Food fiom the Heartland: The Iwawi Site and Tiwanaku Political Economy fiom a Faunal Perspective

by Julie Eunju Park B.A., University of Toronto, 1994

THESIS SUEMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

in the Department of Arc haeology

OJulie Eunju Park 200 1 SIMON FRASER UNTVERSITY June 2001

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Four models of Tiwanaku politicaI economy are exarnined using faunal remaùis recovered fkom the Iwawi site, located within the heartland of the Tiwanaku polity. The site spans 1000BC- AD1 000, providing an opportuniîy to examine continuities and change in the local economy fkom a site witness to the rise and fa11 of the Tiwanaku polity. Taxa, camelid species identification, camelid skeletd parts data, modified bone, age profiles and specirnens exhibiting lesions or pathologies provide the basis of this analqrsis. Faunal analysis of the Iwawï sample suggests overall continuities in faunal resource use fiom the beginning of site occupation to the end. A diverse mixed econorny included fishing, hunting, herding and collecting activities. Carnelid species identification indicates large camelids, most likely Ilamas, were the predorninant camelids used at the site - though supplemented to some degree by alpacas and vicunas. At Iwawi camelids were used for a variety of purposes that promoted cornmunity self-sufficiency. Camelids were used for cargo carryïng, local meat production and consumption, wool, and as raw materials for artifact production. The absence of significant economic shifts in resource use through time suggests the Tiwanaku state did not have significant levels of economic control over the inhabitants of Iwawi. %

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my parents Chongkook Park and Hyungja Huh Park. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 would like to thank al1 members of my thesis comrnittee for their support, encouragement and constructive comrnents throughout the process of completing this work. As thesis supervisor, Dr. Jonathon Driver helped me re-evaluate my priorities which led me to retm to my thesis. I want to thank hirn for reading nurnerous drafts and providing much valued guidance and clarity in making the research more comprehensible and manageable. Dr. A. Catherine D'Andrea provided greatly appreciated support and insightfül, thought provoking comments. Dr. Rick Garvin graciously agreed to take time out of his busy schedule to be the Extemal Examiner and his participation was very welcorne. This research would not have been possible without the support of Dr. Isbell's Iwawi Project and the Direccion Nacional de ArqueologidAntropolo~aPINAAR). They provided me with access to the faunal material from Iwawi and allowed me to export the remains for hrther analysis. Dr. Isbell was very supportive throughout the analysis and has always impressed me with his breadth of knowledge and inquisitive intellect. It was a privilege working with you. 1 would like to thank al1 the members of the 1997 Iwawi Project Field Analysis for their assistance and the fhendiy cooperative work environment: JoEllen Burkholder, Catherine Bencic, Dan Brockrnan, Alexis Gang, Joshua Berlin, and Charlene Milliken who gave up many of her free evenings to help out when 1 was most stressed. The analysis was enriched by the generosity of individuals from the FIorida Museum of Natural History who showed interest in rny work, provided me with workspace, literature, and kindly gave me permission to access their comparative collections: Elizabeth Wing, Susan Scudder, David Steadrnan, Tom Webber, Donna Ruhl, Laune Wilkins. Correspondences with Barbara Meissner regarding pathological specimens also contributed to this work. 1 would like to thank the faculty and staff of the Dept. of Archaeology for facilitating my work, in particular, Robyn Ward Banejee, Linda Bannister, Andrew Barton, Lynda Przybla, Ann Sullivan, Shannon Wood, Dr. Richard Shutler, Prof. Phi1 Hobier and Dr. Jack Nance. There are so many friends, graduate and undergraduate students who volunteered or made comrnents and contributed to making possible aspects of the research presented in the thesis as well as research that will eventually find a home elsewhere. 1 learned much from their questions and I'd like to thank them al1 here: Vicky Castille, Yvette Hall, Spencer de Gmchy, Kira Kristensen, Tracey LaRose, Vladimir Molina, Jason Nesbitt, Jeff Oliver, Cathy Pouskas, Diana Rossi, Martyna Wronski, Tina Wyatt, and Regina- My thanks to Thomas Huh who provided me with a cornputer, cornputer support and served as a knowledgeable resource while I learned various graphics prograrns. 1 especially want to thank al1 my fiends who provided listening ears, moral support and dispensed very good advice over many cups of coffee throughout this Iong journey: Michèle Wollstonecroft, Judy McLellan, Tiffany Rawlings, Sara Yoshida, Mirjana Roksandic, Baljit Sarnrai, Cheryl Takahashi, Tom Arnold, Bob Muir, Pei Pei Chu, Tracey Rogers, Suzanne Cheng, Peter Duckworth-Pilkington III, Charlton Carscallen, Judy Yi, Sue Yi, Aline Tseng, Charlene Milliken, Martin Bale, Brian Chisholm, Sammy, Lilly, Claire and Max. You have al1 enriched my life and I am gratefiil to have you al1 as fiiends. Mostly I would Like to thank my parents for standing by me in the face of my inexplicable life choices and my brother Peter who has aIways tried to keep me grounded with his measured outlook on life. 17dalso like to thank Haysook Choi, Youngtae Choi, Namsoo Oh and Cia Leander for al1 their encouragement over the years. This research would not have been possible without the Graduate Fellowships (1998, 1999), the Teaching Assistant positions, the Dept. of Archaeology Travel Bursary and the generous support of Dr. Isbell during the field season as well as my employment with Lindsay Oliver at Aegis Consultants. Thank-you all. TABLE OF CONTENTS .. APPROVAL PAGES ...... 11 ... ABSTRACT ...... -111 DEDICATION ...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v .. TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vil LIST OF TABLES ...... x .. LIST OF FIGWS...... xi] CWTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH CESIGN Introduction ...... ,,...... 1 Physical Setting ...... 4 Climate and Paleoclimatic Research ...... 8 History of Tiwanaku Research ...... 10 Culture History ...... 11 Iwawi Site ...... ,.., ...... 14 Introduction to Models of Tiwanaku Political Economy ...... 18 Zona1 Cornplementarity Mode1 ...... 20 Altiplano Mode1 ...... 21 Centralised Imperialist S tate ...... 23 Local Autonomous Perspective...... 25 lwawi and Zooarchaeological Profiles ...... 27 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY Introduction ...... 30 Faunal Recovery Methods ...... 30 Description of Sample ...... 31 Identifications ...... 31 hvertebrates ...... 33 Amphibians ...... 34 Fish ...... 34 Mammals ...... 34 Human Remains ...... 35 Avian Remains ...... 35 Quantification ...... 36 Temporal Analysis ...... 36 Cornparisons ...... ,,...... 37 Conclusion ...... 39 CHAPTER 3: FAUNAL REMAINS FROM THE IWAWI SITE Introduction ...... 40 Sample Description ...... 40 Mammals ...... 42 Carnivores ...... 43 Rodents ...... 44 Fish ...... 45 Birds ...... 47 Arnphibians and Invertebrates ...... 50 Temporal Analysis ...... 50 vii Interpretation ...... 53 Cornparisons ...... 54 Conclusion ...... 55

CHAPTER 4: CAMELID SPECIES IDENTIFiCATION AND SIELETAL PARTS PATTERNIDTG Introduction ...... 57 Camelid Species Identification ...... 57 Incisor Morphology ...... 58 Osteometrics ...... 60 Univariate and Bivariate Approach ...... 62 Multivariate Approach ...... 67 Comrnents ...... 71 Carnelid Skeletal Part Abundance Patterns ...... 73 Butchering Units ...... 78 Structural Density...... 78 Meat LJtility Index ...... 80 Cornparisons ...... 81 Carnelid Skeletal Parts Comrnents ...... 82 Conclusion ...... 83 CWTER5: CAMELID AGE PROFILES AND PATHOLOGIES introduction ...... 85 Camelid Age Profiles ...... 85 Factors Effecting Eruption and Wear ...... 86 Basic Description of Camelid Dentition ...... 87 Age Profile Methods ...... 88 Age Categories at Iwawi ...... 89 Age Profile Interpretation ...... 94 Site Cornparisons ...... ~...... 97 Traumas and Pathologies ...... 100 Methods ...... 101 Sarnple Description ...... 102 Stress Related Conditions ...... 104 Degenerative Joint Disorders...... 106 Infections ...... 106 Dental Diseases ...... 107 Trauma ...... ,...... 107 Temporal View ...... 108 Site Cornparisons ...... 109 Conclusion ...... 112

CHAPTER 6: BONE ARTIFACTS Introduction ...... 114 Methods ...... 114 Sample Description ...... 115 Conclusion ...... 118

CHAPTER 7: INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS Introduction ...... ,...... 120 Summary of Results...... 120 Temporal Perpsective on Iwawi Faunal Resource Use ...... 121 Evaluation of Models ...... 124 Vlll Zona1 Complementarity ...... 124 Altiplano ...... 124 Imperialist State ...... 125 Local Autonomous ...... 126 Discussion ...... 126 REFERENCES ...... 129 APPENDICES Appendix A: Stratigraphie Affiliation of Excavation Units and Loci Containing Faunal Remains fiom the 1996 Excavations of the Queneqere Area, Iwawi Site...... 147 Appendix B: Description of Measurements used for Osteometric Analysis ...... 150 Appendix C: Data Associated with Miller's Univariate/Bivariate Approaches .. 152 Appendix D: Mean Measurements (mm) for Variables fiom Modem Camelids 153 Appendix E: Classification Functions for Camelid Post-Cranial Measurements 154 Appendix F: Raw Data and Classification Scores ...... 156 Appendix G: Scan site and Volume Density Data for Iwawi Sarnple ...... 164 Appendix H: Bone Artifact Data Sets ...... 166 Appendix 1: Catalogue of Specimens used for Age Profiles and Emption Data . 167 Appendix J: Catalogue of Specimens Exhibiting Lesions or Trauma ...... 169 Appendix K: Pictorial Atlas of Select Specimens Exhibiting Lesions or Trauma173 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Surnmary of Paleoclimatic Data ...... 10 Table 2 . Iwawi Chronolog and Phase Descriptions ...... 17 Table 3 . Expected Faunal Variations for the Iwawi Site Based on Tiwanaku Models of Political Economy ...... 29 Table 4 . Excavations Units and Associated Loci According to Strata ...... 38 Table 5 . Frequency of Identified Faunal Remains by Class ...... 41

Table 5 . Sarnple Size According to Strata ...... 41

Table 7 . Frequency of Mammals at Iwawi ...... 42

Table 8 . Frequency of Fish at Iwawi ...... 47

Table 9. Frequency of Birds Identified to the Level of Order, Farnily, Genus and Species ...... 49 Table 10. Modified Avian Elements ...... 49

Table 1 1. Frequency of Invertebrates and Arnphibians at lwawi ...... 50

Table 12. Frequency of Taxonornic Groupings According to Strata ...... 51

Table 13 . Relative Frequency (NISP) of Fish and Camelids ...... 52 Table 14. Camelid Species and Uses ...... 58

Table 15. Macroscopic Differences Within the Camelid Family (following Kent 1982) ...... 59

Table 16. Descriptive. . Statistics and Student's T-tests for First Phalanges and Hurneni ...... 66 Table 17. Exarnple of Classification Score Calculations ...... 69

Table 18. Species Frequencies According to Element ...... 70

Table 19. Frequency and Meat Utility Data for Carnelid Skeletal Parts ...... 76 Table 20 . Body Parts According to Strata ...... 78 Table 2 1. Permanent Mandibular Tooth Eruption Sequences ...... 87

Table 22 . Mandibular Age Sets for Queneqere Sample ...... 90 Table 23. Carnelid Age Groups at Iwawi ...... 92

Table 24 . Iwawi Age Classes According to Strata ...... 94

Table 25 . Summary of Webster's Age Profile Data (1993) ...... 99

Table 26 . Frequency of Pathological Specimens According to Element and Condition ...... 104

Table 27. Pathological Types According to Strata ...... 109 Table 28 . Frequency Cornparison of Pathological Types ...... 110

Table 29 . Comparison of Pathological Elements ...... Il1 Table 30 . Elements and Bone Tools ...... 116

Table 3 1. Modified Bone According to Strata ...... 118

Table 32. Iwawi Faunal Analysis Compared to Tiwanaku Models of Political Economy ...... 128 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1- Location of Iwawi Site on the Taraco Peninsula ...... 5

Figure 2 . Lago Winaimarca and Lake Vegetation Zones ...... 7

Figure 3 . Near Shore Zone ...... 7

Figure 4 . Taraco Hills fkom the Lake Zone ...... 7 Figure 5. Queneqere Area 1993 Excavations ...... ~...... 15

Figure 6 . Fish and Carnelid MSP According to Strata...... 52

Figure 7 . Carnelid Incisor Morphology based on Wheeler (1984 Figure 2) ...... 60

Figure 8 . Iwawi Proximal Fore First Phalanx Scatterplot ...... 64

Figure 9 . Iwawi Distal Humems Antero-posterior and Latero-media1 Width ...... 65

Figure 10. Measurements Used in Accordance with Kent (1982) ...... 67

Figure 11. Bar Graph of Iwawi Camelid Skeietal PartIPortion Frequency ...... 77

Figure 12. Scatterplot of Iwawi Element Frequencies and Bone Density ...... 80

Figure 13. Scatterplot of Fragrnented Skeletal Element Meat Utility Index (FSEMUI. Tomka 1994) and Iwawi Element Frequencies (NISPmEF) ...... 81

Figure 14. Payne Diagram of Iwawi's Camelid Age Sets ...... 91

Figure 15. Camelid Age Profiles at Iwawi ...... 92

Figure 16. ReIative Proportion of Condensed Age Sets According to Strata...... 94

Figure 17. Iwawi Carnelid Age Profile According to Webster's (1993) Methods ...... 99

Figure 18. Skeletal Diagram of Elements Displaying Lesions ...... 103 Figure 19. Pathological Types According to Strata ...... 109 Figure 20 . Camelid Elements Selected for Bone Tooi Production ...... 117

xii Chapter 1: Introduction to Research Design and Site Introduction Economy and statehood are thought to be closely intertwined. State level societies rely on establishing a store of material resources through systems of production and storage that can be drawn upon to maintain and hnd the state apparatus. Faunal remains have been used in many parts of the world to examine the differential access to resources in complex societies fiom the Middle East to the Arnericas (Crabtree 1990; Junker et al. 1994; Miller and Burger 1995; Welck 1991 ; Welch and Scarry 1995; Zeder 1991). Faunal remains directly represent econornic activities, hence they provide the means with which investigators can examine the political economy of a society. The concept of political economy recognises the inter-relatedness of social, political, economic and cuhral factors in any given society. More specificaily the term refers to the very processes of production, distribution and consumption by which the polity replicates itself (Smith 1991 : 34; Spencer 1987). The purpose of this study lies in establishing an empirical foundation upon which previously constructed models of Tiwanaku political economy cmbe evaluated through the zooarchaeological record. This research emerges out of an interest in exarnining economic patterns at the community level, within an area cornrnonly referred to as the Tiwanaku heartland. By investigating models of political economy we are also exarnining different visions of the nature of the Tiwanaku polity- In essence, we are entering the debate over the degree of centralisation exercised by Tiwanaku over the surrounding cornrnunities. Only by evaluating these models with empincal data fiom different lines of evidence can we achieve a more refined, less polemic understanding of the past. This in tum will aid in outlining future approaches to exarnining the Tiwanakri polity by suggesting new directions that may explain the overarching organisational principles behind Tiwanaku economics. In approaching state level polities, one inevitably encountrrs debates conceming the origins of the state, the nature of the state, and the substantivist-formalist debate underlying many anthropological discussions of state level economics. It is increasingly recognised that earlier debates over "prime movers" in the development and characterisation of the state do not fiilly recognise the compIexity of this phenomenon. in accordance with this perspective, the research discussed in this thesis begins by recognising thzt states are the product of a complex and dynamic interplay between natural and cultural factors/processes through time. Only models that have been developed specifically for the Tiwanaku culture will be addressed in the body of the thesis. This study will examine faunal remains recovered fiom the 1996 excavations of the Queneqere area cf the three hectare Iwawi mound site. The site is remarkable because it provides us with an opportunity to examine community level economic organisation of faunal resources over a span of 2000 years (1000 BC-AD 1000). It also allows us to examine broader issues of political economy through the urban-rural dynamics between Iwawi and that of the "Tiwanaku capital", located 23 km west of Iwawi. The results of the faunal analyses making up this study will be reviewed against the four dominant models of Tiwanaku politicai economy. Zooarchaeological correlates for the models are constructed using ethnographic, ethnoarchaeological and ethnohistoric studies of Andean faunal resource use. This may help us address questions swh as: How centralised and integrated was the Tiwanaku economy? Were the economic activities of the residents of Iwawi controlled as Tiwanaku rose to influence? In addressing these questions, we can begin to investigate the nature of the Tiwanaku state and its degree of econornic integration; a subject that is currently poorly understood at al1 scales of analysis whether it be household, polity or interpolity levels (Browman 1997; Janusek 1994). The history of Tiwanaku research is associated with an ever-proliferating body of theories and models concerning the nature of the Tiwanaku state and economy, much of it based on tentative and adrnittedly fragile data (Ekowman 1978: 344, 1997; Kolata 1993a, 1993b; Webster 1993: 15). Earlier models (Murra 1985; Browrnan 1978, 1980, 1984) of political economy concentrated on regional patteming throughout the Andes whereas recent researchers (Albarracin-Jordan 1992, 1996; Bennann 1993, 1994, 1997; DyAltroy1997; Erickson 1985, 1987; Graffam 1990, 1992; Janusek 1994, 1999; Kolata 1986, 1991, 1993% 1996; Mc Andrews et al. 1997; Matthews 1997; Webster 1993) have focused on reconstructing settiement patterns or intensive agriculture within the Tiwanaku hea-tland. These models f?equently include arguments that have implications for faunal resource use, however aside f?om a handful of studies (Kent et ai. 1999; Stanton 1994; Webster 1993), very few investigations have systematically examined the role and contribution of animal resources such as domesticated carnelids. This state of affairs contrasts with the significance attributed to faunal resources and their by-products in ethnohistoric and prehistoric studies. In Andean societies llarnas were a prime source of wealth for both individuals and the state in the prehispanic era (Gilmore 1950; Mma 1965, 1968). They "confer power and prestige on their owners and provide them with the means to participate in social reciprocity" (Browman 1974: 189) and wealth accumulation. They were the pnmary means for transporting and bearing goods that facilitated the construction of buildings, temples, irrigation projects, highways, military expansion, food production. commerce and mining (Franklin 1982). Camelids are also a reliable food supply, easiIy mobilized "storage lockers". Aside fiom their subsistence and labour value camelids provide a wealth of secondary resources and services: hides, wool, dung fbel (taqrria) and fertilizer, blood, fat, bone for manufacturîng tools, sacrifice, and bezoar stones (stomach calculi) for rnedicinal and ritual purposes (Bastien 1978; Browman 1974; Flannery et al. 1989; Flores-Ochoa 1979 [1968]: 94; Franklin 1982; Gilmore 1950; Kent 1984; Lynch 1983; Murra 1965, 1968, 1980 [1955]; Wing 1977). Textiles were a highly valued by-product fiom the Early Horizon onwards, serving as status markers, burial goods, ritual offerings, badges of office and household ornamentation (Murra 1965; Topic and Topic 1987: 832). Given the significance of carnelid resources to Andean societies, it is important to complement and balance the previous emphasis on agricultural research by providing its faunal corollary. This chapter provides information regarding the physical and cultural landscape of the study area with a particular focus on factors that influence the range of subsistence activities at Iwawi. This is then followed by a description of the site and an outline of the models of Tiwanaku political economy and their corresponding zooarchaeoIogica1 correlates expected at Iwawi. Physical Setting The rnetropolitan core of the Tiwanaku polity lies in the altiplano (Figure l), the high altitude (3660m+asl) treeless intermontane plains of the Central Andes lying between the Cordillera Real and the Cordillera Occidental. Lake Titicaca dominates the altiplano landscape with a surface area of approximately 8 100 km2 and maximum depths reaching 28 1 m. The altiplano extends fiom Lake Titicaca to Lake Poopo and represents the upper altitudinal limits for agicultural production in the Andes (Winterhalder and Thomas 1978: 3). The Iake and its adjacent environs provide a wealth of aquatic resources: two fish genera (Oresrias and Trichomyc,terus), waterfowl, fertile soils, reeds for construction purposes, edible plants and algae. The modifjmg, temperature regulating effects of the lake on the local ciimate results in muted seasonality (Vaux et al. 1988: 220). This creates an offshore environment similar to at least 450 m lower in altitude and is more arnenable to traditional tuber and chenopod agriculture as well as pasturage for domesticated carnelid herds (Vacher et al. 1992). The puna emerges out of the altiplano and is distinguished by extreme altitudes and poor soils not conducive to traditional agriculture. With its high q~alitygrazing lands, the Titicaca Basin has long been considered a possible centre of carnelid domestication (Lynch 1983). At the time of conquest, estimates suggest 500 000- 1.9 million camelids were herded in the area (Browrnan 1974; Graffam 1992; Kolata 198 1). This is the natura1 habitat of the carnelids with grasslands reaching towards the rnountains providing ideal pasturage for Ilamas, alpacas, guanacos, and vicunas. The climate alsc fostered traditional Andean methods of food processing: fieeze-drying potatoes (chztizl) and meat (ch arki). This significantly extends the life of these products and permits the storage of surplus production for micro and macroeconomic purposes. In many ways fwawi is an ideaI site to examine these models. It is located on the south-side of the Taraco Peninsula in close proximity to Tiwanaku (Figure 1). The mound site rises approximately 3 m higher than the surrounding area (ca. 3800 m asl) and lies along the shores of lago Win'aimarca (also known as Lago Peqzteh or Lago Menor), the shallowest of the three basins comprising Lake Titicaca. The site is bound to the south by the lake and to the iiorth by the Taraco Hills (ca. 3900+ m) which bisect the peninsula along an east-west axis. The Taraco Peninsula is composed of three general environmental zones: the lake zone, the near shorc zone and the hills.

