find out how many people states that lesions caused in the committed suicide, or died of drug home are punishable only if they Typically a man can overdose.” No one even knows how incapacitate a woman for more many women vote. Eva Blay, a soci than 30 days. “But even if a woman be convicted of rape ology professor who was one of Bra goes to a doctor with broken arms, zils feminist pioneers, said that to ribs, and a bruised face,” says Ju- only if witnesses exist find the number of female mayors lieta Montano, a lawyer with Boliv or the woman is visibly in Brazil, she had to call every ia’s nonprofit OficinaJuridica para mayor. la Mujer, “a doctor will rarely certify bruised. In Brazil There is also lack of money. In more than five days’ incapacita April 1992 greater Sao Paulo, with tion. I know of one woman whose some forms of sexual 20 million people the third largest husband threw boiling oil on her city in the world, had only one shel as she slept. She had third-degree abuse are treated as ter where women could go to es burns all over her body. The doc crimes only if the cape an abusive husband. The tor certified that she would be in shelter has 18 beds, and was full capacitated for 15 days. I have not victim is an “honest with just three women and their heard of a single conviction for children. Other shelters are wait battery in Bolivia.” woman. ” ing for financing to open their The legal standards for proving doors—and Sao Paulo is the wealth cases are also unreasonably high in iest and most developed metropo lis in Latin America. “Even when many Latin American countries. In Enforcing Rights most countries, a man can be con women go to the police station, few victed of rape only if witnesses exist But bad law, conference partici cases end up in court because we or the woman is visibly bruised. In pants said, is not the real problem. don’t have the human resources to Brazil some forms of sexual abuse “We are wonderful at writing laws,” collect evidence,” said Augusti of are only considered crimes if the said Montano of Bolivia. “What the Conselho Estadual da Condifao victim is an “honest woman,” mean we’re not so good at is following Feminina. ing a woman who fits the prevailing them." Most of the constitutions in Reporting a crime or bringing a public notion of morality. “It isn't Latin America are model docu suit is not only fruitless in many the defendant on trial but the his ments filled with eloquent state cases, often it is risky as well. One tory of the woman,” said Maria ments of rights, including women’s illustration is Brazil’s problem with Teresa Augusti, president of Sao rights. “Brazil’s 1988 constitution sterilization. Brazilian law provides Paulo’s Conselho Estadual da Condi- was our biggest conquest,” said women with 120 days maternity (doFeminina, a government board. Norma Kyriakos, Sao Paulo’s state leave. But businesses often attempt

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Gendered Injustice

to avoid the expense by hiring reported 11 murders of women in Finally, it sets up a variety of shel women only with proof of steriliza which the husband or boyfriend ters, counseling offices, and legal tion, or by requiring female em was the prime suspect. In Recife 10 advisory centers to help prevent ployees to take a pregnancy test women were killed in such circum violence and shield victims. each month. “This is completely stances in the 15 days before the “We have seen some problems,” illegal, but it is widely done,” said conference. said Vicente. “We have to educate Dr. Maria Jose de Araujo, who runs If these men are brought to judges, and the prosecutors have Sao Paulo’s nonprofit Colectivo da trial, they will likely be acquitted been horrible. But the temporary Sexualidade eFaude da Mulher. “If on the grounds that they were de restraining orders have been use you denounce this practice, you fending their honor. Brazilian law ful, even though some judges are likely to lose your job. In a re is currently unclear on whether don’t take this as seriously as they cession like we have now, losing this is a permitted defense, but should, and we have had many con your job is a very serious matter.” juries treat it as such, even when victions.” Vicente said that the law the victim’s “crime” is simply to was the fruit of years of feminist ac have departed from the traditional tivism in Puerto Rico. Others at the Machismo notion of a woman’s role. A report conference mentioned that Puerto But the most important reason the on violence against women in Bra Rico’s links with the mainland US law is not enforced—a reason that zil by the W omen’s Rights Project may have helped bring about the underlies all the others—is that of Human Rights Watch lists a change. public attitudes in Latin America 1972 case in which a man killed his In Chile a new democratic con frequently allow men to do as they wife because she got a job, began gress is likely to pass a similar law wish with female members of their coming home late, and refused to soon, said Nelly Gonzalez, director families. This is firmly embedded pay her “conjugal debt.” He was ac of the nonprofit Oficina Legal de la in the legal histories of most coun quitted on the grounds that the kill Mujer 'm Santiago. The law would tries in the region. For example, ing was the legitimate defense of establish family courts with judges Brazil’s first civil code, drawn up in his honor; a higher court upheld who are trained in family law. “This 1914, considered women perpetual the decision. In March 1991 the will bring about a total change,” wards of men. Even today, the civil Brazilian supreme court struck Gonzalez said. “Chile is a very legal code does not grant women equal down the honor defense, but as istic country and the courts have ity. As a consequence, m any police, many Brazilian observers have historically functioned well for judges, juries, and ordinary Brazil noted, ajury’s decisionmaking nonpolitical crimes.” ian men and women believe it is a process is often guided more by It was also reported that a m an’s right to beat his wife. deep-rooted social norms than by women’s legal advocacy group in “One day I was looking out the the rule of law. A prosecutor in Per Peru, the Estudio para la Defensa de window of my seventh-floor apart nambuco state told Human Rights los Derechos de la Mujer, succeeded m ent,” said Heleieth Saffioti, a Bra Watch that in rural areas the honor in winning the first divorce case on zilian sociologist and early feminist, defense is successful 80% of the the grounds of mental cruelty—an “and I saw a man beating a woman time. important precedent for Peruvian in the street. I ran downstairs. A jurisprudence on domestic abuse. And in Brazil a congressional com policeman walked by and kept on First Steps walking. I chased after him and he mittee is currently investigating vio told me, ‘I’m not going to inter Several of the conference partici lence against women, a sign that fere. This is a thing between a man pants brought good news. In Puer the phenomenon is increasingly and his wife.’ I quoted to him Arti to Rico, said lawyer Esther Vicente, being questioned. cle 226, Paragraph 8 of the constitu who works both for the govern Perhaps some of the best news tion—‘the state has the obligation ment and a nonprofit organiza was the CLADEM conference itself. to guarantee the harmony of family tion, a 1989 law on domestic Participants seized the chance to relations’—but he just stood there violence prompted a direct im brainstorm with each other on with his arms crossed.” provement in the situation of their shared concerns—often work In Brazil many people still be women. The law instructs police to ing through the scheduled lunch lieve that not only may a man beat intervene immediately in cases of or dinner hour. All over Latin his wife, he may also kill her. Men suspected battery; now police must America, more women know their often respond to adultery—or the arrest a suspect instead of merely rights, more report abuses, and mere suspicion of adultery—with walking him around the block to judges and police are more likely murder. Brazilian women told the cool down. It establishes strong to treat such abuses as crimes. This CLADEM conference that in the penalties for mistreatment and al progress is the result of public edu month before the meeting, the lows judges to use temporaiy re cation, conference participants press in the city of Belo Horizonte straining orders to protect women. said. “You have to keep proposing

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 strong laws,” said Angela Alvarado, At the Jabaquara Municipal Hos ond floor of a police station off a the president of CLADEM in Pan pital on the outskirts of southern busy street under a highway, about ama and a professor of humanities Sao Paulo, dozens of people— a dozen women and a few men wait at the Universidad de Panama,. “Even mostly darker-skinned and poor— for attention, many of the women when you know you can’t get what wait outside the emergency room. holding babies on their laps. you want, proposing laws is a meth Medical care is free here, and, com Potted plants adorn the stair land od of public education. It furthers pared to other parts of the region, ing and a cheerful, uniformed offi public discussion.” the equipment is excellent and cer greets each arrival. But some But conversations in Sao Paulo the wait for attention is short. For women weep as they wait, and their with those touched by violence many female victims of violence or stories are a cry of despair about against women show how far there sexual abuse, going to the hospital the human race: a father runs off is yet to go in m ost o f Latin Am er will be their only contact with offi with his 15-year-old daughter, takes ica, countries where machismo still cial Brazil. “Of every 10 victims of her as his connnon-law wife, then reigns and the gap between law shoots her when she runs away. An and life is a wide one. 11-month-old girl is sexually mo lested by a neighbor. A husband “Generally the Poor Women, Rich Women who wants to live with another woman threatens to stab his wife Paraisopolos (City of Paradise) is a aggressors are and their five-year-old son. favela of about 8,000 people, its well-liked, nice people, “Generally the aggressors are shacks rigged of cardboard, ce well-liked, nice people, good work ment, wood, and prayer, set in a good workers—and ers—and they beat up their wives,” gully in the shadow of one of Sao says Izilda Aparecida de Carvalho Paulo’s richest neighborhoods. they beat up their Ferreira, the police chief. “The When it rains the electricity goes courts consider them ‘good m en’ out. But one Saturday night after a wives, ” says the chief and so usually acquit them or give rainstorm residents filled the mud of police. “The courts them suspended sentences.” She streets—women chatting, children pulls out her record book for 1991. playing ball, and men drinking consider them ‘good The station attended about 6,000 beer—the streets lit up by the wom en last year, she says, about bright 20-story luxury apartment men ’ and so usually 4,000 of whom were reporting complexes towering above. acquit them or give crimes, mostly battery by their hus Most of the women in Paraiso bands. She has no statistics on con polos work in the high-rise apart them suspended victions, however, because the ments as maids, and earn the courts do not give information equivalent of $50 a month. But sentences. ” back to the police. when asked about their troubles, “When I began as the chief in m oney is n o t always w hat comes to Sao Paulo’s eastern delegacia in mind. “Here a lot of the men beat 1986,1 knew nothing about this their wives,” said 19-year-old Elly, as sexual abuse I see, I'd say that not problem. But we had so many she set her small daughter on a even one case gets reported to the women coming in every day, we concrete shop windowsill. “We police,” says Marco Antonio Evan had no time to eat lunch. I heard know because we see women being gelista, a gynecologist. “Women tell the same story over and over—re beaten, but we don’t talk about it.” me they’ve been raped, but when gardless of cultural level, social They do not talk about it in the I explain about legal procedures level, or income.” high rises, either, although the they stop right there. A woman can Even if few cases result in convic problem is also common in wealthy hesitate for social reasons—her tions, says Ferreira, the delegacias families. Domestic violence is preva shame will be public. And it’s very are still doing useful work. Al lent in all social classes in Latin hard to prove.” though most men don’t end up in America. Onivaldo Cervantes, a surgeon, court, she said, to be called in by a In the slums of Paraisopolos, says he treated a woman who had police officer and told that they are Elly said she knew of only one been beaten by her husband and engaging in criminal behavior has woman who ever went to the po had lesions all over her head. some effect. ■ lice. Neva, who is 18, said most “Even before her X-ray had come women are afraid to report beat back, she was sitting and hugging ings—it will anger their men. “The her husband,” he recalls. Editor’s Note: Adapted with permission men can even kill you,” said her At the women’s delegacia for Sao from the Ford Foundation Report friend, Celine, 15. Paulo’s central district, on the sec (Summer 1992).