Figure 1 Location of Iwawi site on the Taraco Peninsula (Isbell et al. 1996)

Following Lauzanne (1992),there are three general aquatic vegetation zones associated with the lake (Figure 2): lake habitat, totora zone and littoral zone. The part of the lake adjacent to the site rarely exceeds five metres in depth. The lake habitat extends hmtwo or three metres to 10 metres in depth and is dominated by Chara spp. and charactenzed by the presence of pelagic fish such as Orestias pentlandi, 0. cuvieri. and 0. olivaceus. Closer to the shore, approximately one to three metres in depth is a zone of culturally valued aquatic reeds such as totora (Schoenoplectus totora) and three different species (Elodea potamogeîon, Myriophylltmi elatinoides and Potumogeton strictus) referred to by the shared common name of llachu (Leveil and Orlove 1992). These reeds are frequently rooted in the lake sediments and their stems emerge out of the water, ready to be harvested. The plants were valued resources with many uses: construction materials 5 for roofs and boats, fodder for animals, ropes, füels, and medicine (Kent 1 982: 2 14; Leveil and Orlove 1992). Today these plants serve as forage fodder perrnitting the existence of cattle herds in an area possessing otherwise little pasture (Vacher et al. 1992: 5 16). The totora reed beds also provide an attractive environment for fish and waterfowl ranging fiom rails and rnoorhens to five species of ducks. Algae and waterweeds were. also collected and dried into bricks to be traded in other regions (Browman 198 1, 1984). The littoral zone extends fkom the totora stands to the shore and is home to many small Orestias spp. such as 0. agassii. 0. Zutez4s. and 0. alba (Lauzanne 1992: 413). The mudflats and shallow water marshes also provide food for numemus birds such as charadrids, scolopacids, and the puna ibis (Plegadis ndgrvayi). These relatively salty mud flats lie between the stands of totora and cultivated fields. The near shore environment (Figure 3) enjoys the moderating effects of the lake in the fonn of higher temperatures and increased humidity reIative to the surrounding altiplano (Albarracin-Jordan 1992: 14). These conditions reduce the nsk of drought and fkost, providing approximately 290 frost-fiee days per year (Graffam 1990: 27). The shallowness of the water table and the chemically basic, alluvial lacustrine, loarny sand and clay sediments (Albarracin-Jordan 1992: 22) produce a nch agricultural and forage zone (Vacher et al. 1992: 5 16). The fertile soils permit the cultivation of tubers (Solanurn tztberosum. 0-distzrberosa, Tropaeolim tztberosztm, UZZuc~tstzrberosus), chenopods (Chenopodiunt qttirroa, C. paZIidicarrle), amaranîhs (Amarardz us cmrdattis) and legumes (Lztpinus rn zttubiZis. Pac/?vr-rhizusahipa, PhaseoZus wclgaris) (Browman 1 98 1). Crops flourish in the area and can mature up to 2 to 3 months earlier than in other parts of the Altiplano (Vacher et al. 1992: 51 1). Bunch grasses such as Mpu ichzt, Calamczgrostis and Festuca are relatively dense and more developed in wetter and wanner areas such as the circum-lake zone @rush 1982: 30). These fields are particularly attractive to avifauna such as passennes, columbiforms and falconiforms (Dejoux 1992b: 464). It is also home to a relatively diverse range of small rodents, and amphibians. This is the area that is most fiequently destabilised by flooding associated with lake level fluctuations (Albarracin-Jordan 1 992 : 2 1). Figure 2 Lago Wirïairnarca and lake vegetation zones

Fi,we 3 The near shore zone looking towards the lake

Figure 4 Taraco Hills viewed from the lake zone The fertile soils continue northward and become increasingly shallow as they reach the Taraco HilIs (Figure 4). The Taraco Hills or the Taraco Formation is characterized by steep and narrow quebradas or dry washes fomed from differential erosion processes. The steep slopes are covered by shallow soils and scarce vegetation, mostly in the fom of small deciduous shmbs (Baccharis, Adesmia), grasses (Stipa) and lichens (Ehford & Kolata 1996: 46). This is the naturaI habitat of rodents like the wild guinea pig (Cavia czctheria), leaf eared mouse (Phyllotis andetcm), and partridges such as Nothoprocta cinerscens (Albarracin-Jordan 1992: 19). It is evident that Iwawi is ideally situated to take advantage of both wild and domestic resources. The lake is within easy reach and provides fish, birds and aquatic plant resources. The moderating effects of the lake also prove beneficial for agricultural and pastoral activities. The growing season is extended in this area and a variety of foragz is available for domestic camelids. Given this setting, it is not surprising the site has a long history of occupation. It is important to recognise that present environmental conditions, particularly in relation to vegetation cover, may have differed in the past. The environment in this area has been altered by thousands of years of human impact through settlements, cultivation, fùel gathering and grazing by native and imported ungulates. This has resulted in soi1 erosion, deforestation, and sedimentation of Iakes, nvers and estuaries (Kent 1982: 2 12).

Climate and PaleocIimatic Research Alterations in precipitation and temperature have the potential to impact significantly on floral and faunal communities. In the Andes, climate is affected by altitude, geographic location and exposure to prevailing winds such as the South Pacific and South Atlantic anticyclones (Brush 1982: 20). The winds are predorninantly fiom the NE in the rainy season and west to south-west during the remainder of the year (Roche et al. 1992). The Bolivian altiplano receives an average annual rainfall of 700 mm (Kolata 1993a: 44) with two major seasons, wet and dry, differentiated by the arnount of precipitation. The "dry" season lasts fiom Apnl to October when the region receives less than 35 mm of precipitationimonth. Droughts are not uncornmon at this time and temperatures cm dip below 0°C (Unzueta 1975 in Kent 1982: 2 10). The "rainy season" spans November to April receiving 65-1 75 mm of precipitation per month. January is considered the rainiest month of the year (Albarracin-Jordan 1992: 14-15) and is also a time when flooding becomes a danger (Kent 1982: 2 10). Observations fiom the weather station at Guaqui indicate that the average annual temperature is 7.7"C (Unzueta 1975 in Kent 1982). Seasonal variations in temperature are muted relative to diurnal temperature variations that can range from O°C at night to 20°C in the aiternoon. The thin atmosphere and solar radiation produce high afiemoon temperatures whereas the combination of low atmospheric density, low vapour pressure and the absence of clouds produce low night-time temperatures (Winterhalder and Thomas 1978: 12). July tends to be the coldest month of the year (Roche et al. 1992:66) with snow appearing infi-equently in late July or ealy August. Irregülar rainfall, river inputs and evaporation are linked to lake level fluctuations. Changes in lake Ievel significantly impact Iake vegetation zones and the fish and birds inhabiting these zones. During the 2othcentury lake levels have varied approximately 6.4 metres (Cannouze and Jaen 1981; Roche et ai. 1992). The largest decline took place fiom 1933-1943 dropping fiom 3810.1 to 3805.2 m. The greatest continuous rise occurred fkom the Iowest level at 3805.2 m 1943 to 3809.3 m in 1955 (Binford and Kolata 1996: 38). A seasonal fluctuation is evident in the lake level between the wet and dry seasons with the lake rising in the rainy season and falling in the dry season. Lake levels are highest in March and April, Iowest in November and December (Graffam 1990: 33). These fluctuations are particuiarly pronounced at Lago Win'aimnrca and floods often destabilise the environment around Iwawi (Albarracin-Jordan 1992: 21). During 1985- 1986 the lake rose three metres to its highest levels recorded during the 20th century. The waters reached the Iwawi site, turning it into an island surrounded by shallow waters (Albarracin-Jordan 1992). Vacher et al. (1992) reported that increased lake levels in 1986 resulted in a significant decline in totora, which in turn impacted cattle production in the area. Paleoclimatic research in this area is based on a wide range of data fiom pollen to sediments and ice cap cores (see Table 1). At times the results of these analyses are contradictory, though most sources indicate general similarities in clirnate after 5000 BP. In the Bolivian Andes. paleoclimatic reconstructions are primarily based on changes in the rate of ice accumulation in high-altitude glaciers. Ice core data f?om the Quelccaya glacier located 200 km NW of the study area are reputed to provide the most complete record of regional paleoclimates (Thompson er al. 1985, 1988). Using this information in addition to the palynological record of Lake Titicaca, Ortloff and Kolata (1993) proposed that droughts starting around AD 950 led to the disintegration of the Tiwanaku state between AD 1000-1 100. Browman (1985), Burkholder (1997) dispute the coincidence between drought conditions and civilisation collapse.

Table 1 Summary of paleoclimatic data . --. . .yIlype.ofstpdsr;: .' . Browman 1985 (glacial sequences & pollen) AD 100-200 Warmer AD 450-600 Drier AD 600-950 Cooler Wetter AD 1100-1450 Warmer Drier AD 1500-1700 Cooler Wetter Kent 1984 7000-5000 BP Drier (paleosoils & erosion) 3400-1400 BP Drier Thornpson et al. 1985 AD 540-560 Drier (Quelccaya Ice Core) AD 570-610 Extremely Dry AD 6 10-650 Wetter AD 650-730 Drier AD 760-1040 Wetter AD 1250-1310 Extremely Dry Thompson et al. I 988 AD 490-620 High dust accumulation (Quelccaya Ice Core) AD 830-960 High dust accuniulation Ybert 1992 (pollen) Pre 2 1 000 BP 3-5' C cooler Shallow lake, no totora 2-5' C cooler Shallow, then deepens Warmer, up to modern levels Lake Ievel rises 5 m Slight cooling trend 1-3' C cooler Lake level dcclines Lake level rises

History of Tiwanaku Research The history of archaeological investigations on the Tiwanaku culture falls into three general penods (See Albarracin-Jordan 1999 for detailed outline of Tiwanaku research). Earlier investigations during the 19Ihand 2othcentunes focused on the site of

10 Tiwanaku itself by investigators such as Crequi-Morifort, de Mortillet, Courty, Uhle, Gallo, Buchtien, Ryden, Posnansky, Bennett, Kidder, Parsons and members of the Centro de Investzgaciones Arqzteologicas en Tiwanakri or ClAT (Albarracin-Jordan 1999). Bennett (1934, 1936, 1950) provided the first systematic excavations of a Tiwanaku site and his work on the culture history and cerarnic chronology remain significant to this day. Unfortunately many of the reports fiom this period have been lost, darnaged, or unavailable and some investigations were never published or written up. After the Second World War, renewed interest by Ponce Sangines inspired more work on the site of Tiwanaku. Poncé (1972, 1999) created the ceramic chronology that remains at the heart of that used today. In 1952, the National Revolution influenced the extent to which foreign archaeologists were perrnitted to work on the national cultural patrimony (Albarracin-Jordan 1992). Many excavations took place in the 1960s and 70s but this time period is characterized by the absence of widely available publications on this work. The Instituto Nacional de Arqueologia (INAR) was created in 1975 (now Direccion Nacional de Arqueo~ogialAntropologia,DINAAR), increasing the nurnber of museums, labs and publications available. In the late IWO'S foreign archaeologists were permitted to work on surveys in the Middle Tiwanaku Valley (Girault and Faldin 1978 in Albarracin-Jordan 1992) and excavations at the site of Chiripa (Browman 1981). Recently there has been increased interest in reconstructing regional settlement patterns and economic processes within the Tiwanaku heartland. In 1986 Kolata (1996a) and Rivera initiated Proyecto Wila Jawira which was the catatyst for numerous dissertations, theses and English language publications. The project generated a tremendous amount of work on the settlement systems in the Tiwanaku Valley, large scale excavations at Tiwanaku and Lukurmata as well as intensive studies of raised field agriculture. As such, Kolata's vision of the Tiwanaku state has emerged as the dominant voice in this study area (1 986, 1991, 1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1996% 1996b).

Culture History Complex societies emerged by the shores and pasture lands of Lake Titicaca as early as the first millenium BC, during the early Intermediate or Formative Period (1 200 11 BC-AD 100). Important culhual centres during this time include Chiripa on the northern side of the Taraco Peninsula, Pucara at the north end of the lake, Tiwanaku fiom the Middle Tiwanaku Valley and Wankarani by Lake Poopo. Raised fields were used intensively by the people of Chinpa and Pucara between 1500 and 500 BC. Erickson's (1985, 1987) work at Huata (Puno) provides evidence for one of the earliest cuItures (based on Qalayo, Wankarani and Chiripa pottery) near Lago Mayor to practice raised field agriculture. In the study area, it appears that small autonomous villages subsisted on tuber and chenopod agriculture, camelid pastoralism and exploitation of lacustrine resources during the Formative period fiom 1200 BC-AD 100 (Albarracin-Jordan 1992). By Tiwanaku III (AD 100400), the site of Tiwanaku had consolidated its power in the circum-Titicaca region and had begun the massive architectural and agricultural projects fiequently associated with the Tiwanaku. Recent work (Albarracin-Jordan 1992: 156) has called into question Ponce's references to Tiwanaku as a state in the first three centuries AD. Albarracin-Jordan (1992) found Tiwanaku III period settlement patterns were similar to Tiwanaku I/II settlement patterns, indicating the site of Tiwanaku had yet to coalesce its power. Tiwanaku's hegemony over the region is only apparent by the 5th century AD. Ponce's (1 972, 1999) Tiwanaku IV (AD 400-700) epoch witnesses Tiwanaku's domination of the Titicaca Basin. It has been suggested that by this time, Tiwanaku possessed many of the archaeological features frequently associated with definitions of statehood which include social stratification, centralised administration, economic specialisation and urbanisrn. Tiwanaku is often characterized as lying at the apex of a four tiered settlement hierarchy that includes secondary and tertiary administrative centres to control the primary production centres that hded the state apparatus (Albarracin-Jordan 1992; Bermann 1994: 177). Tiwanaku's sphere of influence broadens to include the lowlands and eastern slopes of the Arides (de Caballero 1984; Higueras 1W6), northwestem Argentins, southern Peru (Goldstein 1989, 1993), and Chile (Browrnan 1984; Mujica 1985; Nunez and Dillehay 1979; Rivera 1976; Torres and Conklin 1995). In these far flung regions Tiwanaku contact or influence is often reflected in the presence of Tiwanaku ceramics, textiles and the distinctive hallucinogenic complex of snuff (rape? trays, bird bone snuff tubes and elaborately decorated spoons among other artifacts. The presence of these artifacts at these sites prompted many investigators to infer the presence of colonial or trade relations (Mujica 1985)- Tiwanaku V (AD 700- 1100) represents the peak and collapse of the Tiwanaku empire. Ortloff and Kolata (1993) attribute the decline of the Tiwanaku polity to a dramatic decrease in mean annual precipitation starting around AD 950, leading to chronic drought, the collapse of the agricultural foundations of the state and subsequently settlernent shifts. The post-Tiwanaku Pacajes Penod (AD 1200-1475) witnessed the return to regionalization and the re-emergence of dozens of local polities and ethnic groups. Settiernent studies indicate that were no large centres or administrative hierarchies for the Pakaq area at this time (Graffam 1992). The Lupaqa and Colla kingdoms, founded on an agro-pastoral economic base emerged as some of the most powerfùl and cornplex kingdoms during this penod of regionalization (Stanish 1992: 86). The Mca eventually gained control over this area, and they in turn were defeated by the Spaniards. With the advent of increased archaeological research in the Tiwanaku Valley, it is apparent that a number of revisions have to be made to the Ponce scherne. Recent research has raised questions about the validity of the earlier phases associated with the chronology. In particular Tiwanaku 1-III has been variously discarded by different investigators. Albamacin-Jordan (1992, 1996) and Matthews (1997) conducted settlement surveys of the Upper and Middle Tiwanaku Valley and concluded Tiwanaku II did not exist. They created a Formative phase that lurnped Tiwanaku 1 and II with the earlier Chiripa styles. hforrnation derived fiom the iwawi site led others to concur that Tiwanaku II does not exist and Tiwanaku 1 is probably tater than suggested by Ponce as this penod is preceded by the Chiripa culture (Isbell et al. 19965). Matthews (1 997) argues Tiwanaku III ceramics are merely the plainwares of Tiwanaku 1 whereas Albarracin-Jordan (1992) recognizes the veracity of Tiwanaku III. Iwawi Site Iwawi was initially excavated by Cordero Mirando in 1968 under the aegis of the Institut0 Nacional de Arqueologia. The report is not easily accessible, but second hand reports (Albarracin-Jordan 1992: 58) indicate three test units were excavated, though the location is unknown. The test units uncovered domestic refuse and a partial secondary burial. In Albarracin-Jordan's survey of the Lower Tiwanaku Valley, Iwawi was marked for test excavations. It was chosen due to its proximity to raised fields and its strategic location on the margins of Lake Titicaca (Albarracin-Jordan 1992: 2 10). Two test units (N 475 ES25, N490 E525) were excavated fiorn the SE sector of the site. Unit 1 (N475 E525) contained Tiwanaku I/II cultural rnatenals in lower levels (1 -4-1Mm) that have been AMS dated to 925585 B.C. Unit 1 also contained some Tiwanaku IV material and Tiwanaku IIi vesse1 fragments. Unit II (N490 E525) contained Tiwanaku III material. The thin layers of sand in the strata coupled with ash lenses were interpreted as indicative of a large trash zone. In 1993 Iwawi was excavated under the CO-directionof Dr. William Isbell and Dr. Juan Albarracin-Jordan in order to clarify the cerarnic chronology. The project expanded on areas excavated in the 1990 survey work and focused on the NE (Queneqere) and SE (Ojjepuku) sectors of the site. In 1993 a total of 9 units from the Queneqere area was excavated (Figure 5). The excavations continued in 1996, focusing on the Queneqere area with 2072x2m excavation units revealing small domestic compounds with two possible hearths found in hvo of the compounds. Two additional units were placed in Ojjepuku (N476 E529, N478 E529) and new areas of the site were also opened up: seven units were excavated in the NW area (N528 E 470-472, N530 E470-72, N532 E470-472), two units were also placed in the Datum Area (N 504 E494, N502 E496), and one unit was also excavated in the Lake Zone (LA), south of the mound and towards the lake. LA revealed a plowzone layer, compact soil and quickly reached sterile soil. Figure 5 Queneqere Area 1993 Excavations (Isbell et al. 1996)

Previous analysis of the site's stratigraphy (Table 2) based on ceramic complexes associated with the 1993 excavation season identified five cultural phases incorporating eight stratigraphic layers (Burkholder 1997). Stratum VIIi or the Cocha phase (1000BC- AD 100) is associated with irregular undulating deposits, hypothesized as "field scars" and is characterized by Huchani style ceramics, simiIar to those identified as Formative in neighbouring regions (Burkholder 1997: 205). The following Orqo Phase AD 100-600 (Strata VI & VII) contains crushed andesite Ienses dividing strata VI and VII. Qeya style vessels with mica temper indicate the site occupants had sorne contact with a regional religious tradition (Burkholder 1997: 2 10). The Cocha and Orqo phases represent the Lower Component underlying the sterile volcanic zsh of straturn V. A cultural hiatus takes place aroünd AD 600 (Stratum V) when grey green volcanic ash appears and separates two distinct rnaterial assemblages. The volcanic ash layer is discontinuous, but in some areas of the site there are accumulations of 20 cm or more. Stratum IV witnesses the initia1 appearance of Tiwanaku cultural traditions and cerarnic styles in the Iwawi sequence, though earlier traditions persist (Burkholder 1997). Stratum DI is characterized by oddly shaped features filled with dark soi1 and cultural material. Some of these features appear to be rodent burrows, but al1 contain an 15 abundance of cultural contents particularly food remains such as fish. The lower level of stratum N makes up the Chaska (AD 725-950) phase and upper stratum N and stratum II combined comprise the Ilimanai (AD 600-725) phase. These phases are associated with architecture, deep pit features outside the architectural zones and contact with regions beyond the Southem Titicaca Basin as indicated in chmging ceramic styles and the presence of lapis lazuli, green stone, obsidian anci gold on the site. The nature of contact, whether it is related to trade, colonial ties or religious missionary activities, has yet to be deterrnined. The final Killa Phase AD 950-1050 represents plow zone and mixed deposits. Some have indicated this time period coincides with clrought and hydrological disasters (Kolata 1991, 1993a: 289-29 1; Ortloff and Kolata 1989), but subsistençe data fiom flotation sarnples at lwawi (Stanton 1994) indicates fishing activities continued in a manner inconsistent with the magnitude of natural disasters hypothesized according to paleoecological data (Burkholder 1997: 219-220). At this point in time, information differentiating Upper and Lower Stratum IV was unavailable. Consequently, the stratigraphic layers are used for comparative purposes throughout this study. The Upper Component is composed of the Chaska (Stratum III and Upper Stratum IV), Ilimanai (Lower Stratum IV) and Killa (Strata 1 & II) phases. An AMS calibrated date of 925 5 85 BC was obtained with a carbon sample from the base of a test excavation in the SE area of the site called Ojjepuku (Albarracin-Jordan 1992). Burnt organic residue from a vessel associated with a burial in Stratum W,a tirne of intense occupation, was carbon dated to AD 72- 60. This burial belonged to a group of bwials located to the south and east of architectural remains in the Queneqere area that penetrated Stratum V, a volcanic ash layer deposited by aeolian deflation. It is suspected that Stratum V was not more than a century old when the burials were interred. The investigators speculate AD 400-700 is the most likely time span for the volcanic eruption associated with Stratum V (Isbell et ai. 1996). Stratum IV is when Queneqere was most intensely occupied. Another date was obtained fiom a ceramic vessel (kent) excavated in the upper levels of Stratum II dating to AD 950260 (Isbell et ai. 1996). Table 2 Iwawi chronology and phase descriptions (adapted from Burkholder 1997) Tiwanaku Chronology Iwawi Chronology Strata Phase Description 1 Late Tiwanaku V Killa Stratum 1 Plowzone and mixed deposits AD 1000-1100 AD 950-1050 Stratum II Stl-atum m Early Tiwanaku V Ch'aska Sirnilar to Illimanai phase, but UPP~~ceramic style changes AD 800-1000 AD 725-950 Straturn N indicate extemal influences Late Tiwanaku IV ilimanai Lower Choque and Chambi style AD 600-800 AD 600-725 Stratum IV ceramics, architecture Ash Layer Stratum v Grey green volcanic ash AD 600

Early Tiwanaku IV eV Stratum VI Qeya style vessels, crushed AD 400-600 AD 100-600 Stratum andesite lenses, ievel cultural Tiwanaku III deposits 200 BC-AD400 Tiwanaku II Cocha Stratum VIII Huchani style ceramics, Tiwanaku 1 ZOO0 BC-AD 100 irregular undulating deposits Chiripa

There are currentiy four different interpretations regarding the lwawi mound site. In most cases the interpretations correspond with specific models of political economy. This will be further detailed in the outlines of specific models presented below. The site contains a total of 57 andesite blocks: 3 1 lying along the shoreline and 26 on the mound itself. The andesite is similar to material found at Cerro Calvario on the Copacabana Peninsula, over 50krn across the lake (Isbell et al. 1996: 1). These 51ocks have prompted some investigators to argue that Iwawi was a vital port city that provided access to the Tiwanaku Valley (Browman 1978, 1984). Others have interpreted the Iwawi mound as a platform pyrarnid from which state administrators controlled the urban hinterland (Kolata 1986). Another viewpoint suggests Iwawi is a second order settlement within the four tiered settlement hierarchy (Albarracin-Jordan 1999). Recent investigations at Iwawi have prompted investigators to declare there is no evidence to support a Tiwanaku administrative pyrarnid. Instead they suggest Iwawi is the product of residential rnidden accumulations (Isbell et al. 1996) that have produced a domestic moud site (Isbell 17 1997). Al1 of these interpretations impact on the role and significance of the site within the Tiwanaku sphere of influence.

Introduction to Models of Tiwanaku Political Economy Faunal rernains directly represent economic activities, hence they provide the means with which investigators can examine the political economy of a society. There is a general consensus arnong theorists that the foundations of Tiwanaku economy includes a combination of tuber and chenopod agriculture, camelid pastoralism and the exploitation of a wide range of environmenta! zones through a nurnber of high1y debated rnechanisms (Kolata 1996a: 7). The predominant models of Tiwanaku political economy differ primarily in their emphasis on the varyïng components of the tripartite economy, resulting in different visions of the Tiwanaku state and the relations of production and consurnption. For the purposes of this study, the models are subsumed under the following headings: Tiwanaku as trade empire (Browrnan 1978, 198 1, 1984, 1997; Dillehay and Niinez 1988); Tiwanaku as centralised imperialist conquest state (Kolata 1992, 1993a, 1993b; Ponce 1999); and the local autonomous perspective (Albarracin- Jordan 1992, 1996; Beman 1994, 1997; Erickson 1985; Graffam 1990, f 992; Janusek 1994, 1999) which emphasises local traditions and/or local autonomy within the Tiwanaku sphere of influence. Murra's (1965, 1985) highly influential ethnohistorically based mode1 of Andean ecological complementarity is also included in this study. The latter mode1 has emerged as the dominant paradigm to explain Andean economic systems (Brush 1982; GuilIet 1986; Masuda et ai. I98S), and many investigators of Tiwanaku affiliated sites have chosen to contrast their models and work with that of Murra's, resulting in its inclusion here. Models of Tiwanaku political economy will be presented followed by a brief discussion of the zooarchaeological correlates associated with the models. In some cases it is necessary to take liberties in extending the arguments to encompass zooarchaeological material. Ethnographic, ethnoarchaeological, and ethnohistoric documents or studies were consulted in constructing zooarchaeological correlates. In general, a combination of sources are used to construct the models, however individual models were more amenable to specific sources in accordance with the underlying themes. For example, aspects of the vertical archipelago, altiplano mode1 and local autonomous models were pnmarily constnicted on the basis of modem ethnographies (Flores-Ochoa I 979 [1968]) and ethnoarchaeological studies (Flannery et al. 1989; Hom 1984; Miller 1979; Moore 1989; Tomka 1994) of small herd holdsrs, agro-pastoralists and fishing cornrnunities in the Andes. The irnperialist conquest state mode1 was more amenable to evaluations based on ethnohistonc references (Cieza de Leon 1959 [ 15491 ; Cobo 1993, 1994) or ethnohistoncally based studies (Murra 1980; Rowe 1946; Shimada and Shirnada 1985) discussing pastoralism and state level herd management practices. A number of different types of data will be used to assess the models (see Table 3). Given the importance of camelids as vaIued resources and service providers in prehispanic societies, particular attention will be placed on the camelids. Species identification, skeletaf part abundance patterns, age profiles, traumas and pathologies, and bone artifacts will al1 senreto illuminate the significance and use of carnelid resources at Iwawi. Non-carnelid resources are also important in viewing the models, particularly changing frequencies of taxa over time. As Kent et al. (1999) note, non-marnmalian resources have Iargely been ignored in previous Tiwanaku faunal investigations (Bermann 1994; Webster 1993), aside hmStanton's (1994) examination of heavy fraction flotation samples fkom the 1993 excavations of Iwawi. It is important to take fish and birds among others into consideration because it provides a more holistic understanding of past economies. Ln this study, changing ratios of carnelid and fish as well as the presence of exotic species are considered in an effort to evaluate the models and understand local economic regimes. Contextual information would have been beneficial in evaluating the rnodels (see Stanish 1992), but this was unavailable at the time the analyses were conducted. For example if the Queneqere area represents domestic contexts, then the presence of non-local items in midden areas may suggest regular interaction with non-local cornrnunities. Zonai Complementarity Mode1 Murra's (1 968, 1980, 1985) zona1 complernentarity or vertical archipelago model based on ethnohistoric documents stresses the direct exploitation of resources through colonisation schemes. The mode1 is largely founded on the premise that the harsh altiplano environment lirnited the self-sufficiency of Andean cornmunities. In order to survive in this precarious setting, it was necessary to establish and maintain permanent colonies in as many altitudinally stratified, non-contiguous ecological zones as possible. These "resource isiands", in turn formed a vertical archipelago that ensured unrnediated access to desired subsistence resources associated with specific ecological zones. Although the colonists populating the resource islands were far removed fiom their altiplano homelands, they maintained relations of reciprocity and redistribution (rnitrnaqkuna) associated with kinship rights which facilitated the flow of goods up and down the archipelago (Murra 1980: 16- 17). Murra (1985) argues the complementarity model is particularly applicable to altiplano societies such as the Tiwanaku. AltipIano inhabitants may have received coca, peppers faji),sait, wood, maize, meat, fish and hit fi-om other zones. Murra even suggests the success of these polities can be attributed to access to resources fiom different ecological zones. Some investigators (Mujica 1985; Rivera 1976, 1980) have surveyed the distribution of sites containing diagnostic Tiwanaku cultural materials in an effort to apply the zona1 complementarity model. Sites with Tiwanaku influenced material culture located outside the circum-lacustrine zone were considered colonies within the vertical archipelago. However as Lumbreras (1974) notes, the data set could reflect a wide range of processes and mechanisms such as transhumance, trade and dite interaction spheres arnong others. Within this model, residents of Iwawi may have had kinship ties with colonies that provided them access to non-local resources. This is a mode1 that may be applicable to the site throughout its occupation. Given a model that is based on local resources being supplemented by products fiom outside the local area, we would expect to see increased diversity of species and significant quantities of exotic fauna ffom different ecoIogica1 zones in addition to local taxa (Table 3). This may be evident in the presence of items such as dned coastal fish. Llamas would be important for secondary products and labour, particularly as cargo carriers (Webster 1993: 10) transporting goods from the colonies to the Lake Titicaca area. This would result in carnelid age profiles with significant representation of older individuals who served non-subsistence fùnctions during their prime adult years. Fwtherrnore, we would expect to see occupational stress markers on individuals that have been used as cargo llamas. Aside fiom the llarnas it is possible that a small quantity of alpacas were herded for wool production and that vicunas and guanacos were also hunted. The camelid element fiequency patterning for this model would be consistent with local consumption and production. So we would expect to see al1 elements and body parts represented at the site.

Trade Empire: The Aitiplano Mode1 In contrast to the vertical archipelago model, a nwnber of researchsrs have highlighted the central role of trade in the Tiwanaku state economy (Browman 1978, 1980, 1981, 1984, 1997; Dillehay and Nunez 1988; Nuiiez and Dillehay 1979; Wallace 1980). These works have been conflated in this section due to overall similarities in the expected patteming of zooarchaeological correlates. Browrnan's body of work on the Tiwanaku will serve as the focus of this discussion as it provides one of the more fùlly developed presentations of Tiwanaku as a trade empire. Browrnan argues the archipelago model is more suited to the vertically compressed Peruvian valleys where the costs of maintaining ties between colonies in different ecological zones are manageable. In some of these valleys, it is possible to traverse 1000 m in altitude within the span of a day (Skar 1993). in contrast, Browrnan (1978) points to the wide expanses of the Bolivian altiplano where the political, econornic and social costs of establishing and maintaining colonies in far flung ecological zones would be prohibitive. Instead of establishing colonies along an altitudinal basis, Browman suggests the Tiwanaku developed a uniquely altiplano economic system based on llama caravans and specialised craft production for the interregional exchange of utilitarian and elite goods. The urban centre of Tiwanaku is envisioned as the religious and pilgrimage centre (Schaedel 1988: 773) of a federation of loosely allicd ethnic groups bound together by economy and ritual (Browman 1978; NUnez and Dillehay f 979). Tiwanaku is not viewed as a strong centralised polity. The basis of the confederacy lies in interregional trade and the distribution of a ritual complex emphasising the use of hallucinogenic drugs, as reflected in the distribution ofdmg paraphernalia such as enema tubes, snuff trays and small via1 like containers (Browman 1978: 334) made of wood and bone. This diffiise federation of polities is perceived as being motivated by political and economic mutualism arnongst its constituents as opposed to political imperative, opportunkm or agendas. ..I The akiplano model emphasises trade and within this model Iwawi is most likely recognised as a port city that provides entry into the Tiwanaku valley. As a port city it wouId be the site of exchange activities that bring in large quantities of foreign goods as well as being the source of many goods produced for exchange outside the settlement. In its emphasis on trade, this model gives primacy to the domestic camelids as key economic resources. The value of the camelids does not Iie solely in their capacity as sources of meat, instead Browman highlights the burden bearing capacities of the camelids and secondary products such as textiles, hides, and wool (Browman 1978: 330- 33 1). The zooarchaeological correlates for this mode1 would be simiIar to those outlined for the vertical archipelago with a few departures (Table 3). We would expect to find both large and srnall camelids, such as the llamas and alpacas, represented at Iwawi. Alpacas are smaller than llamas and are reared specifically for the fine quality of their wool whereas llamas often serve as beasts of burden. The emphasis on wool production and burden bearing culminates in a herding strategy that maintains the longevity of the camelids. We would also expect to see older camelids with signs of occupational stressors associated with cargo carrying and exotic fauna should also be present at the site. The emphasis on trade should be reflected in craft specialisation or specialised wool and'or meat production. This rnay include fieeze-dried carnelid meat (ch hrki), snuff trays, bone spatulas, tubes and perhaps bone weaving tools. Skeletal fiequency patterning emphasising liead and feet elements or unusually high fiequencies of specific artifacts combined with the waste associated in their manufacture may lend further support to this model.

Centralised Imperialist State Carlos Ponce-Sangines (1972; 1999) and Alan Kolata (1992, 1993% 1993b) are some of the more vigorous proponents of the Tiwanaku as a politically centralised conquest state that exerted direct control over settlements and productive resources. Kolata's research (1986, 1991, 1996a) on intensive raised field agriculture led him to champion the concept of Tiwanaku autarky. By emphasising the economic self- sufficiency of the "metropolitad' core of the Tiwanaku empire based on a combination of local pastoralism, lake resources and intensive tuber and chenopod production. Agriculture is considered the fundamental source of endogenous weaith to finance the political activities of a dynamic expansive state (Kolata 1986, 1991, l992,1993a, 1993b; Kolata and Ortloff 1996). An integrationist view of the Tiwanaku is presented here, emphasising a unified political economic system where centrally directed surplus production was geared towards supporting the ruling strata and population. Research on raised fields in the Catari basin combined with settlement survey data fkom the Tiwanaku Valley (Albarracin-Jordan 1992, 1996; Matthews 1997) suggests the presence of a four tiered settlement hierarchy based on distinctions in site size, status and function (Kolata 1986: 760). Kolata argues the purpose of this nested hierarchy of settlements lay in the effective administration of agicultural production (1 992, 199313). The surplus production of agicultural resources in the core was subjected to the "most profound degree of participation in the state's economic order" (Kolata 1993b: 204). Economic goods fiom lower order settlements moved to higher order settlements where the elite resided. Other components of the local economy such as camelid pastoralism and fishing, were subjected to varying Ievels of state involvement. In contrast to the high degree of centralized control over carnelid production, Kolata (1993a: 240) indicates aquatic resources were introduced into the "urban millieu tlirough a decentralized network of exchange." There is an assumption that aquatic resources were the domain of specialists such as the Uni, an ethnohistoiic and contemporary ethnic group, operating outside the controls of the state. A clear separation between those who farm and those who hunt and gather wild resources has been created whereas rnost ethnographie studies indicate that pastoralists and agro-pastoralists take part in a wide range of subsistence activities. Despite the abundance of subsistence goods within the core area, Kolata also incorporates aspects of earlier rnodels. Socially significant, extra-altiplano resources such as coca and maize were obtained through colonisation or the "selective enclaving" of populations in ecologically distant zones as well as participation in long distance exchanges through llama caravans (1993a: 230). He hypothesises that long distance exchanges were organised through clientage relationships where local elites maintained persona1 relations with the lords of Tiwanaku, managing the production and exchange of desired cornmodities and appropriating ernblems of status and authority from their altiplano patrons. Even the Ilama trains and routes themselves are far more organised than Browman (1 980, 1984) or Naez and Dillehay (1979) have forwarded. Kolata (1993b) suggests the route to San Pedro de Atacama in Chile was monopolised and forcefully administered by Tiwanaku forces. The vision of Tiwanaku as a centralised imperialist state provides a different set of expectations for the zooarchaeological profile at lwawi (Table 3). This is a mode1 that is applicable to strata IV and DI, layers witn obvious Tiwanaku influences. Iwawi is considered a lower order settlement within the hierarchy, perhaps an administrative centre geared towards provisioning core sites. Kolata indicates carnelids are ïalued for meat, burden bearing and wool production (1993a: 234). Hence, we would expect to see significant storage smictures and increased production for meat provisioning practices resulting in decreased access to choice parts or the removal of large nurnbers of young carnelids from the site -on the hoof or in meat parce1 packages such as ch 'arX-i. Ethnographically, carnelids are rarely exchanged "on the hoof' as they lose too much weight participating in the IIama caravans (Miller 1979), however the site's proximity to Tiwanaku makes this practice more feasible. CentraIized control over selection processes may result in standardised butchery of carnelid remains as well as a reduction in the species exploited at the site due to focussing on species that best serve central interests in meeting distribution requirements. Given the hierarchîcal nature of relations between settlements, access to exotics or rare fauna would most likely be restricted to elite rnembers of the comunity. Cmelids are also valued for their ability to move agxicultural products fiom peripheral settlements to the centre is vital. Correspondingly camelid age profiles would emphasize young adults for meat production and secondarily older adults for secondary products and labour. Ifcamelids were being processed as ch hrki or meat parcel packages we would expect to see the disproportionate representation of head and feet elements at Iwawi. There is also the possibility that specialised production activities for the state includes production of artifacts necessary for trade or daily life.