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Gendered Injustice

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Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Exporting Daughters by Howard W. French

y nine o’clock each night, the number of prostitutes in the Almost weekly now, newspapers two dozen or more young country as a whole run as high as in Santo Domingo are filled with ar women arrive at the La 60,000. ticles chronicling the woes of these Herminia Night Club, young women abroad, including where they exchange sto the frequent deportation of scores ries and perform their of them for the offense of plying final primping before the start of a their trade. “How long are we long evening of blaring merengues, going to accept the sad reality that copious amounts of beer, and, they The Dominican the Dominican Republic has be hope, a client or two for sex. Republic is acquiring come one of the largest exporters “If I earn 1,000 pesos, I’ve done of prostitution in the world?” asked pretty well,” said Arele Diaz, a strik an unsavory reputation an angry editorial in the Domini ing 20-year-old in a tiny, shrink can daily Hoy. wrap black dress, of her hoped-for as a major supplier for Intellectuals, feminists, sociolo nightly purse of just under $100. gists, health-care professionals, and “Five hundred pesos or less, and the sex traffic in others say that despite the concern it’s really been a bust for m e.” As a countries as far-flung over public image shown by this domestic or factory worker, Diaz countiy largely dependent upon said, she couldn’t earn even a as the Netherlands, tourism, there has been little seri tenth of her nightly income in a ous introspection about the causes week. In interviews many of the Greece, Suriname, and of prostitution in the Dominican prostitutes expressed similar senti neighboring Haiti. Republic and even less determina m ents. tion to discourage it. “No one can Driven in part by such harsh deny we are a major exporter of economic realities, vast stretches prostitutes now, but nevertheless, of Santo Domingo have come to be people deny there is a problem blanketed with prostitution estab here,” said one editor who has sought to bring attention to the lishments running the gamut from The Export Boom the “Casas de Cita," literally ren issue in his newspaper, but insisted dezvous houses, where elegantly But, for all the magnitude of the on anonymity. “There is an enor attired young women await a rela phenomenon, some officials con mous indifference. We can’t call tively affluent mix of locals and cede that prostitution has only it a national crisis. For many, it tourists, to drive-in car washes, recently begun to be taken seri wouldn’t even be considered a which offer quick and cheap sex. ously as a national problem. And problem .” The Dominican authorities and when attention has come at all, it Although several officials agreed sociologists who study this mush has often focused on concerns that with that observation, they said rooming demimonde estimate that the Dominican Republic is acquir that since the advent of the AIDS in a city whose population is nearly ing an unsavory reputation as a epidemic, which has left about 1% two million, there are at least major supplier for the sex traffic of the population infected with the 20,000 prostitutes. This number in countries as far-flung as the HIV virus, energetic attempts to consists mostly of young women, Netherlands, Greece, Suriname, control the spread of that disease ranging in age from 16 to 25, they and neighboring Haiti. One expert have increasingly been accompa say, b u t it also includes m any m en said that in the tiny, tourism-rich nied by quieter efforts to under who cater to both sexes and much Caribbean island of Antigua, there stand and slow the growth of younger girls as well. Estimates for are now 4,000 Dominican prosti prostitution. tutes among a total of 80,000 peo “There has long been a notion ple on the island. About 7,000 that sex costs money and that sex Howard W. French writes for the New Dominicans are estimated to work produces money in our society,” York Times. in the sex business in Amsterdam. said E. Antonio de Moya, a senior

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Gendered Injustice

public health official involved promoted in advertisement and “Opportunities for women here in the control of AIDS and studies song, of the hot-blooded and avail are very limited,” said Rosario. of prostitution. “Diversion in the able women of the islands. “We “Then you have the whole macho Dominican Republic almost have been famous as a place for a culture which is still very dominant doesn’t exist without sex and al sex holiday since the 1960s,” said in the Dominican Republic. Seen cohol, and the industries of tobac Santo Rosario, a sociologist who through this prism, the woman is co, liquor and music have become directs a private, nonprofit group reduced to an object, bought and deeply entwined with our sex in that works with prostitutes to pre sold as easily as a cigarette.” ■ dustry.” vent the spread of AIDS. “There is Others have placed more em still a sector of the tourism industry phasis on the influence of tourism, which thrives by servicing foreign Editor’s Note: Adapted with permission an industry they say was built in ers sexually, both hetero- and from the New York Times, April 20, part around the sturdy myth, still homosexual.” 1992.

Rockefeller Foundation Fellowships at the University of Florida

The Center for Latin American Studies an d the Center for African Studies invite junior and senior scholars to participate in an interdisciplinary program on Afro-American identity and cultural diver sity in the Americas, including the Caribbean, Brazil, and the US, as well as the sending areas of Af rica. Funded by the Rockefeller Foundation, the program will enable visiting scholars in the area of the humanities to spend a year or a semester at the University of Florida to do research in this area. It will focus on three interrelated issues, each of which will be emphasized in a different year, in the following sequence:

(1993-94) the intersection of race, class, and gender as seen in research on women and the family, slavery, and race relations, social movements, and migration; (1994-95) studies in literature, religion, and popular culture that reveal the ways in which Afro- American culture has transcended national boundaries and brought together people living in different regions; (1995-96) studies on historical processes of adaptation to the physical environment through research on material culture, ecological systems, and the built environment.

Each fellow will receive a maximum stipend of $35,000 for the academic year, or half that for the semester. Applicants will be selected on a competitive basis related to their expertise and research in these areas. By February 3,1993, candidates should submit (1) a 100-word abstract, (2) an essay of approximately 1,500 words detailing the proposed research, (3) a full curriculum vita, and (4) two letters of recommendation.

Inquiries and completed applications should be addressed to Dr. Helen I. Safa, Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-2037; Fax (904) 392-7682, Telephone (904) 392-0375. Fellows will be announced about April 1.

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Sex and Tourism in Cuba

by John M. McClintock

t’s early evening on the Ma- Cuban men are resentful of arm of a foreigner. “I don’t think I lecon, Havana’s beautiful sea what has happened. But the gov am doing anything wrong. I just side boulevard. The young ernment does not seem bothered. want to have a good tim e,” she says. miniskirted girls are out in the Indeed, there are ways in which “Life here is so hard, so serious.” moist pink-blue air, tugging at the authorities seem to be encour The financially hard-pressed the male tourists, flirting, offer aging it. Every day, dozens of men Cuban government, facing an an ing to spend the night with men arrive at Havana’s Jose Marti Inter ticipated $4 billion trade deficit by old enough to be their grand national Airport to begin their sex the end of the year, has turned a fathers in exchange for a six-pack vacations with girls like Lisa. blind eye to the prostitution in of Coke, entry to a discotheque, hopes the dollars the prostitutes and $6. earn will help overcom e the is Lisa, a pretty, 13-year-old Cuba has advantages land’s worst economic crisis in this bleached blond, personifies this century. It encourages prostitution city’s return to the decadence that over otherfleshpots, by requiring foreigners to have “a Fidel Castro’s revolution was sup such as Thailand or date” before entering state-owned posed to eliminate more than discos. At the Tasca disco in the three decades ago. She is barely the Philippines. It is Marina Hemingway resort, for five feet tall, weighs less than 100 eigners are told to pick a date from pounds, and is dressed in lemon cheap, relatively free of the young Cuban women outside. hot pants and a black halter top. The women are prostitutes allowed Her merry eyes are rimmed by AIDS, and the women into the guarded resort only for thick mascara as though she were have an innocent this purpose. A nearby store sells a child experimenting with her perfumes, lingerie, and other mother’s makeup. “What country quality. wares that the foreigners are ex are you from?” she asks a for pected to buy for dates. The store eigner, tugging at his sleeve. Flirt is open until 4:00 a.m. An execu ing in her childlike way, she tells Cuba has advantages over other tive at a hotel in the Varadero re the foreigner he is handsome, intel fleshpots, such as Thailand’s Bang sort area noted that his liquor sales ligent. She wants to be with him. kok and Manila in the Philippines. increased 300% after the govern Lisa is not an aberration in the The country is relatively free of ment permitted Cuban “hostesses” current phase of Castro’s troubled AIDS, with only about 700 re and “dates” to enter his disco. revolution. She is an important ported cases, all of them quickly The government’s acquiescence handmaiden in the service of at isolated. It is also cheap, and the is at odds with one of the principal tracting desperately needed cur women themselves have an inno aims of the revolution: ridding the rency to her bankrupt country. She cent quality. “This place is a para country of the vice that had turned is one of the hundreds of pretty dise,” says Ernesto Lara, 48, a Havana into the sin capital of the young Cuban girls and women who Mexican engineer on his third va Western Hemisphere, back in the have turned Havana into an attrac cation to Cuba. “The women here days when casinos, cheap rum, and tive fleshpot for foreign tourists. are among the most beautiful in sex attracted thousands of Ameri During a two-hour stroll down the the world. They are completely cans to the Caribbean island. Now Malecon on a Friday night, one for open, almost naive.” there are more prostitutes than eign visitor was propositioned 43 Lisa has a carefree attitude before Castro took power in 1959, times by pimps and prostitutes about what she is doing. She is says Elizardo Sanchez, a prominent (male and female). driven partly by the desire to ob human rights activist. tain cash in a place where $6 is a Ironically the moral decay sym lot, but also by a desire just to have bolized by burgeoning prostitution fun in a country that offers little en in Cuba has reincarnated another John M. McClintock writes for the tertainment outside places that are former enemy of the socialist state. Baltimore Sun. closed to her unless she is on the A religious revival has taken hold,