Local Autonomous Perspective The Iocal autonomous perspective encompasses a diverse ranze of studies, sharing an emphasis on the significance of local cornmunity organisation, power and control. The dialectical reIationship between state and local communities within what was previously a static conception of the Tiwanaku empire, is stressed in these models. Some of these studies challenge the centralised irnpenalist state model, whereas others complement that model. Their cornmon thread lies in the suggestion that economic organisation was primarily rooted in the community wirh state intervention being mediated by community leaders or elite members. lwawi is considered a community with a long history that began independent of Tiwanaku influences though it may have fallen under the influence later in its history. Many investigators have used Kolata7swork as a framework for their research interests. In both Bermann (1 993, 1994, 1997) and Janusek (1 994, 1999) place their research within Kolata's fiamework of Tiwanaku hegernony in analysing change and continuity at Tiwanakx sites. Bermann's analysis of household architecture and economic changes at the site of Lukumiata provided a refieshing local perspective on the incorporation of a community into the state apparatus. Bermann (1993, 1994, 1997) suggests there is a shifi from the previous practice of locally organised "for use" production towards centrally directed surplus production, in accordance with the centralized state model. The cornmunity's adoption of Tiwanaku style as reflected in ritual and mortuary activities, prompted Bermann (1 997: 109) to speculate that native polities were bound by "sacred propositions and sanctions" as opposed to political control and coercive force. The ambitious goals of the Proyecto Wilajawira spawned numerous dissertations examining seulement hierarchies and their implied economic organisation. Many of these efforts (Matthews 1997; Webster 1993) support the validity of Kolata's model, however Albarracin-Jordan (1992, 1996, 1999) offers a slightly different interpretation based on the role of the ayZZ~t,a unit of Andean social orga~zationloosely kin based though precise definitions Vary, in mediating relations between the state and Iocal communities. An adaptationist rnodel of Tiwanaku political economy is fonvarded where an alliance of nested kin groups promotes a form of hierarchy that serves equality. Resource exploitation and distribution were coordinated for surpluses to be redirected to individuals at lower levels of political organisation as a means of reinvesting in the social group. Nested kin groups are assumed to be reflected in the clustering and site hierarchies scattered throughout the landscape. In contrast to Kolatà's contention that raised fields are labour interisive entities requiring the managerial expertise of the state, Erickson (1985, 1987) and Graffam (1990, 1992) present evidence indicating these fields were managed non-bureaucratically at the local commuiiity level during the pre-Tiwanaku Early Horizon and the post-Tiwanaku Pacajes period. Contemporary ethnographies (Tornka 1994; Yamamoto 1985) Likewise promote the relative self-sufficiency of agro-pastoral subsistence economies. Erickson's (1985, 1987) work at the site of Huata on the Pemvian side of Logo Mayor indicates that more than a thousand years prior to the emergence of the Tiwanaku state, raised fields were used al1 around the Titicaca Basin by minipolities like Pukara, Sillurnoco and Jachakala. Graffam (2992) demonstrates many of the raised fields in the Catari basin continued to be used by the Pakaq during the post-Tiwanaku Pacajes period. Graffam suggests (1992: 893) kin groups were involved in an agro-pastoral economy. This is an argument disputed by Kolata (1996) as it suggests that during the Tiwanaku era the fields may have been managed at the local community level. Ultimately, the investigators puped together here emphasise the econornic autonomy of the communities within the Tiwanaku core. Although the communities were Tiwanaku-affiliated around the 5" century AD, there is a sense that daily activities remained relatively conservative. Economic organisation was controlled within the confines of the community and the state was required to CO-ordinateits demands within the bounds of pre-established comrnunity hierarchies. Althou& there are no models specifically referring to animals, one would expect to see a pattern of locally used, for- use production consistent with sinall hilyholdings. This is the type of information provided in ethnographies (Flannery et al. 1989; Flores-Ochoa 1979; Miller 1979; Tornka 1994) of Andean pastoralist communities in the altiplano and puna. We would expect to see local herd maintenance and management concerns at the fore. It is unlikely that herders would focus on meat production at the expense of local herd management concerns such as herd maintenance. Instead animals would be used for secondary products and labour, occasionally slaughtered as sacrifices, for use in social reciprocity or when they appear irreversibly ill. Local aquatic resources such as fish and birds would be exploited in addition to the agro-pastoral component of the economy. We would also see a mixture of bone artifacts and waste products, fiom newly made items to those discarded through heavy use.

Iwawi and Zooarcbaeological Profiles It is clear Erom the discussion of models and the zooarchaeological correlates presented in Table 3, that there is a significant arnount of overlap in the expected profiles at Iwawi. To some extent, the overlap is due to the fact that Iwawi is a community with a long history of occupation where economic organisation is probably geared towards the maintenance of the community. It is natural to expect that local resources were exploited and that domestic camelids were used for a wide range of purposes fiom cargo carrying to providing wool, fuel, and other resources vital for the maintenance of households. This provides a baseline that is shared by a number of models. The zona1 complementarity mode1 and local autonornous models both emphasise the exploitation of local resources whereas the zona1 complementarity and trade models are similar in their focus on non-local resources. The presence of cargo llarnas at Iwawi is reasonably expected by al1 the models. The models are narrow in focus and it is more than likely that there are other possible explmations for changing patterns in faunal resource utilisation such as environrnental conditions and changes in site function over time arnong others. In some ways this study is an attempt to add to the pre-existing literature (Stanton 1994; Kent 1982; Webster 1993) and to determine the extent to which faunal remains can be used to address models of Tiwanaku political economy. It is hoped that by examining the taxa present aé Iwawi, camelid species identification, carnelid skeletal parts patterning, carnelid age profiles, modified bone and pathologies and trauma, that the picture will slowly come into focus. The following chapters will attempt to address these questions. Chapter 2 provides general information about the methods used in this study. Chapter 3 examines the range of taxa recovered at the site as well as relative proportions of camelid and fish resources through time. Chapter 4 focuses on identifjmg carnelid species exploited at Iwawi and camelid skeletal parts patteming. This will provide information regarding the possible functions of camelids exploited at the site. Chapter 5 focuses on carnelid age profiles and specimens exhibiting trauma or pathologies. Chapter 6 examines the effects of bone artifacts on camelid skeletal profiles as well as the artifacts recovered and implications for the trade focussed models. Chapter 7 reviews the faunal analysis for the Iwawi site and concludes with an evaluation of the models of political economy outlined in t!!s chapter . Table 3. Expected Faunal Variations for the Iwawi Site based on Tiwanaku Models of Political Economy Variables Vertical Archipelago Aitiplano Model Centralized Imperialist State Local Autonomous Taxon + High species -+ High species diversity, + Low species diversity, -+ Minimal change in taxa Frequencies diversity, particularly "exotic" species available dominated by domesticated frequency through time "exotic" species from through trade camelids + Dominated by local different ecological 4 Increase in frequency of + Increase in frequency of species, both domestic and zones ritual species ritual species non-domestic Camelid + Cargo llamas + Mostly cargo llamas -+ State controlled domestic -+ Mostly llanias for meat and Species -+ Alpacas for wool -+ Alpacas for wool herds: llamas for cargo cargo carrying -+ Supplementary -+ Supplementary hunting carryindmeat production and -, Alpacas for wool hunting of vicunas of vicunas and guanacos alpacas for wool + Supplementary hunting of and guanacos + Supplementary hunting of wild vicunas and guanacos vicunas and guanacos Camelid -+ Al1 camelid elements -+ Disproportionate -+ Disproportionatc + All camelid elements Element and body parts representation of head representation of head and represented, both high and Frequencies represerited, both and feet elements due to feet elernents due to low meat utility \O high and low meat trading of valued portions provisioning of valued utility portions to Tiwanaku site Bone Tool -+ Craft specialization, trade -, Bone artifacts and waste -+ Bone artifacts and waste Industry in tools and ritual -+ Local consumption of tools paraphernalia + Significant aniount of bone artifacts & byproducts Camelid Age -+ Older adults -+ Older adults represent + Younger specimens -+ Young and oId with few Profiles represent secondary secondary resource and associated with subsistence adults, charactcristic of resource and labour labour extraction focus and meat production local consumption extraction Camelid + Occupational stress -+ Occupational stress -+ Some stress markers -+ Some stress markers Pathologies markcrs visible on markers visible on + Overall few pathological camelids camelids speciniens due to herd management techniques Chapter 2: Methodology Introduction This chapter describes the methods used to recover, process and identiQ faunal remains fkom the Iwawi site (1000 BC-AD 1000). The faunal remains fkom the 1996 excavations of the Queneqere area were selected as the focus of this analysis. A total of 20 two by two metre units were excavated in this area at depths ranging fiom ca 50-300 cm below surface. The density of features and possible activity areas associated with architectural remains provides the greatest potential to examine the economic processes associated with theones of Tiwanaku political integration in the heartiand.

Faunal Recovery Methods During the excavation seasons every context encountered in a two metre unit- whether it be a feature, IO cm arbitrary level or natural Iayer was designated a locus number in order to facilitate stratigraphie analysis using the Harris Matrix system. Excavated soils were screened through 6 mm (2/4 inch) mesh and al1 faunal, cerarnic, lithic and ground stone artifacts were collected, bagged separately and are stored in the future site of the Taraco Museum. Additionally one eight-litre soi1 sarnple was collected from the centre of each locus for flotation purposes. Faunal remains recovered during the flotation process were not included in this research and are presented elsewhere (Stanton 1994). This research focuses on remains recovered fkom the 6 mm or ?4" mesh. The use of 6mm mesh is a satisfactory method to sarnple mammals weighing over 25 kg, however numerous studies indicate that it biases against the recovery of smaller mammals and fish (Casteel 1972, 1976; Kent 1982; Lyman 1982; Payne 1972, 1974; Thomas 1969). Preliminary analysis (Stanton 1994) of heavy fraction samples fiom Iwawi indicates that this pattern is also applicable to the site. Fish remains are significantly under-represented in the faunai remains recovered fiom 6mrn or Z7mesh. This recovery bias may influence the extent to which interpretations regarding the relative proportion of fauna at the site can be made - particularly in the case of carnelid and fish comparisons. Overall, it is not expected to impact the study significantly. Many of the analyses are concerned specifically with carnelids and their contributions to the Iwawi 30 economy.

Description of Sample All available loci fiom the 1996 excavations of the Queneqere area were examined dunng the course of this research. The faunal sample consists of 38 490 specimens weighing 90.6 kg representing both vertebrate and invertebrate fauna. Mammal, bony fish, birds, amphibians, gastropods and pelecypods were recovered fiom th5 sarnple. Approximately 45% (N47 398) of the sarnp1e was identified to the taxonomic level of class, order, farnily, genus or species. The results of the analysis will be presented in Chapter 3. Long bones and indeterminate specimens made up the remainder of the sarnple. Overall, the sample is in relatively good condition and it was not difficult to collect data on surface modifications to the bone.

Identifications This section describes the two stage process of identification that was necessary due to the lack of comparative specimens in the field. Field identifications took place during the analysis season, a year after excavations concluded at the site. Initial identification and sorting took place in the field (June-August 1997) with the aid of four field assistants, concurrent with the collection and preparation of comparative specimens. A reliability index was also employed for identifications made during the initial sorting phase. Dunng this phase, specimens amenable to taxonomic identification and detailed analysis were set aside and bagged separately with labels identimng area and locus number. The sorted specimens were then exported to Simon Fraser University's Zooarchaeology Laboratory where further analysis and definite identifications took place. In the summer of 1997, preliminary sorting of excavated remains was undertaken at the future site of the Taraco Museum in Bolivia. Each locus was recorded separately in an effort to maintain the integrity of the contexts for more refined spatial analyses to be conducted in the future. The loci were identified in random order. Occasional ceramic and lithic kagrnents encountered arnongst the bones were labeled, bagged separately and presented to the relevant specialists or retunied to the storage area. 31 ??ie contents of the locus bags were weighed and sorted into the following categories: mamrnal, bony fish, bird, amphibian, gastropod, pelecypod, long bone and unidentifiable. Every item of bone in a locus bag was recorded and exarnined. Elements were identified, sided when possible andor zpplicable with portions and modifications noted. NaturaI modifications include: root etching, staining, weathering, erosion, rodent and carnivore gnawing, carnivore puncture marks, and split lines. Cultural modifications include: cutmarks, chopping, polishing, grinding, notching, incising, staining, localized burning, carbonized (b lack), calcined (grey and white), spiral fi-acture and fkes h breaks. When artifacts were encountered, the location of these modifications were noted when applicable. In this analysis, the term artifact refers to any piece of bone purposefillly worked by hurnans in the process of bone tool manufacture. This includes waste as well as expedient and unfinished artifacts. Following Driver (1 992), specimens were considered identifiable only when skeletal element representation could be established. When identifiable specimens were complete enough to determine a specific taxon, they were set aside and eventually exported. In cases where element identification was not possible, the specirnen was recorded as unidentifiable. Specimens that could not be identified to class or element were marked as unidentifiable. In the case of long bones, cortical thickness measurements were taken to obtain size range information on otherwise unidentifiable fragments. An effort was made to avoid taking measurements fiom muscle attachrnent areas (tuberosities) which tend to be thicker than adjacent areas. These measurements maximize the arnount of information available from the collection and will assist in future interpretations of bone processing practices and fragmentation at the site. During this initial sorting process, specimens were identified to the lowest taxonomic level possible. In some cases bones were identified to element, but taxonomic identification to the level of genus was difficult. Other classes of data that were recorded during the preliminary sorting stage include observations on pathologies, trauma, age and sex, when applicable. Information that will aid in aging marnmalian specimens include the presence and absence of epiphyses, juvenile cortex, and deciduous and permanent dentition. In cases where epiphyses were present, the degree of fusion was recorded using 3 2 a four stage rating system: unfused, fusing (Iess than half the circumference of the epiphysis), fusing (more than half the circumference) and entirely hsed. When possible, information to aid in sex detennination also was collected: the presence of medullary bone in some birds, dental patterns, and species specific indicators of sex such as the presence or absence of antlers on deer. Al1 elements requiring fùrther analysis or judged to be identifiable beyond the taxonomic Ievel of order were bagged separately to be exported. The absence of suitable comparative collections during the course of the field analysis necessitated exporting five boxes of archaeoiogical faunal remains from Bolivia to North America. Al1 exported loci were recorded in an inventory and copies were submitted to DINAAR for verification purposes at the time of export. The fish, carnelid and guinea pig identifications were conducted from January - March 1998 at SFU's Zooarchaeology Lab using comparative specimens collected fiom the Lake Titicaca Basin duhg surnmer 1997 and specimens on loan fkom the Florida Museum of Natural History. Some of the references used for camelid identification throughout this analysis include figures fiom Kent (1982) as well as Torres et al (1986) and Clayton and Flood (1996). In addition to the comparative collection at SFU, osteological atlases and references (Cohen and Sejeantson 1996; Gilbert et al. 1985; Gilbert 1990; Whecler and Jones 1989) were used to group mammalian, avian and fish specimens to the Ievel of order or family. This was done in preparation for fùrther taxonomic identification at the Florida Museum of Natural History during March 1998. After the bones were analyzed, they were returned to Dr. Isbell, Bingharnton University in 1999. The bones will then be returned to DINAAR and the faunal remains will ultimately be stored along with al1 other artifacts recovered fiom Iwawi, at the repository in the Taraco Museum. The following section outlines the rationale behind decisions regarding the level of identifications that were made at the site according to class.

Invertebrates The gastropods and pelecypods were divided on the basis of marine (exotic) or local (in-land) origins. When possible, local invertebrates were identified using Dejoux's 33 (1992b) review of Lake Titicaca fi-eshwater molluscs-

Amphibians Four genera representing thee families of frogs or toads are found in Lake Titicaca (Vellard 1992). This includes Bufo spinrtloszrs, Gastrotheca volician. Plairoderma cinerea, Platroderma marmorata, axd the Telmatobius genera with 17 species living in the Lake Titicaca basin. Due to the lack of comparative specimens, no attempt was made to Meridentify the fkogs and toads beyond the Ievel of class.

Fish There are two native genera of fish in Lake Titicaca: Orestias and Trichomycterrts, both with fairly distinctive bones that permit clear separation at the genus level. There are approximately 23 endemic species of Orestias in the lake and it is difficult to differentiate between them on the basis of skeletal rernains alone (Parenti 1984). Accordingly, no effort was made to identim the fish beyond the level of genus. Trichyomycterus is a catfish represented by two species (T.dispar and T. r-ivtrlatus)in the lake. Elements exhibiting few distinctive features such as fin spines, fin rays and pterygiophres were classified as indeterrninate fish following Wheeler (1978: 70). Strongly defined fish ribs and scales are associated with Orestias, the killifish, and were recorded solely on a presence/absence bais due to their abundance.

Marnrnals Rodent identifications were primarily based on cranial remains because the comparative collections O ften did not include post-cranial remains. The guinea-pig is an exception as post-cranial rernains were available. This may lead to the over- representation of guinea pigs amongst the rodents. When possible rodents were divided into small and large groups. The Iarger rodents are guinea-pig sized whereas smaller rodents are more in line with the leaf eared mouse. Lri terms of the artiodactyls, there are two families associated with this order in the region: cervids and camelids. The camelids represent the largest group of identified

34 specimens in this analysis (see Chapter 3). It is difficult to distinguish arnong the artiodactyls early in the developmental cycle. It is also difficult to differentiate cervids and camelids on the basis of fragrnented vertebrae and ribs. This resulted in a conservative identification process that most likeIy under-represented camelids at the site. Only two cervid specimens were identified out of the 38 490 associated with the sarnple. Based on the paucity of cervid remains, it is argued that specimens identified as large mammal and artiodactyls are most likely camelids. In the case of the camelid skeletal parts patterning analysis, the artiodactyls and large mammals have been tabulated together with the camelids. This will be hrther detailed in Chapter 4.

Human Remains Although field workers were ofien very good at distinguishing between human and non-human remains, on some occasions human remains were encountered in the faunal bags. The elements found were ofien small and easily overlooked such as the carpals and tarsals. These remains were counted and recorded when discovered. When encountered in the field they were returned to the appropriate burial box. In those cases when human remains were encountered in the exported faunaI remains, they were separated out from the locus bags, placed in individual bags with the appropriate locus designation written and placed in a separate bag marked "Human Remains" in order to be retumed to their appropriate locations.

Avian Remains The comparative collections fiom SFU's zooarchaeology lab were used to sort the avian bones into families and orders. More precise identifications took place at the Flonda Museum of Natural History (FMNH). Avian eggshells were also recovered fiom the site. These specimens were recorded on a presence/absence basis wiîh descriptive notes on the type of patteming observed. The two types of patterning observed include distinctive brown splotches of varying sizes whereas the other type was uniformly coloured, lacking in distinctive patteming in shades ranging fiom grey, blue-grey and off- white. 3 5 Quantification The unit of quantification used to provide Lrequency information throughout this analysis is NlSP (Nurnber of Identified Species). MSP is probably one of the most comrnon ways of presenting faunal fkequency. It is essentially a count of al1 specimens per taxonomie designation discovered at the site. In this analysis it was used to provide information on the relative abundance of taxa. NISP tends to over-represent certain taxa. For example, canids have more skeletal elernents than camelids. The number of identifiable specirnens is not constant for al1 taxa, NISP is affected by fragmentation such as butchenng practices, as well as the differential preservation, identifiability and collection of different elements and taxa (Klein and Cruz-Uribe 1984). MM (Minimum Nwnber of Individuals) emerged as an alternative to MSP, however it was not chosen for this analysis. MNI introduces problems of reproducibility as analysts oflen use different methods for calculating MNI. It is also affected by subdividing the assemblage into stratigraphic units in which case it provides a value lying in between "true" MN1 and NISP. Grayson's (1984) work has also demonstrated that there is a log linear relationship between MN1 and NEP; MN1 does not appear to be independent of NISP, For these reasons, NISP was chosen as the basic unit of analysis. However for the carneild skeletal parts patteming analysis a number of derived quantification units are introduced in addition to NISP. This will be merdetailed in Chapter 4.

Temporal Anatysis Sorne of the analyses that follow this chapter will use a temporal fiarnework for comparative purposes and discussion. Although phase information is available fkom Iwawi, stratigraphic layers were chosen as the major units for temporal cornparisons for reasons outlined in Chapter 1. Stratigraphie affiliations of excavation units and loci containing faunal remains fiom the 1996 excavations of the Queneqere Area are presented in Appendix A. A total of 40 1 loci were excavated fiom 20 units. it is evident from Table 4 that 36 Strata III, IV and VI have the largest number of excavated loci containing faunal remains. Tfiese three strata alone account for over 70% of loci with faunal remains. Only seven out of 20 units reached Strahun VIII, the oldest occupation layer, and four of those units were first excavated in 1993. Excavation activities appear to concentrate on the upper strata and this in tum will influence temporal analyses. The upper strata will be better represented than the lower strata. The lower strata will be characterized by smaller sarnple sizes and rnay even be less representative of activities that occurred during those times. Strata O,V, and iX are not included in temporal analyses. Stratum O represents loci with indeterminate strata and excavation unit designations. Stratum V is a secondary aeolian volcanic ash deposit. Remains attributed to Stratum V during the field season are most likely associated with the underlying or superimposed strata. Stratum IX is also discarded for similar reasons. It is a sterile layer and any remains attributed to this straturn are likely to be associated with the overlying stratum.

Cornparisons When possible, material from Iwawi will be compared to results from other faunal analyses (Bermann 1994; Kent 1982; Kent et al. 1999; Stanton 1994; Webster 1993) in the study area. In doing so, we gain a broader perspective on faunal resource use at Iwawi. Kent (1982) examined the faunal remains from the 1982 excavations at the site of

Chiripa (1 350 - 100 BCE), located on the north side of the Taraco Peninsula. Kent et al. (1999) also present information on avian remains recovered from the 1992 excavations at Chiripa. Stanton (1 994) reports on fauna recovered from the notation sarnples of a selection of loci at Iwawi. Webster (1 993) examined the mammalian fauna fiom the site of Tiwanaku as well as test excavations fi'om surveys of the Tiwanaku Valley associated with Kolata's Proyecto Wilajawira. Table 4 Excavations Units and Associated Loci According to Strata Sirata **Unit O I II III IV V VI VI1 VDI IX Unit Totals N528, ES08 *2 8 313 17 N530, E506 12 6 11 1 7 1 2 * 3 1 N530, E508 12 9 8 1 21 N530, E5 10 11 7 7 16 N532, E504 6 1 7 N532. E506 214104 21 N532, ES08 1 2 10 81107 5 * 44 N532, E5 10 12 9 7 3 22 IV534. E502 1 t 1 N.534. E506 615143 1 30 N534, ESOS $3 9 91104 7 3 46 N534, E5 10 *2 7 5 11 25 N53 6, ES06 5 5 N536, ES IO $2 5 6 7 20 N538, E506 $2 5 4 3 14 N538, ES08 1 1 13 15 N538, ES10 12 4 13 20 N540, ES06 16 5 12 N540, ES08 2 2 12 16 N540, E5 10 2 6 5 13 Unknown 5 5 Stratatotals 5 9 28 116 104 7 63 36 28 5 40 1 * shaded squares are excavated loci with no associated faunal remains ** italicized units were previously excavated during the 1993 field season, dominated by lower strata Conclusion This chapter presented the general methods used to recover, process and identifL faunai remains from the Iwawi site. Interpretations will be aided by ethnographic and ethnoarchaeological studies as well as cornparisons with other sites. The subsequent chapters present data on taxa recovered at Iwawi, analyses geared towards highlighting cameIid functions and herd management practices and a brief survey of rnodified bone at Iwawi. The rnethods associated with these analyses will be presented in the relevant chapters. Chapter 3: Faunal Remains from the Iwawi Site Introduction This chapter presents data on taxa recovered fkom Iwawi and examines them fkom a temporal perspective based on identified stratigraphie layers. The layers represent approximately 2000 years of occupation at the site, fiom 1 OOOBC - AD 1000 (see Chapter 2). Information regarding trends in taxonornic diversity, presence of rare species, changing relative abundance of resources can be drawn upon to shed light on some of the hypotheses associated with the models of political econorny. Exotic species may point to long distance interaction and shifts in faunal resource use over time may point to changes in economic organisation at the site. These results will be compared primarily to those available fkom nearby sites such as Chiripa (Kent 1982) and Tiwanaku (Webster 1993).

Sample Description A total of 38 490 specimens was recovered from the 1996 Queneqere area excavations, Not including human remains (N=1O), 17 398 specimens (45.2%) were identified at or below the level of class and 21 082 (54.8%) were assigned as indeterminate. Indeterminate specimens include long bone shaft fragments and specimens with no obvious morphological features to identiQ the type of element. The identified specimens (Table 5) represent a total of 3 1 discrete taxonomic groups comprised of 10 marnmal, 2 fish, 15 bird, 1 amphibian, 2 terrestrial invertebrates and a marine invertebrate. Mamrnalian remains dominate this assemblage constituting ahost 63% of identified specimens, followed by bony fish (34.7%) and birds (2.4%) with nominal representation by amphibians and invertebrates. Observations regarding the relative frequency of mammals to amphibians, fish and birds should be taken with caution due to the robust recovery techniques associated with the sample reported upon here. The 114" screening method biases against the recovery of small fauna such as rodents, fish, birds and amphibians. The remains exarnined in this study were previously excavated, so it was not possible to control the recovery methods. Brothwell and Jones (1978: 48) recommend 1 mm mesh screens to prevent differential loss of small mammalian remains. The overall sample sizes for the strata vary considerably ranging fiom a minimum ofN=52 for stratum IX to amaximurn ofN=16 255 for stratum III (see Table6). As noted earlier (Chapter 2), strata 0,V and IX will not be included in the temporal analysis. Straturn 1 is also excluded fiom the temporal analysis due to its small sample size, leaving strata II, III, IV, VI, VII, and Vm for comparative purposes. Given the range of variation in sample size it would be fair to suggest that some of the observations made in this chapter are associated with sample size considerations Taxonomie diversity in particular is known to increase with iarger sample sizcs. Correspondingly, at the Iwawi site the more abundant strata (III, IV, and VI) contain the m~stdiverse range of taxa and are more likely to possess rare and unique specimens. The only departure fiom this pattern is stratum 11 which has a moderate sample size (N=2235), but only 7 different taxa compared to stratum VII (N=l864) which has a smaller sample size, but 12 different taxa represented. This general pattern of large and abundant Tiwanaku N and Tiwanaku V contexts with relatively less Formative or Early Tiwanaku (Tiwanaku 1 - III) period representation is a pattern that has also been identified in surveys of the Tiwanaku Valley (Albarracin-Jordan 1992).

Table 5 Frequency of Identified Faunal Remains by Class Class Common Name NISP % Osteichthyes Bony Fish 6028 34.65 Amp hibia Amphibians 30 0.17 Aves Birds 42 1 2.42 Mamrnalia Mammals 10914 62.73 Invertebrates Snails & Shellfish 5 0.03 Total 17398 100.00

Table 6 Sarnple Size Accùrding to Strata Sirata Dates NISP Strata Taxa Taxa Rank Rank II AD 950- 1050 2235 4 7 6 m AD 725-950 16255 1 23 1 IV AD 600-950 11210 2 18 2 VI AD 100-600 5212 3 18 2 vn AD 100-600 1864 5 12 4 vm 1000 BC-AD 100 794 6 10 5 The mammalian assemblage at Iwawi is dominated by large mammals (N=6355), camelids (N=B 17) and artiodactyts (N=1556) which comprise 98.2% of the marnmalian assemblage. @ter types of mammals represented at the site include rodents (N=143, 1.3%), carnivores (N=40,0.4%) and 10 human remains specimens (O. 1%). A total of 12 (1 7 categones) mammalian taxa nurnbenng 10924 were recovered from the Queneqere area of the site (Table 7). The only taxa that could possibly account for the large mamrnal category are the carnelids and cervids. Camelid identifications (N=28 17) far outnumber the cewids (N=2). Only two cervid specimens were identified in strata Di and IV fkom the whole sample, whereas camelids are well rcpresented fkom strata DIX with al1 parts of the body evident in the sarnples. The identifications made during this analysis tended to be conservative and it is argued that the large mamrnal and artiodactyls identified are most likely camelids culminating in a total of 10 728 specimens. Camelid species identification and camelid skeletal parts representation is detailed in Chapter 4.

Table 7 Frequency of Manunals at Iwawi

Taxon Cornmon Name STRATA Total Relative 01 LI rn w v wvnmnc Y0 Large Mammal 14 4 315 2816 1656 135 906 349 153 7 6355 58.2 Artiodactyla Deeror Camelid 7 1 70 748 360 30 199 103 34 4 1556 sized Cervidae Deer 1 1 2 Llania Llama,alpaca, 12 140 1101 685 80 436 191 157 8 2810 guanaco Viczrgna viczrgna Vicuiia 51 I 7 Canidae Dog family 1 1 1 3 Canis Dog 11 410 2211 22 Psetrdalopa Fox 1 1 1 3 Felis concolor Puma 1 1 Small Carnivore Foflog sized 6 2 3 II Graonrys 12 3 Cavia Guinea pig 1 141 261 16 Ctenomys Tuco-tuco 2 51 13 12 Rodent 1 41 25 1 26 15 4 113 Totals 31 6 528 4722 2755 249 1578 672 350 20 10914 The identified cervids are morphologically similar to Odocoilercs, but because other genera were unavailable in the comparative collections, identifications were kept at the family level. Cenrids were probably used for subsistence and technological purposes. Their antlers were most likely valued for artifact production. Rare artiodactyIs such as the cervids and vicufias are only present in strata with very large assemblages. It rnay aIso suggest that during strata III, IV, and VI inhabitants of the site had access to resources that were unavailable during earlier and later periods.

Carnivores There are two farnilies of carnivores, Canidae and Felidae, represented by three taxa recovered from the site. Canids although present throughout the site history from strata I-IX, are never large in nurnbers (N=25) but are the most frequently occurring of al1 carnivores. The dogs are found from strata II-K. They tend to be small and are represented b y cranial and post-cranial remains. The Andean fox, Pseztdalopex (N=3) is also present to a lesser degree in strata Lü, IV, and VII. And lastly a puma, Felis concolor was identified through a single third phalanx fi-om stratum IV. The puma is a staple in Tiwanaku iconography, figuring prorninently on large puma headed incerisarios (Burkholder 1997; Janusek 1999) and textiles. The presence of podial elements at the site may suggest that prepared animal skins were used. Skins are ofien prepared with the distal most elernents remaining on the pelt resulting in the archaeological recovery of these elements (Moore 1989: 222). In addition to these examples, there were also a number of specimens (N=Z 1) that were generally canid-sized, most likely dog or fox, but were too fiagmentary to identify to a more specific taxonomie ievel. Ethnographically, dogs are used as hunting assistants, cornpanions and protectioc for herds fiom predators (Hom 1984). Predation by foxes, pumas and condors have a significant impact on the rnortality rates of camelids during their first year of life (Flannery et al. 1989). Some of the canids and canid-sized specimens in the sample exhibit evidence for burning. These include IWO ribs fkom a medium sized marnrnal, the cervical vertebra of a canid and the 2ndmetacarpal of a fox. Burning rnay have occurred post-depositionally or it may represent canid processing activities, though there is no evidence of cutmarks on any of the remains recovered. Evidence for carnivore sacrifices 43 have been reported at Tiwanaku's Akapana pyramid. Manzanilla (1992:83) notes the discovery of an indeterminate carnivore skeleton sacrifice laid before the entrance of an abandoned canal. The presence of carnivore gnaw marks and canine puncture marks on large mamrnal long bones suggests dogs impacted the site by acting as agents of accumulation, dispersion and destruction (Lyon 1970). It is unlikely that these gnaw marks are associated with pumas or foxes. Wild carnivores such as foxes and pumas tend to be timid around humans and are unlikely to eequent human habitations in search of meat whereas dogs have access to al1 activity areas and subsist by scavenging (Hom 1984: 230; Miller 1979: 82). This often results in the randomized spatial distribution of unconsumed skeletal elements. They collect and redistribute bone, differentially destroying low density spongy nutritious parts, decreasing the possibility of identification while ignoring non-meat bearing feet elements which may be over represented in a sarnple (Miller 1979: 440).

Rodents Though the rodents are not numerous (N=142), there are three identified taxa that fa11 into large and small size categories. Large rodents include guinea pigs (Cavin)and tuco-tucos (Ctenomys) whereas the small rodent is Graomys sized. The comparative collections relied upon for taxonomie identifications were primarily cranial remains with the exception of the guinea pigs for which post-cranial remains were available. This may result in the increased representation of guinea pigs at the site. There were also large non-guinea pig post-cranial elements that were whole and identifiable, but the comparative collections did not permit fùrther identification. The targer rodents were most likely of economic significance. Tuco-tucos range in size, but in the study area they are approximately 400 gm and are known to be a food source (Gilmore 1950: 373). The proximal end of a large non-guinea pig rodent ulna from straturn IV is bumt black supporting the contention that rodents played a role in the subsistence economy. Guinea pigs have a wide range of recorded functions in the ethnographie literature. They are household scavengers, serve as food, and are used in folk medicine and divination ceremonies (Bastien 1978; Kolata 1993a; Müller-Haye 44 1984; Sandweiss and Wing 1997). Traditionally guinea pig meat was reserved for ceremonial occasions and events (Morales 1995: 13). They range in weight kom 700- 800 grn, depending on sex and age (Muller-Haye 1984). The smaller rodents are sirnilar in size to Graomys and Phyllotis, ranging fiom 50-70 gms (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). It is unlikely these smaller rodents were economically significant. For the most part they are found with cranial and post-cranial remains intact, suggesting they did not contribiite to the Iwawi subsistence economy. Rodents were taphonomic agents at the Iwawi site, Characteristic rodent incisor gnawing akin to those described by Fisher (1995) appear on 166 specimens. Rodents are also involved in burrowing activities at the site (BurkhoIder 1997). Burrowing rodents and amphibians are quite common in the circum-lacustrine zone and faunal turbation has the potential to significantly disturb and mix cultural layers. In the Iwawi sample, the tuco-tucos are significant because they are fossorial in adaptation. They are known to have complex tunnel systems with separate food storage and nesting chambers. Some species are also solitary in nature and do not share burrows, resulting in a proliferation of tunnel systems and burrows within geographically restricted zones (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).

Fis h It is difficult to make inferences and generalizations regarding the fish based on this set of data due to the recovery biases mentioned earlier. However it is clear that fish (N= 6028,34.65%) are a significant resource at the site, following the mammaIs as the second must numerous class of fama. Lake Titicaca is home to two genera of fish endemic to the altiplano, TrIchomyctenrs and Orestias (Lauzanne 1992). During the earlier part of the 2othcentury, fish such as the pejerrey (Basilichfhys bonariensis), brown trout (Saho tnttta fario) and rainbow bout (SaZrno gairdneri) were introduced to the lake to encourage fishing industries (Vaux et al. 1988). The cyprinidontiform killifish Orestius (N=4428) represents 73.5% of the Iwawi fish assemblage, followed by indeterminate fish (N=2 57 1) at 26.1 % and catfish or Trichomycterrts (N=29) at 0.5% (see Table 8). The indeterminate fish include specimens that could not be identified to taxa due to Iack of comparative specirnens, those that could 45 be identified to element but were too fiagmentary to be identified to taxa, and elements that are not particularly distinctive such as fin rays and pterygiophores. There are 23 species of Orestias endemic to Lake Titicaca (Parenti 1984). They rarely grow larger than 30 cm, but some species are plentifùl at the immature stage (Gilmore 1950: 412). Tric~zyomyctemsis a catfish represented by two species in tlie Iake f T. dispar and T. rivzrlatus), but are not well represented in the fish assemblage. Both genera can be found in local markets in the region. There is also evidence for another genus in the sarnple based on one pre-caudal vertebra fiom stratum III that was significantly larger than the fish mentioned previously. Unfortunately available comparative collections referred to in this study did not permit more precise identification. The specimen is unusuat because it does not appear to be local and is most likely marine in origin. Fish are present at every strata in the site: Orestias and indeterminate fish are found fiom strata O to IX and O to Vm respectively whereas Trichomyctenrs is available from strata III-VIII. The presence of fish in strata I and II brings into question some of the theories regarding a significant drought at the end of Tiwanaku V leading to the demise of the Ti-wanaku empire. It is obvious that fish formed an important part of the local subsistence econorny throughout Iwawi's occupation. Twelve Orestias specimens exhibit cutmarks: 1 1 opercula from stratum N and a sub-operculurn from stratum III. These are elements that lie close to the surface and the cutmarks may have been a byproduct of de-scaling activities or the fins and head may have been separated from the body. There are a total of seven Orestias specimens that have been burnt black or exhibit some degree of localized burning fkom strata O, III, IV and VI. The elements affected include are operculi and one cleithrum. Once again, these elements lie close to the surface and buming may indicate roasting activities or post consumption dumping of bones into hearths. Table 8 Freq ency of Fish at Iwawi Orestias Orestias Orestias Trichomyctenrs Inde t enninate S trata Totals (scaies) (ribs) Fish Strata #%# % # '%O # % StratuIn O x x 43 69.4 19 30.6 62 1 Stratum 1 3 75.0 f 25 4 0.1 Stratum II x x 71 82.6 15 17.4 86 1.4 Stratwn III x x 1504 72.3 11 0.5 564 27.1 2079 34.5 Stratwn N x x 1992 76.1 6 0.2 618 23.6 2616 43.4 Stratum V x x 84 77.8 8 7.4 16 14.8 108 1.8 Straturn VI x x 585 66.5 2 0.2 293 33.3 880 14.6 Stratum VI1 x 116 77.3 1 0.7 33 22 150 2.5 Stratum Vm x 29 69.0 1 2.4 12 28.6 42 0.7 Stratum TX 1 100.0 1 O Totals 4428 73.5 29 0.5 1571 26.1 6028 73.9

Seasonal differences are reported in both fish abundance and mean size. During the rainy season fish tend to be bigger and some species are more abundant. Orestias also tend to be more abundant at night (Trevifio et al. 1984). The fish were probably netted, dried and eaten whole, raw or roasted (Gilrnore 1950: 4 12). In southem Peru, fieeze drying of fish and cray-fish was a widespread practice (Flannery et al. 1989: 75). In his ethnographie research with the Uni, Horn (1 984: 300) observed that as rainy season floods receded, hundreds of small fish were often stranded on mud flats, dying and drymg out to be collected by women and children. It is possible that fin-ther analysis of this sample from a contextual perspective would bring a more refined sense of fish use at the site. In contemporary cornrnunities there are communally controlled fishing territories (Leveil and Orlove 1990, Orlove er al. 1992). If this pattern extends into the past, then contextual information could be incorporated in order to delineate economic specialization within households. The patterning of fish remains on house floor surfaces may also provide information regarding the overall layout and use of space within the structure and attitudes towards refuse.