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Gendered Injustice

especially among Cubans who feel times,” she adds. “A bunch of sin 46% of Cuba’s 11 million people the revolution has betrayed its gle guys coming in from Canada under the age of 25, the nation has ideals. A Cuban couple talks with are not here just to work on their a substantial pool of disenchanted concern about the possibility their tans. They want sex,” says the Vara- young people thirsting for the ma daughter is among those hustling dero hotel executive. “You can’t terial goods enjoyed by relatives in on the Malecon and elsewhere. have a tourist business without sex.” the US. While criminal statistics are “She is only 15 years old, but she Amanda, an 18-year-old Univer scarce, a statement by the Third lives a life of her own and dresses sity of Havana student, comes to Option, a group of mostly young in better that we can afford. We the illicit arrangement with an as tellectuals, noted the country has hardly ever see her,” says Elena tonishing air of practicality. One 20 juvenile reformatories: 35 years Maldanado, who earns $6 a month night, as the beautiful teenager ago it had only one. The illegal ac as a factory worker—the same awaits her “date”—a paunchy 64- tivities include selling bootlegged amount that Lisa earns in a night. year-old Spanish executive who has cigars, money-changing, purse- Mrs. Maldanado and her husband, promised to take her to the Ha snatching, and sex. Luis, recently welcomed a Roman vana Club disco—she coolly mea Not all Cuban men are as toler Catholic priest who made a “clan sures her advantages. “I can earn ant as Amanda’s boyfriend. It is a destine” visit to their apartment. “I more in one night than my mother source of resentment among Cu nearly fell off my chair,” Mr. Mal can in five m onths,” she says, ban males, who cannot compete danado said. “We had a chance to smoothing her sequined minidress for attention without dollars, a talk about our lives, about how the that the Spanish executive paid for. University of Havana professor Malecon has become a place of “If it wasn’t for the dollars I earn says. “Maybe it was OK when peo prostitution. Here in Cuba, the fam this way, I couldn’t afford to con ple couldn’t buy anything at the ily is disintegrating, and nothing is tinue my studies,” she said. “I can tourist dollar shops, but when a bigger symbol of that than the make about $35 a night, eat a good women are essentially becoming w hores.” meal and have a swell time.” What part of the wares for sale, then it’s For the first time since the does her boyfriend think? “He a different m atter,” he says. Jose Marxist government’s bloody anti- knows what I am doing. But we Hernandez, a 19-year-old Universi Church crackdown in 1961, the look upon this as an opportunity ty o f H avana student, says he “feels Havana archdiocese has begun to get ahead, as a phase in our powerless and worthless because I making pastoral visits to homes— lives. It’s no big deal.” have nothing to offer a girl. Even if and the priests have been warmly Lisa and Amanda confront a I could get dollars, the law forbids received. One prominent Catholic choice between the glittery world me from having them. Despite the official here noted that only 7,500 of hard currency against the drab official rhetoric, the dollar is king people were baptized in the Ha world of the average Cuban. The and a king always has a harem.” vana archdiocese in 1978. The fig hard-currency world of cars, tourist Another swing around the night ure increased to 33,474 last year. shops, restaurants, swanky discos, clubs puts the conflict in focus. But the C hurch is working and resorts is off-limits to 99% of Rene, Jorge, and their childhood against the consequences of des the Cuban population—even friend, Berta, a stunning 17-year- perate economic conditions. The though Article 42 of the Constitu old girl, have been invited by for Castro government—in what is tion specifically forbids such a seg eign visitors to make the rounds. known as “legalizing reality”—is regated arrangement. But a pretty By the end of the evening, Rene is using the dollars earned from pros Cuban girl can break the barrier offering the sexual services of titution and other illicit business to with a foreign tourist and briefly Berta, who, he said, “was saddened help overcome the economic catas escape the harsh living conditions you don’t like her.” During the trophe caused by its own misman of her mother, who earns practi ride home, the taxi driver, a young agement, the demise of its Soviet cally nothing and endures a monot veteran of the Cuban forces who ally, and the US trade embargo. onous diet of beans and rice. The fought in Angola, angrily slammed Prostitution seems to be one of the government gets its reward as prac his fist into the roof of the cab. “I more successful aspects of that pol tically anything worth buying— didn't fight for my country to be icy, ju d g in g from the num ber of from jeans to shampoo—can be banned from some lousy disco, so Latin Americans and Spaniards found only in state-owned stores that we would be treated like sec cruising the Malecon. “I would say reserved for foreigners. ond-class citizens and our women the majority of my clients going to Cuba’s economic crisis is partic reduced to whores,” he said. ■ Cuba are Mexican men who want a ularly troubling for young people sex vacation,” says Alicia Teran, a who cannot afford to have a good Mexico City travel agent. “I think time or buy a pair of running shoes Editor’ Note: Adapted with permission it’s sad that so many girls are being without resorting to illegal activi from ^Baltim ore Sun (July 12, exploited because of the desperate ties that bring them dollars. With 1992).

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Venezuela’s New Trade Commodity by Aliana Gonzalez

n Amsterdam 1 met two Ven Venezuela: An International an international bridge for sexual ezuelan women, both pro Bridge tourism. According to Ramirez’s re fessionals, who had been search, funds that enter the coun contracted for prostitution Multinational enterprises dedi try through prostitution do not without their knowledge. Since cated to sex trafficking and ori appear registered in the national they were undocumented, they ented to providing young women accounts. were practically shut in and their and children have taken root in I Venezuela. Such enterprises re movements were carefully watched Once You’re In, by those who brought them. It volve around a complex and power was almost a kidnapping. When I ful world involving thousands of It’s Difficult to Get Out found them, they had already offices in numerous countries and Escape from the complex world adapted to the new profession, with important tourist companies of prostitution is difficult. That but were still somewhat rebellious and people. According to Ramirez, difficulty reflects factors such as so against what they were doing. They this business is as illegal and dan cial and family rejection, commit told me that the worst thing for gerous as narcotrafficking: to re ments to others involved in the them was writing to their families veal identities means risking a business, the establishment of affec and telling lies about what they death sentence. tive ties with the so-called “chulos” were doing in that country.” (“pimps”), and even the hardening This painful story comes from of personal sentiments. Another Zoraida Ramirez, a Venezuelan factor is the possibility of earning a economist, who was chosen to Prostitution is a new high income and an accompanying participate in an exchange pro form of neocolonialism, attachment to consumable goods gram focusing on women, poverty, that take on the status of “neces and prostitution. Sixteen women in which the North sities.” from the Third World participated The world of international pros in the research, which examined exploits a non titution is even more complex. The Chile, Thailand, and Sweden. renewable resource prostitutes sign deceptive con One of the study’s most impor tracts, often written in foreign lan tant findings is alarming: in addi from the South. guages that the contracted women tion to the transnationalization of do not understand, that are very capital, there has been a transna Trafficking involves difficult to break. Moreover, the tionalization of the sex industry in contracted women are typically which “both demand and supply a complex web illegal aliens. Many women are sent for female prostitutes bypasses of multinational to a foreign market with a one-way national boundaries.” The majority ticket; if they want to leave they of demand is generated by males enterprises. have to obtain the money on their from the North and a growing por own. tion of the supply is provided by Prostitution is a new form of women from underdeveloped neocolonialism, in which the North countries. Numerous countries in Latin exploits a nonrenewable resource America are involved in this busi from the South. According to Ra ness, including the Dominican mirez, one aspect of North-South Republic—which leads the field— prostitution is unequal access to followed by Colombia, Brazil, and the feminine condom, “which is Venezuela. In Venezuela even un utilized by prostitutes from the employed professional women are North while those from the South now entering the business of prosti don’t have enough money to buy Aliana Gonzalez writes for El Nacio- tution. About 12 years ago, as part it.” Another form of discrimination nal, in Caracas, Venezuela. of this process, the country became suffered by prostitutes from the

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Gendered Injustice

South has to do with labor organi nesses. They are given indefinite zations that unionize developed- contracts and sent as illegals with country prostitutes but that refuse Anotherform of one-way tickets to faraway coun prostitutes of other nationalities. discrimination has tries. Some of these women are These problems, along with the falsely contracted and then force North’s growing racist tendencies, to do zvith labor fully introduced to prostitution, worsen the situation of prostitutes Ramirez comments. from the South. organizations that This research should alert na Ramirez points out that India unionize developed- tional authorities who supervise announced its interest in pursuing tourist projects, particularly in such tourism because of interna country prostitutes those countries where conditions tional businesses that seek to pro of national economic crisis exist. mote tourist developments linked but that refuse Under such conditions, women in to the transnational sex market. less-developed nations are espe “The same thing occurs in Vene prostitutes of other cially vulnerable to being preyed zuela, where there are groups that nationalities. upon by an array of interests en develop tourist plans that include gaged in the business of trans this modality. The Resort group, national sex. ■ for example, offers a tourist pack age that includes an attending attractive and sophisticated women girl,” she says. who communicate well and can handle credit cards as a form of payment. Such women are sent Editor’s Note: Adapted with permission Recruiting Personnel to luxury hotels in sites such as from El Nacional (Caracas), April 28, Ramirez adds that transnational Miami, where they attend to select 1992. recruitment is simple. The agents clients. come from abroad and visit upper- Less-sophisticated women are class sex houses, where they select also sought after by these busi (Translated by Hemisphere staff) New Books from Penn State Press

WESTERN HEMISPHERE IMMIGRATION A SPACE FOR SCIENCE AND UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY The Development of the Scientific Community in Brazil Simon Schwartzman Edited by C hristopher Mitchell ‘This collection of articles clearly makes the case that migration has “No book exists in English that deals with this material in such depth, been a central feature of political relations between the United States especially for the more modern period .. . an interesting contribution to and Latin America. At a time when the United States is examining the institutional and sociological analysis of science outside of the both its foreign policies and its migration policies, this volume should ‘mainstream’ countries.”— Nancy Stepan, Columbia University be received with keen interest.”— Robert L. Bach, SUNY-Binghamton 272 pages 12 tables $32.50 Contributors are Christopher Mitchell, Jorge I. Dominguez, Carlos Rico, Alex Stepick, and Lars Schoultz. SPIRITS AND SCIENTISTS 384 pages cloth: $45.00 paper:$14.95 Ideology, Spiritism, and Brazilian Culture David J. Hess REFUGEES AND THE ASYLUM DILEMMA “A well-researched and well-written account of Spiritism among IN THE WEST contemporary Brazilians. Theoretically, Hess is remaking the Edited by G il Loescher traditional concept of syncretism in the anthropological study of religions, particularly of folk religions where world religions are This is the first study of the asylum-refugee problem to examine not adapted over long periods of time to local systems of belief. Certainly only the history of policies of receiving nations in the West but also in English there is nothing in the literature quite like this treatment of some of the underlying causes of refugee movements. It addresses Spiritism among literate, and presumably modern, secular people in the underlying causes of the current crisis, assesses present policies, Brazil.”— George Marcus, Rice University and defines the considerations necessary for future policymaking. 256 pages $29.95 184 pages paper: $12.95 Issues in Public Policy #2 PENN STATE PRESS In the U.S., MasterCard/VISA orders, call 800-326-9180 Barbara Bldg., Suite C, University Park, PA 16802

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Profile: Prostitutes in Bogota ■ rm -g.i

Attended college (2.0%) 9-10 (2.6%) Completed 51-60 (1.5%) secondary No response (0.4%) (2.2%)

Attended secondary (16.9%) Attended primary (41.6%) 15-20 (20.0%)

21-30 (37.7%)

None (17.9%)

Completed primary (19.0%)

Source: Camara de Comercio de Bogota (September 1990) Source: Camara de Comercio de Bogota (September 1990)

Causes 9-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60

Lack of income 22.4 41.9 37.7 50.0 33.4 No skills 14.3 32.4 34.0 28.6 33.3 Violence in the home 100 51.0 10.8 15.1 7.1 No other employment 6.1 10.8 11.3 14.3 33.3 Others 6.2 4.1 1.9

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Camara de Comercio de Bogota (September 1990)

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Europe and the Americas

EC Banana Policies by Brent Borrell and Sandy Cuthbertson

The world economy appears to be moving not toward free trade but toward regional blocs of managed trade. The articulation of EC banana policies is a case in point. What are the implications for Latin America and the Caribbean?

ost citizens of the Eu importers and wholesalers of ba unique opportunity to eliminate ropean Community nanas. A study conducted at the the inefficiencies of present poli (EC) take bananas World Bank by Brent Borrell and cies. But it also provides the worry for granted. Some Maw-Cheng Yang (1990) shows ing prospect that the least efficient may know that ba that many of the national policies features of existing policies may be nanas are cheaper in are inefficient in providing aid and extended to all countries, making GermanyM than anywhere else in the distort trade, having perverse ef intervention worse than it is now. EC and wonder why. Some may fects on developing countries— The policy option the EC chooses also have noticed quality differ Germany’s policy being the could have a huge impact on how ences in bananas available in differ exception. much EC consumers pay for ba ent EC countries and have asked In completing the EC common nanas and on the quality of the why. But few people in the EC market in 1992, the disparate na fruit available. It could also have a would know what complicated trad tional banana policies must be uni huge impact on the incomes of ing arrangements apply to banana fied. This unification provides a some small developing countries. imports and how costly these ar rangements are to provide aid to former colonies of EC countries PRODUCTION EFFICIENC and EC territories. Most EC countries pursue in dependent and quite different na 0.7 tional banana policies within the Unit cost of production; includes the cost of storage, present EC regime. These policies 0.6 - merchandising, and export taxes give preferences to some devel oping countries—preferred sup 0.5 pliers—at the expense of other developing countries and give • 0.4 O) monopoly privileges to some local D

U J 0.3

Brent Borrell, the chief market econo 0.2 mist at the Centre for International Eco nomics (CIE), in Canberra, Australia, 0.1 has published widely on trade in tropi cal products. Sandy Cuthbertson, the managing director at CIE, has exten Latin America ACP countries and overseas EC territories sive experience in developed and develop 'Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Jamaica ing countries in advising governments Source: Centre for International Economics (1991) and industry about policy impacts.