Birds There are a total of 421 avian specimens recovered from the site of which 182 or 43.2% was identified only to class (Table 9). Additionally 17 specimens (4%) were considered identifiable, but did not compare well with specimens in the comparative coilections. A total of 222 specimens (52.8%) were identified to below family level. Although birds comprise only 2.4% of al1 identified taxa in the Iwawi sarnple, there are seven orders with 16 discrete taxa represented (Table 9). Egg shells fiom strata III and VI present direct evidence for egg collecting activities. Some of the shells in the sarnple exhibit blotchy brown spots of varying sizes, whereas other specimens are an even off- white shade- This suggests at least two different types of bird eggs were exploited by Iwawi residents. Coliecting the eggs of Frtlica aredesiaca is a common practice in the area today (Kent, Webber and Steadman 1999). The combination of agricultural fields and the site's proxirnity to Lago Winairnarca provides a rich environment for a diverse range of birds (Dejoux 1992b). Grebes, coots and ducks make up 95.5% (N=2I2) of avian specimens identified to order or lower. When other aquatic, semi-aquatic and beach or mud-flat species are added, 98.6% of the sample (N=2 19) represent species that can be fomd in or near the lake zone. Waterbirds congregate off the totora zone where the water is shallow enough to sustain submergent weeds (Dejoux 1992b). Kent et aL7s(1999) analysis of the Chiripa avifauna revealed a similar pattern of aquatic species dominance with coots, grebes, ducks and aquatic species making up 82% of the bird bones at the site. Ethnohistorically birds were caught with nets or birdlines (Cobo 1994 [1653]: 241). The non-aquatic species identified at the site such as the Ground-Dove (Metriopelia) and Andean Flicker (Colaptes ncpicola), are often associated with human habitations. At Iwawi, bird bones are found with cutmarks (N=4), fashioned into artifacts (N=5) and display a range of burns fkom localized (N=3), to blackened (N=8) and calcined (N=3). (see Table 10). Based on the cutmarks and localized burning, it appears that the inhabitants of the site included birds of varyïng sizes in their subsistence economy fiom larger aquatic species to smaller terrestrial species such as the ground dove. Fresh meat fkom ducks and other birds have a fat content of 16-28% (Atunez 1981 : 16 1 in Moore 1989) compared to 3-7% in the cervids and camelids (Llerena, Tellez and Neyra 1982 in Moore 2 9891, making them a welcome addition to the diet. Not only are birds a component of the diet, but they are also a staple in Tiwanaku iconography. They are frequently depicted on Tiwanaku N and V type ceramics. 48 Incised figures of men with bird-like features or birds with human extremities also fi,we prorninently on lintels at the Kantatayita (Arellano 199 1: 265).

Table 9 Frequency of birds identified to the level of order, family, genus and species Order Taxon Cornmon Name NISP % of Birds Podicipediformes Podiceps Grebe 3 1.4 Rollandia Rollandia rollandia White-tufted Grebe Rollandia microptera Short-winged Grebe Ciconiiformes PZegadis ridgwayi Puna Ibis Anseriformes Anatidae Anas flavirostris Speckled Teal Anas prgica YelIow-billed Pintai1 Anas puna Puna Teal Anas Duck Oxyrrra jarnaicensis Ruddy Duck Gruiformes Gallinuh chloroprrs Cornmon Moorhen Fulicu ardesiaca Slate-colored Coot Fu lica Coot Charadriformes Charadriidae Charadrius Plover Vanellzu resplendens Andean Lapwing Vanel lris Lapwing Gallinago Snipe Columbiformes Metriopelia Ground-Dove Piciformes Colaptes rupicola Andean Flicker Total Bird

Table 10 Modified Avian Elements Taxa Element Strata Modification Bird Femur N Cutmark Bird Sternum N Cutmark Frrlica ardesiaca Coracoid VIT Cutmark Ftrlica Hurnerus VII Cutmark Rollandia nzicroptera Tibiotarsus-dist III Localized Burning Fzrlica ardesiaca Tarsornetatarsus - dist IV Localized Burning Metriop elia Humerus - prox III Localized Burning Amphibians and Invertebrates A total of 30 amphibian specimens were recovered fkom the site, fiom strata IV (N=2), VI PI),VII (N=26), and VIiI pl)(see Table 11). The comparative collections did not permit taxonomie identifications. Amphibians are highly sensitive to environmental changes and are distributed in small biotopes often separated by uninhabitable areas. They are culturally significant to the indigenous peoples of the area. In particular Telmatobizts and Paludicola are related to fecundity rites and infusions to treat anaernia, asthenia, tuberculosis and female sterility (Sastien 1978; Binford and Kolata 1996; Kolata 1993a; Vellard 1992). Toads (Btrfo) can be rubbed onto skin to treat skin disorders and may be used in the preparation of "evil potions" (Vellard 1992: 457).

Table 11 Frequency of invertebrates and amphibians at Iwawi Class Taxon NEP %AllTaxa Gastropoda Taphius 1 0.0 1 Marine Invertebrates 3 0.02 Lamellibranchiata Sphaeriurn 1 0.0 1 Amphibia Amphibians 30 0.17 Totals 35 0.2 1

There are two local invertebrates represented in the sample: Taphius and Sphaerium. They are both less than 1 cm in size and are most likely incidental to the assemblage (Dejoux 199Sb; Haas 1955). However the presence of two worked marine gastropod specimens is significant in that it provides evidence for long distance contact at Iwawi, though the mechanism of exchange is as of yet unclear. Marine shell fragments are found in strata III and Vm, indicating long distance contact took place early in the site history.

Temporal Anaiysis in examining the overall patterning of taxa through tirne, human remains, long bones and indeterminate remains were not tabulated, nor were rare specimens such as the invertebrates. The counts are raw counts and have not been normalized according to the amount of soi1 excavated. The temporal anaIysis of faunal remains at Iwawi is based on Iarger groupings of taxa: amphibians, fish, birds, camelids (Lama glama, L. gztanaco, L. 5 O pacos, Vimgna viczigna), rodents, miscellaneous mammals which include dog, puma, cervids. Given that the fish and camelids comprise 90% of identified taxa in any given strata, these groups are focused on in temporal comparisons. Amphibians achieve their highest representation in stratum VII (N=26 or 3% of identified faunaktratum), but are otherwise not well represented in strata IV, VI, and VIII (Table 12). Birds have their largest proportional representation in stratum Vm (5.5%) and become increasingly less common as they move up to stratum IIi (1 -6%) with a slight reversa1 in stratum II (2.1%). Yet at the same time the variety of discrete avian taxa exploited increases fiom four in straturn Vm to 10, nine and 13 in strata VI, IV and Et respectively, only to decline to three in stratum II. When the aviar, data are exarnined more closely we see the expected pattern of increased avian taxonomie diversity associated with increased sarnple sizes. This observation is also applicable to the miscellaneous mammal category. It does not appear that the overall decline in the proportional representation of birds relative to other taxa is associated with over- exploitation of faunal resources. What is most striking about the sarnple sizes is a general pattern of rapid increase from stratum VEI to III with a sudden decline in stratum II. From stratum VIII to IV the sample roughly doubles or triples with the passing of time indicating intensified occupation, possible population growth, increased access or consurnption of resources or possibly changes in site fûnction. Despite increases in sarnple sizes there is overall continuity in the dominance of fish and camelids at the site with minimal proportional representation of birds, miscellaneous marnmals and rodents.

Table 12 Frequency and relative fi-equency of taxa groupings according to strata

Straturn Il Straturn IIi Stratum N Straturn VI Stratum VI1 kratum VIII Cornmon Name Total Amphibians Fish Birds Camelids 10728 Misc. Mamrnals Rodents SubTotaI 17250 It is clear that camelids represent the dominant category of fauna at the site ranging fkorn 49-84% of al1 identified fauna per stratum. Fish are always the second most significant taxa recovered in each strata, making up 10-47% of identified fauna. When we focus on the cameIids and fish alone (Table 13, Figure 6), fkom strata Vm to IV the proportion of camelids decreases fiorn 89% to 50%. Then fiom strata IV to II camelids increase in importance relative to fish, reverting back to proportions seen in stratum VLU. Strata II and Vm are very simiiar in overall proportions of fauna represented as weIl as the relatively low fiequencies. When camelid and fish fiequencies are compared (Figure 6), strata III, IV and VI stand out for increased quantities of both fish and camelids relative to strata II, VII, and Vm. Both fish and camelids increase in fiequency from strata VII to III with camelids peaking in stratum m. Fish peak in stratum N nearing carnelid frequencies, decreasing slightly in stratum III and precipitously in stratum II.

Table 13 Frequency and relative frequency of camelid & fish resources

Strata Ir Strata III Strata N Strata VI Sirata VI1 Strata Vm. Total # % # % Fish 86 14.1 2079 30.8 Camelids 525 85.9 4665 69.2 TotaI 61 1 6744

1I III IV VI VI1 VI11 Strata

Figure 6 Fish and camelid (NISP) according to strata

52 Iaterpretation Carnelids and fish were obviously very important in the Iwawi subsistence economy. Camelid-fish relative fiequency comparisons suggest that in straturn VIII and II, roughly corresponding to the Early or Formative Period and Late Tiwanaku V, camelid remains dorninated the subsistence base at Iwawi though sample sizes are relatively small. Straturn N is associated with Tiwanaku influences at the site and the decreased proportional representation of carnelids at this time rnay indicate movement of camelids off the site or perhaps increased reliance on lacustrine resources. However when we examine bone counts, it appears the inhabitants of Iwawi were exploiting or accessing fish and carnelid resources quite heavily in strata ID, TV and VI. More resources are being consumed than in previous and following strata. This does not seem to indicate that Iwawi was provisioning the site of Tiwanaku as Kolata (1 993a) suggests is the function of rural sites. There does appear to be increased processing and consumption of carnelids peaking at stratum III and the sketetal parts patterning (Chapter 4) may shed further light on issues surrounding provisioning. As Tiwanaku's influence declined, it appears the residents of Iwawi reverted back to previous patterns of fish and camelid exploitation. The increased reiiance on cmelids relative to fish coincides with a decline in overall fiequencies. Strata DI, IV and VI also contain the largest sample sizes and Iargest number of discrete taxa. Stratum IV marks the appearance of Tiwanaku matenal culture at Iwawi and also coincides with the appearance of rare species such as deer, puma and significantly more vicufia than in previous strata. At this time there is direct evidence for the broadening of economic activities as reflected in hunting large wild artiodactyls, and carnivores that may have endangered domestic carnelid herds. Sorrero (1 990) indicates that guanacos rarely aggregate in large enough numbers to support communal hunting, however Custred (1979) cites ethnohistoric and ethnographie works that support the notion of communal hunting of wild carnelids and cervids using methods such as corralling or stalking and ambushing. One possible explanation for changing patterns in resources use may lie in climatic changes. Some researchers (Ortloff and Kolata 1993) indicate the area experienced severe droughts during Late Tiwanaku V tirnes. Others (Thompson et al. 53 I985, 1986) suggest this time period witnessed more precipitation. Lago Winaimarca is quite shallow and drought would impact on fish habitats yet fish are present in al1 strata at 1waw-i. The large number of amphibians found in stratum VII is quite curious- Most of the amphibians are found with bones intact and their overwhelming presence in this stratum may indicate an intrusive occupation or it may be of ritual significance. However this can only be corroborated with contextual data. There is also evidence for intermittent long distance contact at Iwawi throughout its history though the nature of contact and whether it is direct or indirect remains unclear. Marine shell was recovered fiom the site in strata III and VZlI and a marine fish vertebra fiom straturn m. The fish is representative of trade in food whereas the marine shell is probably associated with status enhancing functions. This is quite interesting because long distance contact is a significant component in the altiplano mode1 and vertical archipelago models. Both these models outline mechanisrns for long distance contact in the fonn of trade or kin relations. The fkequencies do not suggest the inhabitants of Iwawi had intensive interregional contact. However evidence fiom other parts of the Andes suggests faunal remains are not the best indicators for interregional interaction. In the Northern Highlands of Peru during the Middle Cajamarca expansion phase, the only non-local fauna recovered were a few frapents of marine shell despite strong evidence for contact in other media and artifact classes (Shimada 1985).

Comparisons There are several previous studies from sites throughout the Taraco peninsula that focus on faunal remains (Kent 1982; Kent et al. 1999; Webster 1993) or provide tables regarding general classes of faunal rernains (Bemann 1994). Quantitative cornparisons behveen sites are ideally conducted on samples similar in context, recovery method and sample size (Reitz and Wing 1999). The studies listed previously differ in recovery methods, range of taxa included in the studies, time penods, basis for identifications and taxa tabulations and combinations thereof. Hence cornparisons or observations will remain general. Kent's (1982) analysis of the Chiripa fauna indicated camelids comprised 75-8 1% of al1 identified fauna AIthough camelids are an important part of the subsistence economy at Iwawi other taxa also make signifiant contributions. This is also emphasized in work on fauna fiom Tiwanaku, Lukunnata and the Tiwanaku Valley surveys (Webster 1993). Webster (1 993) focused on mammals and did not include fish or birds in her sample. Similar to stratum Vm at Iwawi, Eariy Tiwanaku material indicated camelids were dominant, but Webster reports (1993) rodent taxa such as guinea pigs and viscacha were also prominent. By Tiwanaku IV, roughly comparable to strata IV, VI and possibly VIT, Webster (1993) notes a definite focus on domestic camelids with a reduction in species variability. This pattern is interpreted as increased dependence on a reliable food source to support large populations. This is contrary to the situation at Iwawi where strata III, IV and VI witness the exploitation of a wide range of resources in addition to the camelids and fish that dorninate al1 the layers. By Tiwanaku V, roughly corresponding to strata LU and N, Webster (1993) notes a pattern of increased diversification in faunal exploitation. She hypothesizes that decreased state control over animal husbandry or food distribution resulted in economic diversification.

Conclusion This chapter presents data regarding trends associated with the pastoral, fishing, hunting and collecting economy at the Iwawi site based on the identified taxa. The inhabitants of Iwawi participated in al1 these economic activities throughout the site's occupation. However the intensity of these occupations as measured through fiequency, ebbs and wanes throughout the history of the site's occupation. Some of the patterns viewed such as taxonornic diversity are related to sample size considerations Taxonomie diversity is well illustrated by the birds. As a class, birds have the largest number of taxonomically discrete categories at the site. In general when bird representaticn is hi&, taxonornic diversity is high and vice versa. When we bring in the relevant archaeological information we can see that in strata II and VI& when the site of Tiwanaku is not influential in the region, the residents of Iwawi rely significantly on carnelid resources. However as Tiwanaku grows in influence, by strata VI and VII roughIy analogous to Tiwanakx III and Early Tiwanaku TV, residents 55 are accessing a wider range of fauna with proportional fish representation increasing significantly. The broadening of the subsistence base continues throuJh stratum IV and begîns to decline in stratum m. By stratum ID or Early Tiwanaku V, the residents at Iwawi are enjoying access to more carnelids than ever before as well as rare and unique taxa previously not found at the site such as the puma. Marine shell and fish are also recovered fiom this layer. This time period is generally considered the beginning of the end for the Tiwanaku. At other sites in the area decreased proportional camelid representation has been interpreted as decreased state control over the camelids or decreased food distribution. It is difficult to evaluate the significance of camelids relative to fish in the diet. Carbon isotope analyses would provide a better idea of the relative importance of faunal remains relative to agricultural products such as tubers that are the dominant items in the diets of contemporary agro-pastoralists (Yamamoto 1985). Chapter 4: Camelid Species Identification and Skeletal Parts Analysis Introduction Camelids have long played a vital role in Andean economies. They provide a wide range of secondary services or products in addition to being of religious significance (Brotherston 1989). They served as sacrifices, cargo caniers and provide meat, blood, wool, dung fuel, and bone for artifact manufacture (Bastien 1978; Browman 1974: 193; Flannery et al. 1989; Flores Ochoa 1979 [1968];Gilmore 1950). This chapter explores the use and significance of carnelids in the Iwawi economy through camelid species identification and skeletal parts patteming. Species specific functions associated with the carnelids necessitate an osteornetric analysis to differentiate between species otherwise lacking in clear osteo-morphoiogical distinctions. Identifying the species exploited at Iwawi provides the basis for inferences of camelid use and this is further substantiated in exarnining skeletal parts patteming. Skeletal parts patterning cm help identiQ differential use or movement of camelid skeletal body parts. This is especially relevant in examining issues such as provisioning and the nature of carnelid consumption at the site.

Camelid Species Identification Two cornmonly applied methods of differentiating the carnelids were used for the Iwawi sarnple: 1) incisor morphology and 2) univariate, bivariate and multivariate osteometrics. In order to understand the significance of carnelids in the Iwawi economy, it is important to be able to distinguish the species used at the site. Ethnographically and ethnohistorically fùnctional differences are associated with the exploitation of the four species of camelids in the study area (see Table 14): the wild guanaco (Lanza guanicoe), domesticated llama (L. glama), domesticated alpaca (L.pacos), and wild vicuiia (Viczigna viczigna). Arnongst the domesticated carnelids, Ilamas were favoured for carrying cargo 20-40 kg whereas alpacas were primarily raised for the fine quality of their wool. Their wild counterparts, the guanaco and vicuiïa, can only be obtained by hunting. Guanacoes were hunted for meat whereas the wild vicuiia produces the most coveted and finest wool of al1 the camelids. It is possible that some of the fûnctional differences noted here were not as cleady differentiated in the past. Selective breeding cm produce hybrids that exhibit desired size or fibre traits. Native taxonomies differentiate camelids dong a nurnber of detailed descriptive categories and combinations thereof based on colour, sex, age and fibre quality (Flores Ochoa 1986). An analysis of fibre characteristics kom mummified alpacas and llarnas dated to AD 950-1350 at the site of El Yaral in Moquegua Pem provides evidence for probable extinct breeds based on "fleece fineness and uniformity, accelerated fibre growth, uniform colouration and the existence of a single coat Ilama." (Wheeler et al. 1995: 839). This suggests there was much more intensive management of camelids in the past. It is also important to note that there are differences in llama and alpaca herd management. Alpacas require more intensive human involvement as they have more restricted ecological, nutritional and management needs than Ilamas. Amongst contemporary herders, llama herding is not labour intensive as they forage fkeely and require almost no care (Rabey 1989).

Table 14 Carnelid species and uses Uses Llama Alpaca Guanaco Vicuiïa *Weight (kg) 130-1 55 55-65 100- 120 45-55 *Height at shoulders (cm) Meat, fat, blood Fuel Skins Coarse wool Fine wool Bezoar Stones SacrificeRitual TransportatiodCargo X Compiled fiom Bastien (1978); Ftannery et al. (1989); Flores Ochoa (1968); *Franklin (1982); Gihore (1950); Lynch (1983); Murra (1980)

Incisor Morphology A nurnber of morphological traits have been outlined to distinguish the camelid species (Table 15), yet there are numerous difficulties in distinguishing the species on the basis of osteo-morphological features (Lynch 1983). Many of the indicators require complete elements unlikely to be recovered in archaeological contexts. Teeth are the 58 exception as they preserve well and incisor morphology has become a popula. means of identi@ng vicufias, though its applicability in differentiating the other species remains debated (Kent 1982; Moore 1989; Wheeler 1982).

Table 15 Macroscopic differences within the camelid family (following Kent 1982) Element Species Description inc isors (mandibular) Vicufia Lack enamel on Iingual surface, parallel sided, open roots Alpaca Enamel-dentin jmction does not completely surround tooth, pulp cavity opens later in iife Guanacd Spatulate teeth, well defined neck, enamel dentin junction L!ama surrounds tooth circumference (Wheeler 1982) Cranium: sagittal area of Vicuiia Higher and more rounded than in other camelids (Herre ternporal-occipital region 1952)

Cranial Vault Vicuiia Cranial height to lene@ ratio 1:2.5, versus alpacas 1 :3.0 (One and Venero 1979) Guanaco Low & flat compared to llamas (Herre 1952) Metacarpal: proximal Guanaco Roughened area 1 cm long on dorsal surface (Kent 1982) metaphysis Humerus: distal metaphysis Guanaco Pronounced crest-like ndge on caudo-lateral surface Llama Ridge morphology variable: shallow to reduced line (Kent 1982) Humenis: proximo-distal Llama Ridge sinuous, continuous, well delineated, more ridge between deltoid parabolic than guanacos tuberosity and proximal Guanaco Discontinuous ndge with varied rugosity/tuberosities metaphysis dista1 to the along its length, more crest like than llamas (Kent 1982) lateral epicondyle

Wheeler (1 982. 1984) estabiished criteria for the separation of Ilama, alpaca and vicuiïa incisors based on adult specirnens (see Figure 7). Llama and guanaco incisors tend to be spatulate with enarnel covenng the crown surface and a clearly differentiated root structure whereas vicuïas have non-spatulate incisors, square in cross section with enarnel on the labial surface and an undifferentiated root structure. Alpaca incisors are intermediate in morphology, neither spatulate nor square in cross section, instead appearing more rectangular. The incisor pulp cavities also remain open later in life relative to the llama and guanacos. There is broad agreement that vicuiïa incisors can be identified given the presence of al1 diagnostic features, however criteria associated with the remaining species are not exclusive. Moore (2989: 243) notes that in the case of the 5 9 enamel-dentin junction, differences between alpacas, vicuiias, and paco-vicuiïas fali along a continuum as opposed to strictly divisibIe categories. Kent (1982: 142) also cites the fact that some alpacas and paco-vicuilas have open rooted or parallel sided mandibular incisors. Given these observations, incisor morphology was only used to identifL vicuiïas. At the Iwawi site, a total of seven incisor specimens (4.5% of artiodactyl incisors) out of a possible 154 exhibit al1 traits associated with the vicufia (Figure 7). These are al1 loose teeth and none were found in the mandible. The incisors are found in strata IV (N=5), V (N=l ) and VI (N=l ), with the largest quantity of vicuiïs incisors lying in stratum IV. This suggests that in earlier and later times: (1) the inhabitants of Iwawi did not hunt \.icuiias or had no access to vic~as;or (2) vicuiïas were hunted but their presence is not evident through the incisors; or (3) they had access to vicuÏias but did not process them on site. In any case, in strata IV and VI there is evidence for the exploitation of vicuiias. Ethnohistorically, vicui5a wool is considered an elite item, reserved for nobility and sacred contexts (Cobo 1993 [ 16531: 2 17).