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Making the best choice will be hard. The EC Commission and the BANANA IMPORT PRICES ministers face competing obliga tions: policy changes must be con sistent with all aspects of the Single European Act 1986; commitments to African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries (signatories to the Lome IV Convention), which in clude giving special access to ba nanas, must be honored; policy changes must be compatible with the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); and the EC is committed to liberalizing imports of tropical products (which include bananas) in the Uruguay Round of GATT negotiations. The EC must also consider the interests of ba nana producers in overseas EC ter ritories (Guadeloupe, Martinique, the Canary Islands, and Madeira) and the welfare of EC consumers. Only if stakeholders are made fully aware of the efficiency of the various policy options available to the EC can there be any chance of the best policy being chosen. This report is about what the opinions are, how they will affect the various stakeholders and what the best op tion is. It turns out that EC con sumers could be made better off and the interests of supplying countries—preferred and non preferred—could be safeguarded and improved. In the wider process of EC market unification, bananas may seem unimportant. But if that is the case, why hasn’t the banana pol icy decision been made and why are developing countries and some wholesalers, retailers, and consum ers so worried about the decision? nanas will be an indicator of EC The Lome Convention provides Although accounting for only a market openness after 1992. for bananas to be imported into tiny share of merchandise imports EC countries from former colo nies—preferred suppliers—in Af into the EC, trade in bananas il National Banana Policies lustrates the discrimination and in rica, the Caribbean, and the Pacific efficiency that EC trade policies The EC has a common tariff on ba free of duties. The high cost and can produce. For developing coun nana imports of 20% ad valorem. often low quality bananas from tries not benefiting from the Lome Only Denmark, Ireland, the Neth these countries go only to the tra Convention, EC actions on banana erlands, Belgium, and Luxemburg ditional markets of the UK, France, imports will indicate whether the apply this tariff exclusively. Other and Italy, and not to the relatively EC is serious about liberalizing EC countries except for Germany open markets of Germany, the Ben trade in tropical products and as apply other restrictions as well as elux countries, Denmark, and Ire sisting them in their development. the 20% tariff on banana imports land. In 1990 bananas from Latin More generally, EC actions on ba from nonpreferred suppliers. America sold in Italy at the retail

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Europe and the Americas

Ivory Coast. (Madagascar is also an ACP exporter to France, but it Lome IV Convention (1990-2000): currently exports few or no bananas to that country.) Limited imports Protocol 5 on Bananas come from other areas when prices exceed a certain level. Like the The Community and the ACP States agree to the objectives of improv UK, France holds retail prices well ing the conditions under which the ACP States’ bananas are produced above comparable prices in Germa and marketed and of continuing the advantages enjoyed by traditional ny, and these prices allow import suppliers in accordance with the undertakings of Article 1 of this Proto ers and wholesalers and preferred col and agree that appropriate measures shall be taken for their imple suppliers to earn monopoly profits. m entation. The tariff applies to bananas from nonpreferred suppliers. Italy grants free access to ba Article 1 nana imports from overseas EC ter In respect of its banana exports to the Community markets, no ACP ritories and ACP countries within a State shall be placed, as regards access to its traditional markets and its global quota. This quota has been advantages on those markets, in a less favourable situation than in the increased slowly since the 1970s. past or at present. Somalia is a traditional supplier to Italy and has preferential status. But production difficulties in this Article 2 strife-torn country have reduced In respect of its banana exports to the Community markets, no ACP Somalia’s share of the Italian mar StateEach of the ACP States concerned and the Community shall con ket to only about 10%. Other ACP fer in order to determine the measures to be implemented so as to im countries supplied around 3% of prove the conditions for the production and marketing of bananas. the market in the period 1985-88, This aim shall be pursued through all the means available under the while Latin American countries arrangements of the Convention. . .. provided the remainder. Quota restrictions maintain high retail prices and quota holders are able Source: Centre for International Economics to charge high margins—monop oly profits—on imported fruit. Portugal and Spain restrict imports to protect producers in level at a 20% premium to ACP restrict supplies and allow retail their overseas territories. This is bananas. prices to be held considerably permitted under their treaties of ac Germany, under a special pro above retail prices in Germany. cession to the EC until 1995. Por tocol of the Treaty of Rome, has a Wholesale-retail margins in the tugal has opened up its market zero tariff and an unlimiting quota UK are around double those in considerably under a tender system on bananas. By increasing its quota Germany and the US-$805 per ton but gives preference to bananas in line with demand, Germany compared with $412 per ton in Ger from Madeira. Spain gets virtually maintains virtually a free market in many. Which interests within the all of its bananas from the Canary bananas. As a result its retail prices marketing chain receive the mo Islands. Greece has a high tax on are close to world prices (repre nopoly profits as a result of the bananas, which curtails consump sented by US prices), the differen licenses is difficult to determine, tion and therefore restricts im tial being transport costs. but in the main they are probably ports. Like the UK, France, and The UK imports unrestricted importers and wholesalers. The li Italy, restricted access to these quantities of bananas from pre censing arrangements allow the countries keeps retail prices high ferred suppliers such as Jamaica, producer prices of preferred sup and raises returns to preferred sup the Windward Islands, Surinam, pliers to be well above the corre pliers and importers and whole and Belize. Almost all bananas ex sponding prices of nonpreferred salers. ■ ported from these countries go to suppliers. the UK. Imports from nonpre France manages its own ba ferred suppliers are subject to the nana market, with two-thirds of it Editor’s Note: Adapted with permission EC common tariff and licenses that reserved for imports from French from EC Banana Policy 1992: Pick are granted on a monthly basis to “overseas departments” and one- ing the Best Option (Canberra, fill shortfalls in preferred supplies third from African “franc” coun Australia: Centre for International to the UK market. The licenses tries such as Cameroon and the Economics, 1991).

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Hey Mister Tallyman . . . by Cresencio Arcos

or years, the US, western well over 100% to a more modest versification process has already European nations, and in 5-20% range. Other reforms have begun. Cultivated shrimp, winter ternational assistance or included controlling deficit spend melons, tropical nuts, and assembly ganizations have been ing, establishing and maintaining and light manufacturing plants telling developing nations a realistic exchange rate, securing now contribute substantially to that the only path to de land tenure rights, and enacting an Honduras’s export earnings. velopment is through free-market investment reform law. In the face Honduras is no longer a mono economic systems. More recently, of considerable opposition, the culture economy dependent solely economic assistance, whether fun- government of Rafael Callejas has on bananas. Bananas, however, re neled through international or courageously continued these re main Honduras’s number one ex ganizations or given as bilateral forms, many of which are economi port and account for 40% of all aid, has been conditioned on mar- cally painful in the short term. foreign-exchange earnings. Fol ket-oriented economic reforms. lowing the recent free fall of world Countries will not receive assis coffee prices, the banana industry tance dollars unless they reduce has become Honduras’s best en deficits and government spending, gine for rapid export-driven eco do away with import-substitution nomic growth. There is a ready strategies (i.e., high tariffs or non Just as Honduras and supply of labor, technical exper tariff barriers to protect inefficient its Central American tise, and suitable land for imme local industries), liberalize foreign- diate expansion of Honduras’s exchange regimes, and otherwise neighbors are ready banana production capability. So, open their economies to interna while diversification remains Hon tional trade and investment. Once to reap the rewards duras’s long-term goal, expansion their economies are open, the argu of the banana industry (in which ment goes, they can produce those of market-oriented Honduras, with its high-quality, goods and services in which they economic reforms, low-cost production, has an obvi have a comparative advantage and ous comparative advantage) is seen trade freely with other nations for they find themselves as the kick-start needed to get the whatever other goods and services economy growing at an acceptable they might need, improving their victims of the EC’s rate. own economic condition, and mak restrictionist trade ing a bigger economic pie for all. EC Obstacles The countries of Central America practices. are now heeding this advice and Just as Honduras and its Central are poised to take advantage of the American neighbors are ready to open market. In Europe, however, reap the rewards of their economic the door to the market is slamming reforms, they find themselves vic shut in 1992. tims of restrictionist trade prac Following the lead of countries Having taken the difficult steps tices. In a meeting held April 7, such as Chile and Mexico, Central to create the proper environment, 1992, the EC Commission recom American countries have instituted Honduras is implementing a two mended that bananas be subject to significant free-market reforms. pronged strategy to institute ex special restrictions when the EC in Honduras, for example, has low port-driven growth. The first is tegrates its economies in January ered its tariffs from a maximum of expansion of traditional export 1993. The proposal would set a industries, such as bananas, other quota limiting imports of bananas tropical fruits, and coffee. The sec from Latin America (primarily ond is diversification into other Ecuador, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cresencio Arcos is the US ambassador to goods and services in which Hon Honduras, and Panama) to just Honduras. duras will be competitive. The di- below the current access level.

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Europe and the Americas

These imports would be subject to of course, passed on to the con the ACP producers into an un a duty, possibly as high as 20%. sumer. The quotas artificially healthy, dependent, “banana re Meanwhile, former EC colonies inflate the price of bananas and public” status. They are made in Africa, the Caribbean, and the pervert the balance between sup completely beholden to their for Pacific (ACP countries), which ply and demand. These costs taken mer colonial masters, who are the produce lower quality bananas together are a staggering $1.4 only market for their low-quality, at two to three times the cost of billion. high-cost bananas. Because of their Latin American bananas, would guaranteed access to the high- continue to have unlimited duty priced EC market, there is no in free access. centive to improve production This decision was made under With all these methods. The artificially high price intense lobbying pressure and paid for the bananas they are per doubtless with the best of inten losers—Latin mitted to sell makes other eco tions on the part of the .commis nomic activity unattractive and sioners. They felt bound by the America’s banana discourages diversification. For all letter of the Lome IV Convention, producers, European its good intentions, the quota sys Protocol 5, which states that “. . . no tem leads to a cycle of poverty, ACP State shall be placed, as re consumers, and the dependence, and economic stag gards access to its traditional nation among the ACP nations. markets [for bananas] and its ad world economy in Non-EC banana consumers (pri vantages on those markets, in a less marily the US, Japan, and northern favorable situation than in the past general—who are Europe) benefit by $61 million. or at present.” The intent of the the winners? The This is because the EC quotas arti Lome IV Convention and of the ficially limit demand and cause a commission’s proposal is to pro banana-producing slightly lower world price for ba vide indirect financial aid to the nanas. Again, this figure represents ACP countries through preferen countries that are the comparative static nature of tial trade treatment. Despite these former EC colonies the model. In the real world, sup good intentions, alm ost no one will ply is not limited (fallow arable gain under this scheme. come out ahead on land suitable for banana produc In 1991 Brent Borrell and tion exists in many countries), and Sandy Cuthbertson of the Centre paper, but their’s is a true free trade would result in both for International Economics (CIE) greater demand and greater sup published a study of the effects of pyrrhic victory. ply, eventually lowering the price Europe’s current system of quotas for all to roughly the current US and tariffs versus a free market, price plus additional transpor EC Banana Policy 1992: Picking the tation costs if any. In short, be Best Option. Their model, based The world economy is another cause of its dynamic nature, free on an earlier World Bank study, is loser. Once the tally of all the costs trade in bananas would not raise the source for the following cost and benefits is done, there is a loss costs to non-EC consumers in the figures. (It should be noted that of $238 million. The authors of long run. the proposed EC plan would ex the CIE report acknowledge that The biggest, and (in absolute tend the banana tariff to Germany, this is probably an underestimate. terms) only, winners under both now essentially a free trader, and Their model is “comparative static” the current bilateral quota system would therefore have even more and compares one fixed situation and the planned EC system are the adverse effects than the current against another. It does not take monopolistic European-based im system.) into account the synergistic effects porters. The CIE study lists their The most obvious losers under of free trade that result from more excess profits at nearly $1 billion. the commission’s plan are Latin efficient use of resources and the Certainly these companies have an America’s banana-producing coun interplay of competitive forces. enormous stake in the outcome. tries. The current system costs With all these losers, who are Dispassionate economic analysis them $82 million per year. This the winners? The intended benefi shows that the lofty goal of provid figure represents not lost gross ciaries, the ACP supplier countries, ing indirect aid to the ACP coun sales, but lost net income. come out $228 million ahead on tries through tariffs and quotas is A less obvious but far more sub paper. This is, however, a pyrrhic very expensive. European con stantial loser is the European con victory. The same quotas that lock sumers pay $1.4 billion above and sumer. The 20% tariff currently the Latin American producers out beyond what they would pay in a found in most EC countries is, of a portion of the EC market lock free-trade environment, yet only

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 $220 million finds its way to the reason will prevail. The day after intended recipient nations. A much more efficient the commission decision, the A much more efficient method German government issued a of meeting the EC’s Lome IV com method of meeting public statement opposing the mitment to the ACP countries commission plan and supporting would be through direct aid. Such the EC’s Lome IV freer trade. The presidents of direct aid could be aimed at im Costa Rica, Honduras, and Panama proving banana production and commitment would went to Europe to meet with their diversifying the economies of the be through direct aid. counterparts and champion the recipient nations, then phased out cause of free trade. as it becomes less necessary. Ideally Such direct aid could Free entry of bananas into such aid should be carried on the the European market is part of national budget of the donor na be aimed at improving a larger economic picture that in tion, but political expediency ar cludes farm subsidies, price sup gues against that. Direct aid could, banana production ports, and the success or failure of however, be financed by an EC- and diversifying the the process of the General Agree wide tariff of 20% (possibly less) ment on Tariffs and Trade. We are with no other restrictions. Their economies of the at a crucial moment in the devel imperfect solution would have opment of the global trading sys German and Dutch consumers fi recipient nations. tem. The time has come for the nancing former British and French West to practice what we have been colonies, but it would do away with preaching, even when that means much of the waste under the cur ending entrenched entitlements rent system, and provide a more As of mid-1992 the full EC and opening up historical monop level playing field for Latin Amer Council of Ministers has not ruled olies to competition. The alterna ica’s efficient and high-quality pro on the commission plan, and there tive of trade blocs and trade wars ducers. are some encouraging signs that will benefit no one. ■

Readings and teaching For K-Adult Spanish, Bi ideas in English and lingual, English and Social Studies classes. Spanish on the conquest Edited by Amoldo Ramos, and its legacy Gioconda Belli, et al. Order Now; Single copies: $5 + $3 Poetry and prose by Latin Ameri shipping. Bulk 1049: $2 each; 50499: can and Caribbean authors such $1.50 each; 500+: $1 each. Must add for as Claribel Alegria, Manlio shipping: $8 for first 10-100, $6/100 Argueta, Pedro Albizu Campos, thereafter. I.S.B.N. 1-878554-09-3, Ernesto Cardenal, Ruben Dario, 96pp, © 1992, NECA. Eduardo Galeano, Nicolas Send check, purchase order or inquiries Guillen, Pablo Neruda, Gabriel to NECA, 1118 22nd St, NW Garcia Marquez, Rigoberta Washington, DC 20037 Menchu, Cesar Vallejo, and more. 202-429-0137, Fax: 202-429-9766. The Network of Educators on the Americas (NECA) distributes additional titles for teaching about the Americas. Request a catalogue. For example the Caribbean Connections series includes titles on Puerto Rico ($12), Jamaica ($12) and Overview of Regional History ($15.95) (+ $3 postage for each book.) “Here are the voices of Puerto Rican workers, women, activists, writers and musicians. Puerto Rican students will find their heritage presented here with knowledge and dignity. Students and teachers of other backgrounds will enjoy a wonderful and informed introduction to Puerto Rican life today.” - Dr. Rina Benmayor, Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College.

Hemisphere . Fall 1992 Features: Europe and the Americas

Creating a Banana Fortress

by Michael A. Samuels

ince 1990 the European Protectionists tariffs and without quota restric Community (EC) has tions. A good part of the dilemma Within this framework the two been struggling with the (and a textbook case of the con major players are member-states task of unifying the seven sequences of protectionism) is that and the EC Commission. Regard different banana import many of these bananas are higher ing the former, one group of regimes that currently priced and of lower quality than m em ber-states is dom inated by its exist among its member-states. It is the bananas that are produced in, concern for nonindependent for a task complicated by international and exported from, the unpro mer colonies and departments. commitments, emotional attach tected Latin American countries. ments, and a variety of conflicting Furthermore, particularly within domestic economic interests. Un Unless the EC France, Spain, and the UK, en fortunately the EC Commission— trenched import and distribution the bureaucracy that conducts the Commission changes interests have maximized profits by EC’s daily affairs—has chosen a means of their monopoly positions. path that justifies past fears that its proposed policy, These monopolists have become the EC might produce a “Fortress the losers will be the important political supporters of Europe.” Unless the commission’s the banana-trade status quo. By proposed policy is changed, the los banana growers and contrast, the markets of several er will be the banana growers and other EC countries are open or the economies of the banana-pro the economies of relatively open to banana imports. ducing countries of Latin America. Germany is the most open of all, Fundamental to the EC’s dilem banana-producing having no quota and no tariff. ma is the conflict between two sets countries in Latin For its part the EC Commission of commitments. On the one side has a major role to play. It is re is a commitment to protect the America. sponsible for devising the basic re preferred access to the European gime to unify the currently diverse banana market enjoyed by several import arrangements. On an issue former colonies—now independ Chief among those are France such as this, where deep French ent countries—as part of the Lome (Guadeloupe and Martinique), sensibilities are involved, Jacques Agreement, and by those former Spain (the Canary Islands), and Delors, the president of the com colonies that are still administered Portugal (Madeira). Greece (Crete) mission, would not be a passive, un by European capitals. On the other is also part of this group. A second important actor. To the contrary, side are commitments to avoid cer group of member-states is con Delors, who hopes to run for elec tain kinds of trade protection as cerned with independent former tion to replace Francois Mitterrand part of the General Agreement on colonies, toward which assistance as president of France, is known to Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and to of various kinds is funneled under have twisted the arms of several of liberalize international market ac the Lome Agreement. Lome signa his colleagues to gain a majority in cess, especially for tropical prod tories are known as African, Carib the commission in order to influ ucts such as bananas, as part of the bean, and Pacific (ACP) countries. ence the final banana policy deci GATT Uruguay Round negotia The member-state most concerned sion. tions. with ACP countries is the UK (the Among the mid-level bureau Windward Islands, Jamaica, and Be crats in the office responsible for lize), followed by France (the Ivory agricultural affairs (DG-6), there is Michael A. Samuels, former deputy US Coast and Cameroon) and Italy a proclivity for managing the mar trade representative and ambassador to (Som alia). ket by licensing and for resisting the General Agr'eement on Tariffs and The bananas from all former free-market initiatives. Further Trade, is president of the Washington, colonies (often referred to as “pre more, the interests of the EC’s so- DC-based business consulting firm of ferred suppliers”) enter the corre called “development” office (DG-8) Samuels International Associates, Inc. sponding member-states without are highly skewed in support of the

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 ACP countries, which are benefici nanas from preferred suppliers. ment among trade ministers to aries under Lome. Such interests This may be the most blatantly achieve “the fullest liberalization of tend to oppose the so-called “multi GATT-illegal provision. trade in tropical products.” This nationals”—particularly if their ■ Certain internal regulations en commitment was reaffirmed in the ownership is US-based. Therefore, visioned by the commission give “Dunkel Text” of December 1991, DG-8 has constantly sought a solu preference to EC-grown bananas. the “final” negotiating text. As for tion that would be detrimental to Why have the Latin American agriculture, the Dunkel Text calls the two largest international ba producers allowed these GATT vio for all agricultural trade barriers to nana companies, Chiquita and lations to exist for so long? Until be expressed through tariffs and Dole, both of which are US owned. recently, only Colombia and Nicara eventually phased out. The extent This attitude has been so strong gua among the Latin American ba to which the commission’s banana that many in DG-8 have been un nana producers were members of position is a recalcitrant one is willing to give appropriate credi the GATT. For a small country to shown by its unwillingness to abide bility to the employment, revenue, take on the EC in the GATT is not by the Dunkel Text’s proscription and development arguments made an easy task, particularly since the not to exempt any agricultural by the Latin American banana-ex EC has been known to retaliate by product from this process. porting countries. Similar anti-US threatening to withdraw other pref This unwillingness flies in the thinking has been found through erences previously granted (such as face of the EC’s separate bilateral out the commission’s debate on for coffee or cut flowers). Further agreement with the US not to allow this subject. more, the EC market’s recent exemption, and runs the risk of al growth has accommodated the in lowing other countries to exempt terests of many Latin American pro their own politically sensitive com GATT Obligations ducers. Nonetheless, expanded modities. Most frequently men On the other side of this issue are trade expectations were one of the tioned are Japan (rice), Korea the GATT and Uruguay Round major factors leading to the rise in (rice), and Canada (dairy prod commitments of the EC and the GATT membership among Latin ucts) . An exemption for the EC, interests of European consumers. American countries since 1990. however, would affect the domestic The GATT issues are clear. The The opportunities promised by politics of agriculture support for current import regimes of the the EC and the hopes shared by the Uruguay Round in the US, too. member-states violate the GATT Latin American governments with That is, allowing an exemption for in ways that may be worsened by other GATT members that the Uru bananas in the EC would make it the policies proposed by the com guay Round would liberalize and impossible for the US government mission. The violations include the expand trade led several Latin to say no to the demands of the following: American countries to make new protected US peanut industry, • Article I requires that countries investments to increase banana pro which has sought to be exempted extend the same import access duction. Little did anyone expect from the rules of the Uruguay conditions unconditionally to all the EC might use the creation of a Round since its inception. Pro GATT-member countries. regional bloc as a tool for restrict tected producers of a few other ■ Articles XI and XIII prohibit the ing the market’s growth or for wors commodities, such as sugar and use of quotas because of their re ening the terms of access. dairy products, feel similarly. strictive effect on trade volume Latin American expectations How the EC resolves its banana and because they lead to in were also fueled by the GATT dilemma will tell much about the creased transactional costs and trade negotiations that have been Europe of the future. Will it seek to marketplace uncertainties. taking place since September 1986, open its borders to all? Will it abide ■ The GATT does not permit coun known as the Uruguay Round. by its international obligations? tries to exempt certain foreign These negotiations aim to expand Will it encourage competition or suppliers from quotas while sub and liberalize world trade and to insist on the maintenance of pro jecting others to rigorous quanti extend the GATT’s coverage to tection? The answer to these ques tative regulation. items such as intellectual property, tions will significantly affect the ■ Indications are that the commis investment, services, and agricul extent to which the Latin Ameri sion favors a new regime to be ad ture. Bananas are included within can banana-producing countries ministered through a complex, these negotiations both as a tropi will be able to depend on the GATT-illegal licensing system. cal product and as an agricultural marketplace for their growth and ■ Certain versions of the proposed product. development. It will seriously test EC regulations are based on a Concerning tropical products, the economic foundation on which linkage whereby importers of trade in most commodities has their tender democracies must be Latin American bananas must been significantly liberalized dur built. Unfortunately, few in Europe show that they have imported ba ing the Round as part of an agree seem to care. ■