I Figure 7 Camelid incisor morphology adapted fiom Wheeler (1984, Fig.2). Not to scale. Vicuiia incisor: lingual (A), Iateral (B) and labial (C) views Alpaca incisor: @), lateral (E), and labial (F) views Llama or Guanaco incisor: lateral (G) and labial (H) views

Osteometrics Osteometrics is another popular method for differentiating members of the camelid family. There is a general, but overlapping size gradient within the camelid family from largest to smallest: guanaco, Ilanna, alpaca and vicuiïa. It is relatively 60 straightforward to distinguish between large (llama and guanaco) and small carnelids (alpaca and vicuÏia), however species distinctions are much more difficult (Wing 1972). A number of studies have attempted to differentiate camelid species through univariate, bivariate or multi-variate measures of specific adult elements in conjunction with archaeological data (Kent 1982; Moore 1989 ; Miller 1979; Miller and Burger 1995; Shimada 1985; Wheeler and Reitz 1987; Webster 1993; Wing ad., 1972, 1977). Specific measurernents korn elements are recorded and data fiom archaeological specimens are compared with contemporary comparative collections to obtain a sense of the range of species represented at a site. Osteometrics is not a "precise diagrmstic tool with which to identi@ the species of an individual bone nor cm it be utilized without a great deal of reliance on supportive data of context and culture." (Miller and Gill 1990: 57). Due to the rudimentary nature of studies in this area, two different approaches were adopted and their results compared. Kent's (1982) application of Wilk's stepwise discriminant analysis and Miller's (1979; Miller and Gill 1990; Miller and Burger 1995) use of univariate and bivariate rneasures of specific elements were applied to the Iwawi sample. Kent's multivariate method is geared towards assigning specimens into specific species designations whereas Miller's approach involves using osteometrics as a vague baseline for size ranges that cm be used as a launching point for discussions regarding possible species affiliation based on archaeological and contextual data. No attempts were made to examine temporal changes at Iwawi as sample sizes were not large enough to make definitive statements. Specimens were chosen on the basis of completeness. If a specimen was incomplete, culturally andor naturally rnodified it was not included in the sample. Additionally, specimens exhibiting trauma or pathologies were also deleted from the sample. There are a number of biases associated with the sample reserved for osteometric analysis. It may be affected by preservation bias and the interdependence of measures due to the significant representation of phalanges in the osteometnc analysis. Some of the chosen elements were favoured in artifact production, specifically phalanges 1,2 and the scapula. Selection for bone tool production may have favoured larger specimens. In tenns of the measurements, reproducibility cm be a concem. Lighting conditions, angle at which calipers are read, bone condition, and measuring pressure can al1 affect the 6 1 measurements obtained (Kent 1982: 163). In this analysis al1 measurements were taken three times using digital calipers and their average used for the purposes of the calculations and plotting. The methods and results associated with the multivariate and univariatehivariate approaches will be presented separately, followed by a brief discussion comparïng the results. Other variables contributing to camelid body size include age, sexual dimorphism, health, climate and geographic variation (Franklin 1982; Wheeler and Reitz 1987). Sexual dimorphism is not a significant factor (Kent 1982) and age related differences can be minimized by: (1) choosing fùlly füsed adult specimens and (2) avoiding controversial elements such as astragali where adult and subadult specirnens are difficult to differentiate. However geographic variation in camelid body size may be a more significant variable. The Bergrnann effect states that proxirnity to the equator is associated with smaller mammalian body size, though its effects are mediated by variables such as altitude and geographic isolation. There are subspecies of guanacos and vicuiïas in addition to a large nurnber of potential crossbreeds between the wild and domestic carnelids (Novoa and Wheeler 1984: 125- 126). The domesticated carnelids cm also be affected by breeding practices that select for large (Wing 1972) or smaller sizes (Moore 1989) considered desirable by herders. Miller and Gill(1990) provide evidence for the presence of a small llama form, intexmediate in size between contemporary llarnas and alpacas, in southem Ecuador. Ethnohistoric reports ofien indicate the largest and hardiest cargo Ilamas were found in the Lake Titicaca region (Vizquez de Espinosa 1942 [1629]: 620; Pizzaro 1978 [1575]: 28 in Miller and Gill 1990: 61).

Univariate and Bivariate Approach Miller and associates (1 979, Miller and Gill 1990, Miller and Bqer 1995) have used a combination of univariate and bivariate approaches to differentiating camelid species fiom archaeological contexts. Miller's approach was applied to the proximal fore first phalanges (N=17) and distal humeri (N=10) fiom Iwawi. Miller has used other elernents such as the astragali for univariate approaches and the distal scapula for bivariate methods, however astragali were avoided in this analysis because it is difficult to distinguish between subadult and adult specimens. Scapulae were not included 62 because the sample size (N=3) was not sufficient for a thorough analysis, The fore first phalanges and the distal humeri were available and their associated variables were also ideal for comparisons with Kent's (1982) rnultivariate approach. Miller does not appear to distinguish between the fore and hind first phalanges. The fore first phalanges tend to be larger than their hind counterparts (Kent 1982; Moore 1989). 1 chose to use the fore first phalanges due to the larger associated sarnple size. The first phalanx rneasurements are based on the proximal antero-posterior width and praximal rnedio-lateral width. These are analogous to Kent's front phalanx 1 variable 2 (FPIV2) and fiont phaianx 1 variable 3 (FPIV3). The distal humerus rneasurements are based on the distal antero-posterior width and maximum condylar width, similar to humerus variable 151 (HUM 15 1) and humerus variable 156 (HUM 156). See Appendix B for rneasurement details. Miller's approach as applied to the Iwawi sample involves the following components: (1) Bivariate scatterplots of the antero-posterior venus mediolateral width of the proximal fore first phalanx and distal humeri of archaeological specimens are compared to similar measures from comparative guanacos, Ilamas, alpacas and vicuiïas. Measurement data in Appendix C. (2) Student's T-tests are conducted on the differences between the means of archaeological and comparative specimens using linear dimensions, in this case the proximal first phalanx medio-Iateral width and the dlstal medio- lateral width of the humerus. Specimens within an element category were divided into large and small groups. The large group rneans were cornpared to the large camelids whereas the small group means were compared to the smaller camelid species. This provides the investigator with a sense of whether the sample is drawn from a population similar to species represented in the La Raya Collection. The one-sample t-test hction with .95 confidence levels from SYSTAT 8 was used to calculate the T values. (3) Results of statistical tests comparing archaeological and modem specimens are often arnbiguous, so Miller (Miller and Burger 1995) includes an index of dimorphism (D=XJXi ) based on the linear dimensions listed in #2, to aid in 63 further identimng the camelids. D is the index of dimorphism for a specific variable, X, is the mean of the measurement fkom the small population and XI is the mean of the measurement from the large population. (4) Data and resuIts fkom 1-3 are exarnined incorporating archeological and ethnohistoric information in the interpretaiion. Occasionally archaeological and ethnohistoric data take precedence over the results of the univariate or bivariate approaches (Miller and Gill IWO).

Visual examination of the scatter plots for the medio-lateral and antero-posterior widths of the proximal first phalanx and distal humerus indicate that the majority of Iwawi specimens are grouped under the large camelids with nominal small camelid representation. The fore first phalanx scatter plot (Figure 8) indicates the majority of specimens fall into the llama range with some specimens approaching the guanaco or small camelid range. There are also a number of specimens lying at the lower end of the llarna range and the upper end of the alpaca range, falling outside the 95% confidence intervals for contemporary llamas and alpacas (Miller 1979).

24

x Q 22 - #e .x O x O 8 20- O O. $0 $9 .i, 6b 18- a

X Guanaco 16- O LIarna O Alpaca A A Vicuna 14.- Iwawi

Proximal Medio-lateral Width (mm)

Figure 8 Iwawi proximal fore first phalanx scatterplot (camelid reference data fiom Miller & Gill 1990) 64 The distal humerus scatter plot (Figure 9) exhibits a clearer separation between large and small camelid groups. It similarly indicates the rnajority of specimens fa11 into the large camelid group with two specimens in the smaller group. Specimens in the small camelid group never approximate the dimensions of contemporary vicuiias, but are more alpaca-like in dimension. In the lqecarneiid group, the scatter plot indicates specimens with llama and guanaco-like dimensions existed at Iwawi. Some of the specimens appear to have more robust antero-posterior width dimensions relative to the comparative specimens, however this could be a product of small sample size.

X Guanaco O Lfarna Aipaca A Vicuna

30 35 40 45 50 Distal Medio-lateral Width (mm)

Figure 9 Iwawi distal humerus antero-posterior and latero-media1 width (camelid reference data f?om Miller and Gill 1990)

The scatterplots provide a general sense of the size ranges of carnelids at the Iwawi site, but descriptive statistics for the medio-lateral widths of the proximal first phalam and distal humerus (Table 16) cm be used to clarie camelid species exploited at Iwawi. The scatterplots and the means of unlinear dimensions were examined in order to divide specimens into small and large groups. Student's t-tests on the means of the larger specimens were compared with the means from contemporary guanacos and llamas for

65 the fore first phalanx. A similar process was completed for the small group fore first phalanges and smaller camelids. Unfortunately in the case of the distal humeri, comparative data was only available for the domesticated camelids: the llama and alpaca. Student's T-tests indicate that the rneans of the Iwawi large fore first phalanx are consistent with the llamas fiom the La Raya collection. It is unlikely that the large fore first phalanges represent guanacos. The large distal humerus is also consistent with the llamas from the La Raya sample. The Iwawi small first phalanx and the small distal humeri are consistent with the La Raya alpacas.

Table 16 Descriptive statistics and student7st-tests for first phalanges and humerus Sample N Mean SD Range V T P Guanaco first phalanx 9 24.0 0.8 22.5-24.8 3.5 -4.043 0.002 Llarna first phalanx 22 21.3 1.2 20.8-21.9 5.6 0.799 0.440 AIpaca first phalanx 55 17.2 1.3 16.8-17.5 7.5 0.661 0.556 Vicufia first phalanx 16 15.5 0.9 15.0-16.0 5.6 2.832 0.066 Iwawi large forefirst phalam- 13 21.7 2.0 19.6-25.1 4.0 Iwawi srnail fore Jrst phaiam 4 17.7 1.6 15.9-19.3 2.5 **Alpaca humeri 25 36.9 1.303 0.417 **Llarna humeri 8 45.0 -0.408 0.694 Iwawi large ciistal Jzzrnt erus 9 40.9 2.2 40.9-48.2 4.9 Iwawi small distal h~tmerus 2 37.0 0.7 37.0-38.0 0.5 Data based on Miller and Burger (1995) unless othenvise stated. **Data fiom Miller and Gill(1990).

The index of dimorphism values calculated for Iwawi's proximal first phalanges and distal humen appear to support the results of the t-tests. The first phalanx values (8 1%) resemble the degree of dimorphism commonly associated with the alpacaAlarna values (Figure 7 in Miller and Burger 1995). The distal humerus values (84%) are slightly higher than those associated with the alpaca/ltarna, but are closer to that pair than the vicuridllarna or vicufia/guanaco values. The results of the T-tests and index of dimorphism seem to suggest the large and small camelid specimens at Iwawi are most likely Llamas and alpacas. The scatter plots support the presence of alpacas and llamas at Iwawi, however there are some very high values analogous to the ,ouanacos and some lower values that approach the vicufias. Multivariate Approach A total of 125 specimens incorporating the fore (N=17)and hind (N=13) first phalanges, second phalanges (N=46),third phalanges (N=3 1)' distal humerii (N=l 1), distal radio-ulnae (N=4), and proximal scapulae (N=3) make up the sample used with Kent's classification formulae (1 982). Kent (1 982) subjected modem camelid measurements to stepwise discriminant analysis to determine variables that best separate the camelids. Using these variables, he produced linear functions that could be used to calculate the best fit between the archaeological and comparative specimens. A diagram illustrating the measurement points or variables used to examine the Iwawi sample is presented in Figure 10. Detailed descriptions of variables can be found in Appendix B.

Phalanx 3 Distal Scapula

I Phalanx 2 Distal

L .iJ Proximal Dorsal Axial Caudal Ventral Distai Hurncms Distal Radio-ulna ------Figure 10 Measurements used in accordance with Kent (1 982)

The classification formulae method involves four general steps: 1. Obtain relevant measurements f?om each specimen; 2. Divide specimen into large, small or indeterminate carnelid groups; 3. Apply variables to classification fonnulae: 4. Assign archaeological specimens to carnelid species based on highest classification score. Specimens were divided into large, small or indetenninate camelid groups by inspecting group means for measurement points (see Appendix D) andor plotting the values of specimens ont0 bivariate plots containing measurements kom comparative specimens (Appendix N.3 in Kent 1982). The indeterminate category includes specimens with values that are intermediate and dificult to assign to either large or small groups. The third phalanx, fore and hind first phalanges did not require initial separation into large or small groups as the oniy available classification formulae include al1 four carnelid species. The relevant variables were then applied to the large, small or indeterminate group classification hinctions (Appendix E). Each camelid species is associated with a classification function. The small and large camelid groups each contain tsvo camelid functions -guanaco and llarna or alpaca and vicuiia. The proportion of correctly classified specimens tends to be higher with the two camelid group functions. The indeterminate group functions include al1 camelid species which decreases the IikeIihood of correct classification (Kent 1982). In the case of the second phalanges, variable 8 appears to represent some fonn of systematic error during the measurement taking process. The measurements appear higher than the averages associated with the other variables (P2V6, P2V7, P2V9, P2V10). Hence the phalailx 2 indetexminate classification formulae using al1 camelids were applied, as they only rely on variables 6,7,and 10. All associated raw data are presented in Appendix F. The classification scores are calculated by using coefficients and constants that have been derived for the camelid species. The formula itself is as follows: Csi = Au1 + Bx2+Cx3.. .+Zxn+K Csi = classification score for group i (panaco, llarna, alpaca or vicuiia). Xn = values of N measured variables selected for use in the hction K is the constant. Once the variables have been entered into the formulae, the classification scores are compared and the highest score represents the group to which the specimen is assigned. If the difference between the highest and second highest score is two or less the assignmerit is considered uncertain as variations of 0.5rnrn in meamernent results in a 1.O point difference in the classification score. For example, using the distal humerus 6s specimen QE 29:7 1 when the measurements for variables 150, 151, 156 and 157 are compared to the means fiom the comparative specimens (see Appendix D), the specimen falls into the large category. So the large camelid group formulae using variables 150, 151 and 157 (see Appendix E) are used to calculate the classification scores. Each variable is muhiplied by the coefficients for the guanaco and llarna and the variables are summed and added to the constant (see Table 17 for an example). Ail measurernents for variables and classification scores are presented in Appendix F. The higher classification score represents the camelid species assigned to the specimen. In this case the difference between the classification score for the guanaco and the llama is 2.053 indicating that this is a definite identification. Had the difference between scores been less than two, the identification would be considered uncertain and there would be an almost 50% chance that the specirnen represents the species with the next highest score.

Table 17 Example of classification score calculations QE 29: 71 Guaaaco Llama IfUM 150 5 1 .O0 5 1 .OO*-5.548 = -282.504 5 1.OO*-4.448 = -226.492 HUM 151 44.97 44.97* 12.239 = 550.388 44.97* 10.963 = 493 -006 HUM 157 42.36 42.36*6.354 = 269.155 42.36*5.462 = 23 1.370 Sum 537.039 497.884 Constant 537.039-275.781 497.884-23 8.679 Score 26 1.258 259.205

According to the classification fomulae, both large and small camelids are represented at lwawi (Table 18). The large cameIid group comprise 64.8% of the sarnple (N=8 1). The rnost fiequently found camelid at Iwawi is the guanaco (N=3 1, 16 uncertain), followed by the llama w=l 9, 15 uncertain), alpaca (N= 8,22 uncertain) and vicuiia (N=9, 6 uncertain). h the small carnelid group, the alpacas make up 23.2%of the identified sample, followed by the vicuiias (1 1.2%). These results are surprising as it suggests hunting of wild camelids was equally significant to Iwawi's economy as the dornestic camelids. According to the classification formulae wild camelids (N=62) rnake up almost 50% of al1 specimens identified in this analysis. These results are incongruent with the zooarchaeological data for the area. Camelids were domesticated long before the occupation of the Iwawi site and many of the sites at this tirne are dominated by domestic camelids (Bonnavia 1996).

Table 18 Species &el uencies according to element Guanaco Alpaca Element #- ? #- ? Fore first phalanx Hind first phalanx Phalanx two Phalanx tbree Humerus Radioulna Scapula

It is apparent that the multivariate formulae produce different patterns of carnelid species representation depending on the element in question. In particular phalanx 2 stands out for the high proportion of Ilamas whereas phalanx 3 is notable for the high guanaco representation. These unusual results should be ternpered by the fact that 46.4% of the identified sample (N=58) fell in the uncertain category (see Table 18). The following elements had over 50% of the specimens used in this anaiysis assigned as uncertain: phalanx 3 (80.0%), distal scapula (66.6%), distal humerus (45.5%), and distal radioulna (50%). The formula for phalanx three is also considered questionable due to the small sample size involved in its formulation (Kent 1982). In the original study, phalanx 3 specimens were correctly classified 75% of the tirne. Not only do the results associated with different elements differ, but in the case of second phalanges the classification scores produced using the large carnelid formulae differed fiom scores using the al1 camelid formulae. When the rneasurements were applied to the large camelid formulae al1 specimens were identified as definitely llama, but when the all carnelid formulae were applied to the measurements specimens included both guanaco and uncertain llarna identifications. The al1 camelid forrnulae produced a range of results that were in line with results associated with other elements. In order to investigate the differential scores, al1 applicable radio-ulna specimens were subjected to the two-camelid and al1 camelid fomulae. The results of the fomulae were consistent in 70 the case of the radio-ulnas with some changes in the degree of certainty. This may indicate there was some sort of error involved in the large camelid fomulae associated with the second phalanges - either a problem with the formula itself or perhaps differences in the measurentents taken.