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Europe and the Americas

Banana Splits

by Canute James

n an increasingly desperate bat James Baker, the secretary of state, all sources until 1999. Anything tle to hold on to their prefer is adamant that there should be no above this would be subject to ential access to the European exemptions,” Dame Eugenia said. tariffication, with tariffs being market, Caribbean banana pro “The argum ent is that if there is an reduced progressively by an aver ducers have tried, but appar exception for bananas, then there age of 36% between 1995 and ently failed, to recruit to their will have to be for rice, for dairy 1999. cause one pivotal player in interna products and all other arm prod The banana producers are tionalI trade. In recent weeks the ucts. The United States is dead hoping for relief from three prime ministers of several banana against us on this.” sources. One is the undertaking, producing countries in the Carib “the legal commitment,” says Pat bean have visited Washington, ask terson, of the EC to ensure that ing President George Bush and changes in the marketing of ba other key figures in the administra nanas will not leave the ACP states tion to throw their weight behind “in a less favourable situation than proposals that would continue pro In battling to hold on in the past or at present.” The sec tection for Caribbean bananas mar ond is the proposal by the Euro to their preferential pean Commission earlier this year keted in Europe. After the meetings several were access to the European to impose quotas on fruit from non- left confused by what they said ACP sources, mainly the Latin were “mixed signals” from the US market, the Caribbean American countries whose fruit is administration. “At one level, the more competitive than that of the United States administration is banana producers ACP exporters. The third area of solace for the aware of the problems we face with have apparently failed bananas, and is sympathetic to the ACP producers would have been fact that we face potentially serious to gain the support of US support for the use of quotas damage from free trade in the rather than tariffs. Officials in the fruit,” said P. J. Patterson, Jamaica’s the US government. Caribbean say the White House, prime minister. “At another level preoccupied with an election, will in the administration, however, The White House’s hardly be in a position to redirect there is a move to have bananas support contrasts xvith those parts of the government that brought under the GATT and be are unwilling to consider bananas freely traded.” the opposition by other as a special case. Yet, they say, US T he division is betw een the support is im portant if there is to White House, on the one hand, US government entities. be any success with efforts for a and the Office of the Trade Rep derogation to the rules of interna resentative and the State De tional trade. partment, on the other. While “There is also the fact that US Patterson declined to elaborate companies are heavily involved in on which was the “sympathetic” banana production in the Latin part of the administration, Dame The African, Caribbean, and American countries,” explained Eugenia Charles, the prime minis Pacific (ACP) group, which sup one St. Lucian official. “It is u n ter of Dominica, did not. “Presi plies one-fifth of the bananas likely that the US position will be dent Bush is sympathetic, but Mr. consumed in the European Com one which will ignore the desires munity (EC), had been worried by of those companies, and the Latin the proposals made in the text of American governments, to open the General Agreement on Tariffs up the market.” and Trade (GATT) negotiations Caribbean bananas, which cost Canute James writes for the Financial that trading conditions for current about 30% more to produce than do Latin American fruit, could not Times, based in Kingston, Jamaica. export volumes be maintained for

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 compete on an open market. “The The Time of Between The Heritage Latin American producers have virtually declared war on us,” said the Generals Civilization of the John Compton, the prime minister of St. Lucia. “They are trying to Latin American and Barbarism Conquistadors drive us out of the European mar Professional Women, Nation, and Ruling Classes in k et.” Militarism in World In June 1992 Caribbean repre Literary Culture Central America from sentatives met with President Bush Perspective in Modern Argentina Conquest to the in Washington to seek his support Frederick M. Nunn Sandinistas for the use of quotas rather than Francine Masiello Samuel Z. Stone “One of the most important Masiello’s book “sheds Foreword by works ever written on the light on a relatively little- Richard E. Greenleaf subject.. . . It will be the known group of extremely standard against which all interesting women in a “Anyone interested in future studies will be formative period of a major Central America, and measured and will become literature. [It] breaks new especially what Central required reading for ground and will be a Americans think about everyone even marginally standard reference for the their own societies, will concerned with the military subject.” - Margaret Sayers profit from reading this in society.” - Thomas M. Peden. Engendering Latin w ork... . The wide- Davies, Jr., Director, America series. October. ranging discussion touches Center for Latin American $37.50 on just about any contem Studies, San Diego State porary topic of interest.” - University. $50.00 The Americas. $12.95

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Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Features: Europe and the Americas

The Great Banana War by Eben Shapiro

all it the great banana always say, this time it’s going to and Chiquita’s own 89% plunge in war of 1992. It broke out be different.” Not even the com profits in the first quarter—to an when the European mar pany’s Carmen Miranda-esque logo industrywide crop of poor-quality ket did not open as ex protected Chiquita from having to fruit as well as to fierce competi pected, saddling the big sell its bananas at prices within tion in Europe this year. He re growers, newly expanded pennies of the lowest on the pier. jected the criticism by some for the cause, with surpluses. Prices “Sometimes the premium is pretty analysts on Wall Street that the in Europe—and to a lesser degree narrow,” said David Diver, vice pres company, which is 46% owned by in the US—dropped along with the ident for produce at Flannaford the Lindners’ American Financial profits of the big brand companies Brothers, a supermarket chain in Corporation, was too aggressive in like Del Monte, Dole, and Chi- Portland, Maine. expanding banana production. quita. Investors have stampeded Nevertheless, Chiquita, at least out of fruit stocks. temporarily, plans to stop planting As the world’s biggest banana more banana trees this year after spending heavily in the previous marketer and the only one of the The banana war Big Three that relies on bananas two years to expand. Financed in for its fortunes, Chiquita Brands In broke out when the part with the proceeds from public ternational has been kicked hard offerings that raised $474 million, est. While shares of Dole Foods, European market did Chiquita aggressively stepped up the other large public company spending on land, production oper with banana operations, dropped not open as expected, ations, and freighters a few years ago, investing $282 million in 1990 to $27.75 on July 7, 1992, from a saddling the big high of $48 in 1991, Chiquita’s and more than $400 million in stock price has plunged to $15.75 growers with 1991. In the 1980s it typically spent from a high of $50.75 in 1991. between $30 million to $78 million That brings the company’s stock surpluses. Prices a year. price below its year-end book value C hiquita is by no m eans stop of $19.39 a share. dropped along with ping investment. It will spend more Chiquita’s hard knocks show the the profits of the big than $400 million—the same as difficulty of dressing up what is es in 1991—but mostly on six pre sentially a commodity food as a pre brand companies. viously ordered ships for Chiquita’s mium brand. The Cincinnati-based Great White Fleet of refrigerated company spends about $20 million freighters. a year on television and magazine The company took advantage of advertising to convince shoppers, a steadily rising stock price in 1990 grocers, and its stockholders that Industry executives disagree and 1991 to sell shares, in part to bananas blessed with the Chiquita somewhat about the reason for the finance the expansion. In early seal are somehow worth more than weak prices. Dole, which is some 1990 it sold 7.1 million shares at the others. But a banana is just a ba what cushioned because of its oper $19.07 a share. That December it nana. “Nobody has been successful ations in other fresh fruits and in sold 3.3 million shares at $30,625 a at putting a brand name on a per real estate and packaged goods, share. In the summer of 1991 the ishable commodity,” said Michael blamed the “high volumes of ship company sold 5.6 million shares at Kennedy, an analyst at IDS Finan ments in the banana industry, $43,625 a share. cial Services in Minneapolis. “They which have depressed prices world American growers had great wide” for a 25% decline in second- hopes that a unified European mar quarter profits. Yet Keith Lindner, ket would bring new selling oppor Chiquita’s 32-year-old president tunities. “There was a feeling that Eben Shapiro is a financial reporter for and son of the financier Carl H. the door in Europe would swing the New York Times. Lindner, attributes falling prices— wide open,” said John M. McMillin,

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 an analyst with Prudential Securi then known as United Fruit, Mr. tors wary about investing with the ties. But because of a breakdown in Lindner deliberately set out to cul Lindners in Chiquita. trade talks between the US and the tivate a more open image than his But investors have been dis European Community (EC), coun secretive father, who runs a far- appointed by the company’s sink tries like Spain, France, and Britain ranging empire with holdings in ing market value. Keith Lindner were allowed to keep exclusive insurance and broadcasting. Un said 1992 would be the company’s agreements to buy all their ba like his father, Keith Lindner regu first bad year after eight years of ris nanas from their former colonies. larly talks to Wall Street analysts ing profits. But for some investors, The EC is also considering a 20% and the news media. the certainty of such a punishing tariff on bananas from Latin Amer Fie has also worked to over bad year was enough to keep them ica, where the Big Three brands come lingering questions about from buying the stock. Mr. Ken grow most of their produce. his father’s investment style. In the nedy, the analyst, avoided the stock Without explosive demand in 1970s Carl Lindner was accused of after getting burned on commodi Europe, bananas have been left to fraud and stock manipulation by ties in the past. “It was a pure com rot on the piers in Ecuador, ba the Securities and Exchange Com modity play of a perishable item,” nana executives said. Fruit from mission in the same case as his busi he said. ■ Latin America is flooding into Eu ness associate, Charles H. Keating, ropean countries like Germany Jr. Both men settled the charges and Austria that lack entrenched without admitting or denying guilt Editor’s Note: Adapted with permission relationships with banana-growing and agreed not to violate securities from the New York Times, /?//)’ 8, countries. Banana companies have laws, but the case made some inves 1992. also tried to increase their market share in the event that quotas are set based on current volumes. As a result, retail prices in parts of Europe dropped in the spring Debt, Environment, Development, Human Rights, Technology, of 1992 by 20% from 1991. They Agriculture and Economics... fell a more modest 12% in the US, Third World Quarterly has established a unique reputation over the which also absorbed some of the past decade as the leading policy journal on contemporary Third excesses, and could tumble more World affairs. here if tariffs are imposed in Euro Third World Quarterly lends an unmatched critical perspective on pean markets now open to Latin global problems and provides an analysis of important issues American fruit. In New York ba concerning the Asia/Pacific region, Latin America and the nanas cost about 29 cents a pound Caribbean, Africa and the Middle East. retail, down a nickel from 1991. Third World Quarterly is published in January, April, July and Profits of the fruit companies October. Each issue runs to approximately 300 pages, over 80 of have suffered. In April, Chiquita which are devoted to literature and book reviews - both fiction stunned Wall Street when it re and non-fiction. ported that earnings for the first quarter had plunged 89%, to $5.5 Past contributors have included: million on sales of $1.16 billion, Morris J. Blachman Yasser Arafat Rudiger Dornbusch down 1.8%. Kenneth Sharpe Farouq Kaddoumi Ibrahim FI Shihata Louis Rene Beres James Petras Ali A Mazrui Peter Flynn Mahathir Mohamad Haleh Afshar A Different Image Oliver Tambo Guy Martin Riodan Roett Chiquita’s problems are a setback Walden Bello James Dinkerley Feroz Ahmad James Painter Raul Alfonsin Arturo Valenzuela for Keith Lindner. Some analysts Laurence Harris Barnett R Rubin George Joffe said the company was overly op Carolina G Claudia Wright Yezid Sayigh timistic about the prospects for Hernandez Robert C Johansen Lionel Cliffe expansion in Europe and that the Naseer Aruri Shridath Ramphal company had hid from Wall Street Chibli Mallat Alan Garcia Perez Sheldon W Simon just how severely the low prices Nader Entessar would hurt it. “I basically feel I’ve been lied to,” said Timothy S. Price $34.00/£23 p. a. Ramey, an analyst with C. J. Law Subscription: Send your order to: rence in New York. Since 1984, Circulation Manager, Third World Quarterly, Rex House, when his family purchased a con 1st Floor, 4-12 Lower Regent Street, London SW1Y4PE trolling interest in the company,

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Narcissus Gazes in the Fountain by Rodolfo J. Cortina

as touted in the brochure—is re villains would not frontally assault the Roman legions: instead, they *»*••**«•«** THE *fe* ********** ceived free when buying the se ries) . Fuentes developed the ideas would hit and run, creating the Bu r ied M irror contained in the series and the little, or guerrilla, war. According * Hi’fIt'd ion, t on Spain mu) ilv X tw WWU m book during speaking engage to Fuentes, the Reconquista (literally ments throughout the US at reconquest) of Spanish territory by $10,000 per lecture and during the Christians from the Moorish oc a $40,000 five-day stay at Arizona cupation, which lasted some eight State University. He then crystal centuries, focused the energy of lized these ideas and connected Spain into one enterprise and his vision of the Spanish-speaking brought unity to the peninsula. world not only to the old and new The culmination of that process empires (Spain and the US) but to took place in 1492: Ferdinand’s a lucrative commercial enterprise. victory over the Moors at Granada, Thus The Buried Mirror is no free Torquemada’s expulsion of the standing book responding to some Jews, Nebrija’s first grammar of irresistible intellectual impulse. Castilian, and Columbus’s voyage Understanding Mexican history in search of spices. may be the exercise of laying out Thus Fuentes sees in the mili succeeding empires that occupied tary strand a line between the frac- that geography: Olmecs, Mayas, tionized territory in ancient times Toltecs, Aztecs, Spaniards, Itur- and the unified Spanish main at The Buried Mirror: Reflections bide, Maximilian and Carlota, Por- the end of the medieval period. Is on Spain and the New World firiato, and the PRI. Perhaps that is Fuentes suggesting another recon- by Carlos Fuentes. Houghton Mifflin, at the root of Fuentes’s view of the quista? Is Spanish America, the 1992. 399pp. $35.00. Hispanic tradition within a context fragmented backyard of the US em of imperial successions (Carthage, pire, going to find a rallying point, arlos Fuentes’s The Buried Greece, Rome, Goths, Moors, Isa an arrow pointing north that will Mirror is the com panion bella and Ferdinand, the Carolin- unite it? Are we to expect a Spanish- volume to the five-part ian-Phillipine empire—Charles V, American empire in the future? television series by the Phillip II—and so forth) until the Fuentes’s treatment of Latin same name that was pro US takeover in 1898 with the Span- America is contained within the duced by Sogetel, a ish-American War. The focus of context of that perspective. From commercial producer, in associa this history, however, is not Spain, the organization of the series, the tion with the Smithsonian Institu but Spanish America, and its direc book takes shape in five parts that tion and the Quinto Centenario tion not-so-buried like the mirror. comprise its 18 chapters. The Espana. T he series is expensive In his chapter on the Roman names of each part (read: televi indeed to purchase (selling for conquest of Spain, Fuentes cites sion program) are very significant: $990, or for an introductory price that the disunity of the Celt-Iberian “The Virgin and the Bull,” “Con of $798; the book—a “$35 value,” population of the peninsula facili flict of the Gods,” "The Age of tated its defeat. He points out, how Gold,” “The Price of Freedom,” ever, that the very atomization of and “Unfinished Business.” power, which resided with each Though in all parts Fuentes tra Rodolfo J. Cortina is a professor of chieftain in every village rather verses the Atlantic, moving from Spanish in the Department of Modem than in a centralized authority, the Mediterranean to the Carib Languages at Florida International made the Roman conquest of bean and vice versa, parts II, IV, University. His most recent book is Spain an exhaustive process. Each and V address Latin America more Cuban American Theater (Houston: victory signaled nothing, for each directly. Part II retraces the Amer Arte Publico Press, 1991). village was a fresh battle, and the indian story by centering Fuentes’s

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 FORUM

attention on the pyramids, sculp nuns, country maidens). Tirso de archs, yet the canvas is facing the tures, astronomy, and mythology, fended the divine rights of kings to painter and not us, the viewers. culminating with the bloody en govern, as long as they did so them The conclusion at one level is that counter between Spaniards and selves. By delegating authority to a the painter is painting the king and indigenous peoples. Part III men favorite courtesan, they abrogated the queen. For Fuentes we are the tions the exportation of Baroque that right, and created little mon subject, but is not the subject both art and architecture to the New sters like Don Juan, the favorite’s the monarchs and the viewer? World, while part IV concentrates son, who abused his father’s power. The Erasmian saying vox populi, on the story of Latin American in Some of Don Juan’s “seductions” vox Dei (the voice of the people is dependence. Part V turns the at would be called rape nowadays. the voice of God), and the unifica tention of the reader to the north, tion of the monarchy and the popu to the story of the largest docu lace as reflected in Lope de Vega’s mented migration in human his famous play Fuenteovejuna may be tory: that of Hispanics (primarily Fuentes had looked at the root of the Velasquez’s laby- Mexicans) to the US, and the chal rinthian view of where the power lenges that this reality pose within in his mirror and had resides: not in the bourgeois ob the new empire. seen a Greek. In the server of a Prado Museum paint By focusing on established ing, but in the implied reflection power and by dreaming of having US the power structure of the common viewer whose gaze it, Fuentes misses some important takes in that the self-portrait of strands in the history of the His still sees an Aztec. Velasquez is more imposing than panic world. For instance, the strug the reflective portrait of the mon gle between the nobility and the archs. Similarly when in his lecture monarchy that took place in the series Fuentes remarked at Stan Middle Ages is fundamental to the Finally, let us examine the ford University that he preferred to understanding of the Hispanic atti book's central metaphor and the see himself as a Greek rather than tude toward power. In Spain, as in choice of art for the cover. Fuentes an Aztec, his hosts interpreted his France, the monarchy triumphed claims he found this symbol of statement as a rejection of their (hence Charles V and Louis XIV); the buried mirror in the ancient view of themselves. They envi in England the nobility won (thus Totonac ruins of El Tajin in Vera sioned themselves in a contestable the Magna Charta). (In Germany cruz, Mexico. There the mirrors position as oppressed Amerindians and Italy the nobility made it im were found buried facing down in before the Spanish conquerors in possible to unify until the nine order to guide the dead in their stead of adopting his unquestion teenth century.) Another example final journey underground. Like ing embrace of the European resides in his superficial reading of wise, he refers to Ramon Xirau’s legacy of Greeks and Romans via Tirso de Molina’s Burlador, the play book L ’espil soterrat ( The Buried Mir the cross of the Spaniards. Fuentes that introduced the character of ror), to Don Quixote’s adversary, had looked in his mirror and had Don Juan to the world stage. Fuen the Knight of the Mirrors, who at seen a Greek. In the US the power tes merely sees the seductions of tempts to cure the mad hidalgo from structure still sees an Aztec. the inexperienced young man his folly, and to Goya’s cruel social Despite its idiosyncracies, this is (only four women, he says), over m irror of the Caprichos. But the mir a fascinating book to read: it con looking first of all who the young ror Fuentes prefers is the emblem tains information that most Ameri man was (the son of the king’s atic one buried in the painting Las can audiences will find surprising, privado or valido, the predecessor Meninas by Velasquez, which he if not unbelievable. The story is of today’s premier) and who his chose as the cover for his book. In richly illustrated in beautiful color victims were (wives of foreign gov it almost everyone is looking in the plates and the usual difficulties ernment officials seduced in their direction of the viewer of the paint with Spanish onomastics are easily own countries over which Spain ing. The mirror behind the painter overcome with careful explana held considerable clout, cloistered reflects the twin images of the mon- tions of names. ■

Hemisphere . Fall 1992 45 P U B L I C A T

Street People in Latin America

by Marian Goslinga

n recent years, homelessness, prostitution, and the harsh lives of street children have become more common features of urban life in Latin America. These problems are less restricted than previously to major population centers like Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro. The street children of Cali, Colombia, who are the focus of Lewis Aptekar’s study, Street Children of Cali (Duke University Press, 1988), are a case in point. Indeed, within the wider context of growing poverty and social dislocation, the plight of street children has become one of the most press ing issues in child welfare. The following books, periodical literature, and select newspaper articles are a testament Ito the pervasive nature of the phenomenon of street people in general in Latin American cities and towns.

La adopcion: una altemativa de children living on the streets of Children of the Streets: Homeless solucion al abandono infandl en Brazil’s major cities. These chil and Abandoned Children in Latin nuestro medio. Judith Miranda M. dren often turn to prostitution America. Flor Romero. UNESCO Bogota: UNICEF Regional Office, and crime; some become the Courier (October 1991), p. 16-19. 1990. 85 p. victims of death squads. Accord ing to the Movimento Nacional dos Children of the Streets of Mexico. Amid Murders of Brazil’s Street Meninos y Meninas deRua, in 1991 F. Peralta. Children and Youth Serv Kids. Sam Dillon. The Miami Her some 400 street children were mur ices Review, v. 14, nos. 3-4 (1992), ald, November 22, 1991, p. 1A, dered.] p. 347-62. [Describes street chil 11 A. [Reports on the murder of a dren in Ciudad Juarez and Mexico group of street children in Rio de Brasil: nacao sequestrada. Petro- City.] Janeiro and the case of a lone sur polis, Brazil: Editora Vozes, 1990. vivor.] 124 p. [Papers presented at a semi Collor Urges Protection of Brazil’s nar held in Rio de Janeiro, Septem Street Children. Julia Michaels. The Are Colombian Street Children ber 10-14, 1990, dealing with street Christian Science Monitor, O ctober Neglected?: The Contributions of children in that city.] 30, 1991, P- 6. [Discusses the initia Ethnographic and Ethnohistorical tives taken by President Fernando Approaches to the Study of Chil Brazil Frees Minors in Brothels. Collor de Mello to enforce the dren. Lewis Aptekar. Anthropology Julia Preston. The Washington Post, child protection law passed by the and Education Quarterly, v. 22, no. 4 February 27, 1992, p. 27A, 28A. Brazilian congress in 1990.] (1991), p. 326-46. [Refers to the February 14 raid by Brazilian police on the gold-min Como e a vida na rua. Mario Simas Brasil tem 500 mil menores prosti- ing town of Cuiu-Cuiu in the Ama Filho. Veja (Sao Paulo, Brazil), v. tutas. Gilberto Dimenstein. Folha de zon, which led to the release of 22 24, no. 22 (May 29, 1991), p. 40-41. Sao Paulo, October 25, 1990, p. 1C. minors who had been kidnapped [Discusses the daily lives of street [Discusses child prostitution in and forced into prostitution.] children in Sao Paulo, Brazil.] Brazil.] Brazil: War on Children. Gilberto Como eles morrem. Lula Costa Brasil: la caza de ninos en el pais Dimenstein. London: Latin Ameri Pinto. Veja, v. 24, no. 22 (May 29, del milagro economico. Ricardo can Bureau, 1991. 88 p. [Discusses 1991), p. 42-44. [Analyzes the fate Soca. Esta Semana (San Jose, Costa homelessness and street children.] of street children in Recife, Brazil.] Rica), v. 4, no. 167 (M arch 11-17, 1992), p. 16. [Cites governm ent Central America: Help for Street Conference of Working Children. estimates of 7 million abandoned Children. Inter-American Devel Jennifer Rosenberg. Mesoamerica, opment Bank. IDB, v. 19, no. 2 v. 10, no. 12 (December 1991), (March 1991), p. 7. [Discusses the p. 15. [Discusses the Conference joint program of the IDB and the of Working Children, held Septem Marian Goslinga is the Latin Ameri UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) to ber 8-12, 1991, in San Jose, Costa can and Caribbean librarian at Florida assist Central American street chil Rica, and attended by street chil International University. dren.] dren and adult educators.]

46 Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Decadencia moral tambien reta a February 6, 1991), p. 2, 19. [Dis Lafami Selavi dement les diffama- Fidel. Lafitte Fernandez. La Nation cusses male and female prostitu tions d’Ha'iti-Observateur. Haiti (San Jose, Costa Rica), February tion in Haiti.] Progres (Port-au-Prince, Haiti), 13, 1992, p. 8A. [Discusses social v. 9, no. 10 (June 5-11, 1991), conditions in today’s Cuba and the For Colombia’s Street Children: p. 1, 13. [About Lafami Selavi, growing number of Cuban prosti A Culture of Crime. Lyll B ecerra the orphanage founded by Jean- tutes.] de Jenkins. The Christian Science Bertrand Aristide for Haiti’s street Monitor, July 15, 1991, p. 18. [Con children.] Denuncia: liquidacao de pixotes. tends that crime is seen by Colom Francisco Viana. Istoe Senhor (Rio bia’s street children as the way to Meninas comefam a se prostituir de Janeiro, Brazil), no. 1113 (Janu achieve success.] aos 9 anos. Folha de Sao Paulo, Feb ary 23, 1991), p. 48-49. [Denounces ruary 11, 1992, p. 9. [Cites data the killings of street children by Growing Old Fast in Guatemala. from the Movimento National dos death squads in Rio de Janeiro, Miguel Luis Fairbanks. The New Meninos e Meninas de Rua about Brazil.] York Times Magazine, v. 140 (Janu child prostitution in Belem, Brazil.] ary 6, 1991), p. 20-23. [Describes Dominican Export: The Daughters. the plight of an estimated 10,000 Meninos de rua: os filhos da Howard W. French. The New York abandoned and orphaned children miseria e do crime. Veja (May 29, Times Magazine, v. 141 (April 20, living on the streets of Guatemala 1991), p. 34-36. [Examines the life 1992), p. 8. [Refers to the Domini City.] style, family background, criminal can Republic as one of the world’s ity, and mortality rates of the largest exporters of prostitutes.] Los hijos de la calle. Gina Polini. estimated 800,000 street children La Nation (San Jose, Costa Rica), and runaway youth in Brazil.] Elogio de la vagancia en la America September 8, 1991, p. 1-2. [Exam colonial: las andanzas de Francisco ines the plight of street children in Los menores en Bolivia: ,\sujetos Manuel de Quadros en Peru, Costa Rica.] sociales hoy o manana? Analisis de Nueva Granada y Nueva Esparia, la situation de ninos en circun- 1663. Solange Alberro. Colo?iial stancias especialmente dificiles. Latin American Review, v. l,nos. 1-2 Los hijos de la miseria. Sixto Jorge Dorrnic, Gloria Arday a. La Paz, (1992), p. 161-73. [Historical essay Valdez Cueto. Presencia (La Paz, Bolivia: Fundacion San Gabriel, on the phenomenon of vagrancy in Bolivia), March 1, 1992, p. 6. [Dis 1991. 252 p. [Sociological survey of colonial Spanish America.] cusses the fate of abandoned chil dren in Bolivia.] children and youth in major Boliv ian cities.] Escola Tia Ciata: A School for Street Children in Rio de Janeiro. How Ethnic Differences within a Ligia Costa Leite, Martha de Culture Influence Child Rearing: El nino de la calle: un adulto pre- Abreau Esteves. Environment and The Case of Colombian Street maturo. Presencia (La Paz, Bolivia), Urbanization, v. 3, no. 1 (April Children. Lewis Aptekar. Journal M arch 1, 1992, p. 3. [Discusses the 1991), p. 130-39. of Comparative Family Studies, v. 21, measures taken by Bolivia’s Direc no. 1 (Spring 1990), p. 67-80. tion National de Menores on behalf Flores en la Quinta Avenida. An of street children.] tonio Cano. Pais (Madrid, Spain), Human Rights Groups Denounce May 4, 1991, p. 18. [Refers to the Brazil Roundup of Street Children. Los ninos en la calle: experiencia words from a song concerning the Julia Michaels. The Christian Science de trabajo en Lima, Peru. Susana rebirth of prostitution in Cuba.] Monitor, M arch 18, 1992, p. 7. [Dis Zuchetti Canevaro. Lima: Departa- cusses the reaction of human rights mento de Education, Centro de Folle en prostitution en Haiti. activists to the government’s policy Investigaciones y Servicios Edu- Dominique Batraville. Haiti Ob- of using violent means to rid Sao cativos, Pontificia Universidad servateur, v. 21, no. 6 (January 30- Paulo of street children. Catolica del Peru, 1990. 146 p.

Hemisphere • Fall 1992 Publications Update

Ninos problemas. Heraldo (Tegu 1992, p. 4. [Reveals information in Suffer the Little Children. Sam Dil cigalpa, Honduras), September 4, connection with violent attacks on lon. The Miami Herald Tropic Maga 1991, p. 9. [Editorial suggesting Rio de Janeiro’s street children.] zine (January 5, 1992), p. 8-10. the Honduran government imple [Alleges that Brazil’s street chil ment a campaign to provide for Rocky Road to Rio. Jeremy Sea- dren live in grimy conditions, sniff abandoned children.] brook. New Statesman Society, v. 88, glue, and frequently resort to pros no. 1522 (April 24, 1992), p. 12-13. titution.] Nos inspiran compasion . . . o, <;les [Denounces Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, tenemos miedo? M aria E. Espinosa. as a city plagued by crime, street Trabajan en las calles tres millones Hispano Americano (Mexico), v. 99, children, slums, violence, and drug de ninos. Adriana Malvido, Victor no. 2563 (June 14, 1991), p. 4-11. use.] Ballinas. Jornada (Mexico), April [About Mexican street children. 1 28, 1991, p. 1, 15. [First o f a four- Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: part series on Mexican street chil O r p h a n s and Family Disintegration Prostitution, Family, and Nation in dren. The series was continued in Chile: The Mortality of Aban Argentina. Donna J. Guy. Lincoln: April 29-May 2.] doned Children. Rene Salinas University of Nebraska Press, 1991. Meza. Journal of Family History, 260 p. V Kolumbii ubivali bezdomnykh v. 16, no. 3 (July 1991), p. 315-30. (The Homeless Were Slain in Co [Includes statistical information for Slavery’s Impasse: Slave Prosti lombia). Izvestiya (Moscow), March the period 1848-1919.] tutes, Small-Time Mistresses, and 12, 1992, p. 4. [Discusses the killing the Brazilian Law of 1871. Sandra of homeless people in Colombia Povos da rua: recenseamento ig- Lauderdale Graham. Comparative and the sale of the cadavers for norou quern nao tern onde morar. Studies in Society and History, v. 33, medical research.] M arcos E. Gomes. Estado de Sao no. 4 (October 1991), p. 669-95. Paulo (March 29, 1992), p. 4. [Al Violencia e extermmio dos meni leges that the recent Brazilian cen The Street Children of Recife: nos e meninas de rua. B enedita sus ignores the existence of street A Study of Their Background. da Silva. Vozes (Petropolis, Brazil), people.] C. Rosa, R. Borba, G. Ebrahim . v. 84, no. 4 (July-August 1990), Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, v. 38, p. 473-81. Os prazeres de noite: prostituicao no. 1 (February 1992), p. 34-40. e codigos da sexualidade femenina Zonas de Tolerancia on the North en Sao Paulo, 1890-1930. Margareth Suffer the Children. W. E. G ut ern Mexican Border. Jam es R. Cur Rago. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, m an. Omni (New York), v. 14, no. 2 tis, Daniel D. Arreola. Geographical 1991. 322 p .' (November 1991), p. 81. [Criticizes Revieiu, v. 81, no. 3 (July 1991), Guatemala’s state policy in dealing p. 333-46. [Discusses the US-Mex- Prostitution infantil: inhalation y with street children.] ico border prostitution zones.] m iedo. Marlene del C. Sandoval Vera. Nueva Sociedad, no. 109 (Sep- tember-October 1990), p. 135-40. Latin America and the Caribbean Religion: neoliberalismo y nueva evangelization. Benito Martinez. from a Global Perspective C uba International (Havana), v. 30, no. 253 (January 1991), p. 49-50. A Resource Guide for Teachers [Cites Marta Palma, executive sec retary for Latin America and the Pedro R. Bermudez and Barbara C. Cruz Caribbean of the Commission for Inter-Ecclesiastic Assistance to Ref ugees of the World Council of This ten-part resource guide is a self-contained series of lessons on Latin Churches, for stating that, in most America and the Caribbean based on the Hanvey model of global aware Latin American cities, children are ness. The lessons focus upon economic development, human rights, still being exploited by the drug- immigration issues, the role of women, and environmental concerns. trafficking industry and in prostitu Price: $21.00 tion.]

Report Details Violence to Brazil’s To order, please m ake check or m oney o rder (US currency only) payable to: Street Kids. Julia Michaels. The Latin American and Caribbean Center, Florida International University, University Christian Science Monitor, M arch 2, Park, Miami, FL 33199. (305) 348-2894; FAX (305) 348-3593.

Hemisphere • Fall 1992

Hemisphere Non Profit Org. Latin American and Caribbean Center U.S. Postage Florida International University PAID University Park M iam i, FL 33199 Miami, Florida 33199 Perm it No. 3 6 7 5