Comments It is evident fiom the results associated with both Kent (1982) and Miller's (1979; Miller and Gill 1990; Miller and Burger 1995) approaches that the large camelids represent the majority of specimeris at Iwawi with some srnall camelid representation. This general pattern has previously been reported on in osteometric analyses of specimens from the Tiwanaku Valley surveys (Webster 1993) and the Chiripa site (Kent 1982). In both these analyses the larger sized camelids are most common, with some small camelid representation. Miller's (Miller and Biuger 1995) dimorphism index indicates that the large/smaIl camelid split at Iwawi is best explained by the Ilama/alpaca dichotomy. Yet the bivariate scatterplots suggest wild camelids were also exploited to some extent. The results of the multivariate analysis suggest guanacos and llarnas were present in near equal numbers at the site followed by alpacas and lastly vicuiias. This divergence highlights the difficulties in distinguishing between the species and the need for more research in this area in order to develop methods that provide more consistent and reliabie results. Specimens in the small camelid groups have values that fa11 in the alpaca and vicufia range. There is direct evidence for the exploitation of wiid vicufias at hawi through the seven recovered incisors. The teeth are presumably associated with cranial remains, suggesting vicufias were processed and consumed on site. Ethnographic accounts of camelid butchery indicate the head is oflen one of the first elements consurned due to concerns regarding spoilage (Stahl 1999; Tomka 1994: 241). In viewing Figures 8 and 9, there are a number of specimens exhibiting intermediate values between the large and small camelid groups. There was much more specialized breeding of camelids in the past (Wheeler et al. 1997). The intermediate values may be suggestive of cross breeding. In contemporary llama-alpaca populations and at Inka period llama-alpaca sites such as Qhataq'asallacta (Miller 1979: 152) and

7 1 Huanuco Pampa (Wing 1988: figure 3) the larger and smaller populations often grade into each other. It has been suggested this is due to the presence of llama and alpaca hybrids (Miller and Burger 1995: 433) such as waris (Kent 1982: 23-29). The importance of robust camelids at Iwawi is fùrther suppcrted by previous research on the site. Webster's (1993: 207) analysis of univariate measurements of the humerus (distal medio-lateral width), metatarsal (proximal medio-iateral width) and scapda (antero-posterior diameter of glenoid fossa) indicate many of her specimens fa11 in the 95% confidence intervals for the llamas. Kent's (1982) analysis of the Chiripa site also highlights ilarnas as the most fiequently identified camelids. Previous research at Iwawi (LV-150) noted that dimensions associated with proximal medio-lateral metatarsal width (N=3) were significantly larger than their counterparts at other sites (Webster 1993). There are a number of possible explanations for the large camelids at Iwawi. Ethnohistoric reports indicate the Titicaca area was renowned for large cargo llamas (Gilmore 1950: 437; Pizarro 1978 [1575]: 28 in Miller and Gill 1990: 61). It is possible that different breeds may have existed in the past. Perhaps larger sized carnelids were bred for meat production or cargo carrying. The second possibility is that there was a selection process favouring large elements for artifact production at the site. The scapuIa, metapodials, phalanx one and two in particular were favoured for artifact modification (see Chapter 6 for details). The third possibility suggests that elements may exhibit increased robustness due to stress-related activities associated with cargo carrying. Efforts were made not to include specimens with size altering lesions, but it is possible some specimens may appear larger than expected due to stress related functions. This may suggest that in the future, computations associated with element categories most fkequently found culturally modified or with a propensity for pathological changes should be avoided in these types of analyses. In any case the inhabitants of Iwawi had access to the meat of large camelids in addition to possible cargo carrying by llamas. What is most interesting about the results is that even at a tirne when camelids were dornesticated and dornesticates are presumed to dominate archaeological assemblages, the hunting of wild resources continued to supplement the agro-pastoral economy. This pattern of herding, supplemented with hunted camelid resources does not 72 appear to be an unusual pattern- At the Iwawi site, 52% of definitely classed camelid specimens (56.8% including uncertain) according to classification formulae (Kent 1982) were considered domesticates. At the Chiripa site 64% of camelids identified to species level were dornesticates, but wild camelid exploitation is still significant (Kent 1982). Even during Inca times when domestic camelids were relied upon, periodic communal hunts or chacos were held every 3-5 years in the highlands (Cobo 1993 [1653]).

Camelid Skeletal Part Abundance The dominance of large camelids at Iwawi suggests that camelids were an important source of meat and associated by-products. By examining carnelid skeletal part abundance patterns it may be possible to determine how the animals were used - whether they were killed and consumed on-site or brought on-site ("schlepp effect") fkom elsewhere (Reitz and Wing 1999: 203). It has also been used to highlight a uniquely Andean form of skeletal use and transportation known as the ch brki effect. The ch arki effect as coined by Miller (1979; see Browman 1989, Miller and Burger 2000; Stahl 1999; Valdez 2000 for debate) proposes that the differential representation of head and feet bones relative to proximal limb bones at higher or lower altitude sites is indicative of fieeze ciried meat preparation and exchange. In exarnining carnelid skeletal part abundance, it is necessary to take into consideration the structural density and meat utility of the elements under discussion in addition to the effects of selection for bone tool production (see Chapter 6). Carnelid, artiodactyl and large marnmal element identifications are included in this analysis. Skeletal part abundance data (Figure 1 1) are based on derived values using counts of elements or element portions divided by the nanird element frequency (NEF), the number of elements or element portions naturaily occurring in the skeleton (Muir 1999; O'Connor 2000). This takes into consideration the fact that element fkequencies Vary within the skeleton. Fragments and complete elernent portions were counted equally. In the case of complete long bones, both distal and proximal portions were counted separately. For example, a sarnple that includes one proximal humerus, two distal humeri and one complete humerus, would produce a final count of two proximal humeri and three distal humeri. These counts would then be divided by the NEF value 73 which in this case is two, producing values of 1 for the proximal hurnerus and 1.5 for the distal hurnerus. A total of 29 elements or element portions are presented here (See Figure 11, Table 19). Rib counts are based on rib heads and do not include shafl portions. Scapula counts are based on the distal portion and innominate counts are based on the ilium. Metatarsals and metacarpals were cornbined into a single metapodial category. Due to fragmentation there is decreased representation of long bone shaft portions that may result in the over representation of head and feet elernents (Stahl 1999). There is a bias towards articular ends of long bones in the identified sample. Element identifications could not be made on 1 1 121 long bone shafi fragments. Shafi portions identified to elernent on the basis of tuberosities and muscle attachments were not included in the bar graph of element (Figure 11) and element part kequencies (Table 19) nor the meat utility index cornparison, but they were included in exarninations of butchering units and structural density. A large number of mammal vertebrae were not included as the data sheets during the preliminary sorting phase did not speciw vertebrae type. Skeletal elernents were also grouped together according to body parts using NISP. Ethnographicaliy, camelids are butchered into seven or eight general units: (1) head; (2) neck; (3) axial skeleton (4) forehbs (5) hindlimbs (6)brisket (7) two metatarsals; and (8) two metacarpals (Tomka 1994; Miller 1979; Valdez 2000). This analysis uses the ethnographie butchenng units, but does not the include the brisket and lumps together the non meat-bearing lower limb elements into a general "feet" category that includes metapodials, carpals, tarsals, sesarnoids, phalanges one, two and three. The bnsket category, which is defined solely through sternal segments is not included due to the small sample size (N=l 1). In this analysis, tabulations for craniaI remains are based on the occipital condyle. Skull fragments and tooth fragments were not included for fear of over-inflating values in this category. The neck includes al1 cervical vertebrae whereas the axial skeleton is composed of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. Ethnographically the ribs are often included with the forelimbs. Ribs were not included in this analysis. The forelimbs were tabulated based on the scapula, humems and radioulna. The hindlimbs are defined as the innominate, femur, patella, tibia, astragalus and calcaneus. Elements not included in the butchenng units tabulations as well as the skeletal parts 74 tabulations due to difficulties associated with assignrnent to butcherhg unit andior variable numbers within the skeleton include the hyoids, costal cartilage, and caudal bones. In viewing the element frequency bar graph (Figure 12) al1 camelid skeletal regions and elements are represented to varying degrees at Iwawi (Table 19, Figure 1 1). When the Iwawi profile is compared with expected skeletal fiequencies for one animal there is disproportionate representation of cranial remains such as the rnandible, maxiIIa and occipital condyle as well as the uppemost parts of the neck most closely associated with the craniurn, such as the atlas and axis. The mandible in particular is very well represented in the sample. The artifact analysis (Chapter 6) indicated that 19.5% of al1 mandibles, 21 -9% of al1 scapulae and 12.4% of al1 metapodials recovered at the site were modified. Hence there is the possibility of differential accumulation and processing of elements at the site. Yet in the case of the scapulae and metapodials, the values are in line with the remaining limbs and are almost half of what one would expect to see given the cranial remains. The head, neck, forelimbs and hindlimbs are relatively well represented whereas the axial skeleton, proximal hurnerus, distal femur, patella and third phalanx are poorly represented. Furthermore there are variations in the intrabone representation of long bone portions, most noticeably in the proximal and distal hwnerus and femur values. This may indicate some degree of density mediated destruction may be a possible factor explaining the skeletal element patterning at Iwawi. Given the range of skeletal elements in the sarnple, carnelids were most likely killed, butchered and consumed on site. The disproportionate representation of cranial remains probably does not indicate meat bearing limb bones were taken off site and were made unavailable to the residents at Iwawi. When we tale into consideration the fact that 28.9% of the entire Iwawi faunal sample consists of long bone shafi fragments, it can be argued that there was very intensive use of faunal resources at the site. Bone and grease extraction often involves shattering and boiling long bone fiagrnents. The strong presence of distal toe bones combined with the intensive use of the camelid skeleton indicates that not only was meat valued, but grease and marrow extraction were most likely practiced by the inhabitants at Iwawi. 75 Table 19: Frequency and meat utility data for carnelid skeletal parts

Head mandible 292 146.0 occipital condyle 37 37.0 Neck atlas mis cervical Axial Skeleton thoracic lumbar Brisket sternum Forelimbs ribs scapula dist. humerus prox. humerus dist. radioulna prox. radioulna Hindlimbs innominate sacrum dist. femur prox. femur patella dist. tibia prox. tibia astragalus calcaneus Feet tarsals metatarsal metacarpal metapodials carpals phalanx 1 *phalam 2 *phalam 3 * second and third phalanx FSEMUI values are based on first phalanx info, occipital condyle maximaxiIh

atlas ais I cervical thoracic - lurnbar D- sacrum sternum 1- ni D scapula D prox humerus dist. humrus - prox radioulna dist. tadiouina - ninominate prox fernur - dist. ferrur - patella - 1 prox tibia - dist. tibia astragalus - calcaneus 1 rarsak prox rnetapodial - dist. mtapodial carpals phalanx 1 phalanx2 phalanx 3

1

Figure 1 1 Bar graph of Iwawi camelid skeletal part/portion frequency

77 Butchering Units In order to examine temporal patteming in camelid skeletal parts, element counts (NISP) were pooled into butchering units according to stratigraphie layers. A relatively constant pattern through time emerges (Table 20). The feet are always most numerous, followed by equally represented fore and hindlirnbs, then the axial, neck and cranial portions. This pattern differs fjrorn that presented in the bar graph of skeletal portions as these represent the NISP of a nurnber of elements and also includes shaft portions of identified elements. The dominance of the feet category is expected when one considers tha: this butchering unit includes both fore =d hind feet and the feet tend to have higher fiequencies of elements. Conversely, cranial representation appears low because this category is based on one element - occipital condyles. The stability in butchering unit representation through time does not suggest camelid resource production at Iwawi changed to meet extemal demands as one would expect if provisioning were taking place. Yet it is also apparent that there is an increase in the quantity of camelid body parts in strata Ei, N, and VI roughly coinciding with Tiwanaku III-V, with smaller overall quantities of camelid body parts in strata II and VIIi which precede and post-date Tiwanaku influences at the site.

Table 20 Body parts according to strata Body III IV VIII Total Part 1 1 = % #%#% # % msp CraniaI 1 0.5 3 2.2 35 Neck 6 3.1 9 6.6 191 AxiaI 19 9.7 9 6.6 436 Forelimb 31 15.9 31 22.6 781 Hindlimb 31 15.9 26 19.0 638 Feet 107 54.9 59 43.1 1795 195 100.0 137 100.0 3876

Structural Density Skeletal element survivorship patterns can be influenced by structural density, so it is important to account for this factor when exarnining skeletal parts. Bone is heterogeneous in structure; the spongy, porous portions are structurally weaker containing more blood and rnarrow than their high density diaphyseal counterparts (Lyman 1984: 279, 1992). Low structural density portions tend to be more affected by density mediated (destructive) attritional processes such as carnivore scavenging, butchery practices, marrow extraction, foot traffic, artifact production and differential destruction (Lyman 1994). Bone density effects on the sarnple were analyzed by comparing the Iwawi sarnple with Stahl's (1999) surface adjusted volume density data. Stahl's data set was chosen because it covers many elements and follows standardized scan sites developed by Lyman (1994). A total of 66 applicable scan sites were included in the analysis (Appendix G). Each element or element portion can encompass several scan sites and each scan site was counted. In cases where portion representation was unclear, specimens were not included. Elernents or element portions were divided by the number of occurrences in the skeleton to provide denved counts that could be compared to Stahl's (1999) corresponding density values. The mandible, scapula and metapodials are not included in the structural density and meat utility index comparisons as they were favoured in bone tool manufacturing activities. When surface adjusted volume density is plotted against element representation at Iwawi (Figure 12), there does not appear to be a strong relationship between the two variables (r, = -0.209. r,= -0.208 p>0.093). The correlation coefficients suggest the sarnple is slightly negatively correlated with structural density. Denser elements are not necessarily more fiequently represented. In some cases less dense elements are found in similar or larger quantities. In the case of the humerus there is differential proximal and distal representation however the proximal and distal tibia have relatively sirnilai- values. So it appears bone density mediated taphonomic destruction did not significantly impact the sample. This suggests preservation was good at the site or culturai/contextual factors played a more significant role in shaping the sarnple. O 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sinface adjusted vohrme density, Vci,

- Figure 12 Scatterplot of bone density and Iwawi elernent fiequencies

Meat Utility Index Iwawi skeletal parts patterning based on NISP/NEF fiequencies was also compared with data fiom Tomka's (1 994) fiagmentary skeletal elernent meat utility index (FSEMUI). The index is based on averaged meat weights fiom three specimens: a two year old male llarna, a five year old castrated male llarna and a 10 year old female. It is analytically similar to the simplified meat utility index developed by Metcalfe and Jones (1988: 49). Values are based on bone weight subtracted fkom gross weight. The FSEMUI assumes that following the division of the carcass into major body parts, elements are Merdivided into proximal and distal ends. There is relatively minimal correlation between the Iwawi elernent fiequencies and Tomka's (1994) meat utility index (Figure 13). If anything element representation at the site appears to be slightly negatively correlated with meat utility (r,= -0.380, p>0.089). The reverse utility pattern often occurs when head and feet elements dominate a sample. This rnay be a product of the focus on long bone ends, as well as lumping together marrow bearicg long bones with non long bones in the scatter plot (Marean and Frey 1997: 702). O 2000 4000 6000 8000 FSEMSJI

Figure 13 Scatterplot of fragmented skeletal elernent meat utility index (FSEMUI, Tomka 1994) and Iwawi element frequencies (NTSP/NEF)

Comparisons The skeletal parts patterning at Iwawi is similar to that reported by Webster (1993). Webster reports that al1 parts of the camelid skeleton were used fiom the Formative to Tiwanaku periods. There was no significant correlation between meat utility and skeletal parts patteming (1 993 : 144). hstead, bone density is cited as a major reason for the Iack of significant differences through time in skeletal part abundance patteming (1993: 135). According to Webster correlation coefficients for structural density range fiom 0.3 1,0.22 and 0.29 in the Early Tiwanaku, Tiwanaku N and Tiwanaku V periods (1993: 143). Webster (1993) cites low density bones such as vertebrae, ribs, proximal humeri and patellae were present in relatively low numbers. According to Stahl's (1999) surface adjusted volume density data, some of Webster's (1993) purportedly low density elements are as equally or more dense than elements with higher density. This discrepancy may be due to the use of different structural density data sets. Otherwise the overall patteming is quite similar though interpretations may differ. Camelid Skeletal Parts Comments It appears that camelid skeletal parts patteming at Iwawi is not very well correlated with bone density or meat utility. Dense and porous or non-meaty and meaty elements are often fomd in similar fiequencies at the site. This type of patterning is comrnon in habitation sites where domestic consumption and production predominate. Animals are often butchered and consumed on site leaving remnants of the entire skeleton available for recovery - hence minimal correlation is expected between bone density and survivorship patterns (Lyman 1 984). Head and feet portions ofien remain at the site of slaughter. The head is ofien one of the first parts of the carcass consumed due to rapid spoilage, low meat content or brain removal practices (Stahl 1999; Tomka 1994). In contrast, the lower limbs are often the last parts of the carcass to be processed. They are often roasted to eliminate hair, hoof cores are removed and the elernents are placed in storage for fùture fat extraction (Valdez 2000). This introduces the possibility that these elements were accumulated on-site. Another possibility is that the camelid skeletal parts patterning at Iwawi is due to differential spatial distribution of bone on the site or differential methods used to prepare the carcass. Artifact manufacturing activities most likely played a role in camelid skeletal patteming (see Chapter 6). Elements favoured in artifact manufacture are very well represented in the skeletal parts fiequency bar graph. This seems to suggest some degree of caching or saving of elements for further use by the inhabitants of Iwawi. It is also possible that the preference for metapodials in artifact manufacture resulted in larger numbers of lower feet elements. The distal most elements can also be inflated by the attrition of limb shafts used in bone tool production. The intensity of carnelid skeletal use, meat bearing versus non-meat bearing element representation, as well as increased camelid use can be of value in evaluating the models presented earlier in Chapter 1. The vertical archipelago model suggests resources from outside the altiplano are brought in to supplement the local economy. Hence one would expect skeletal element representation to be in-line with domestic consumption and intensive use of the skeleton, as is also the case with the independent autonomous model. The altiplano model emphasizes extra-territorial exchange which may 82 hypotheticaily incorporate f?esh meat parcels or fieeze-dried carnelid meat parcels commonly referred to as ch 'a&. The imperialist state perspective emphasises centralized control over the production and dissemination camelid resources. When we take into consideration the fact that the site has possible hearths, domestic structures, ash dumps and middens, the overriding conclusion suggested by the carnelid skeletal parts analysis is that of local processing and consurnption of camelids. The evidence presented thus far indicates that skeletal patterning at Iwawi is consistent with domestic consumption. However there is a distinct increase in the quantity of carnelid resources available at Iwawi during strata El, IV, and VI, corresponding with a general increase in the faunal sarnple size during these periods. Previous work (Webster 1993) on Tiwanaku sites have suggested carnelid meat parcels may have been disbursed fiom central nodes to surrounding communities, particularly around Tiwanaku IV times. Although there is slgnificant representation of meat bearing limbs, the feet are by far most numerous. Ifcentralized control of camelid production was in place, it is most likely that camelids were moved "on the hoof' to relevant sites for sacrifice, processing and consumption. Many of the sites lying within the "metropolitan core" as Kolata (1993a) terms it are al1 within a day's walk of each other.

Conclusion The results of this chapter suggest that large camelids, most likely Ilarnas, dominate the Iwawi assemblage with minor representation by the alpacas and vicuiias. The reliance on large camelids inevitably suggests that carnelid meat was accessible to residents of the Iwawi mound. Skeletal parts patterning suggests that animals were most likely butchered and consumed on-site. The lack of correlation between skeletal parts patterning, structural density and meat utiiity is consistent with a pattern of domestic consumption that is more consistent with the local autonomous model and aspects of the vertical archipelago model. The pattern described above is contrary to the centralized imperialist state model as well as the trade model. There is no evidence to support the provisioning of choice body parts to sites that are higher up in the settlement hierarchy nor is there evidence for specialized meat production for the purposes of trade or exchange. The following chapter presents Meranalysis of camelid remains through

8 3 age profiles and analysis of traumatic or pathological lesions, This rnay in turn shed more Iight on the functions of camelids at the Iwawi site. Chapter 5 : Age Profiles and Pathologies Introduction Camelid age profiles and the analysis of traumas and pathologies are examined in this study because they contribute vital information about past herd management practices as well as providing both direct and indirect evidence for carnelid usage at the site. This information in conjunction with the results fiom the previous chapter regarding cameiid skeletal patteming and species identification serve to provide information on the broad range of uses and functions of carnelids at Iwawi. This in turn is relevant for exarnining models of political economy. Given the sample sizes and the narrow range of information provided by these analyses, no single analysis would be sufficient to provide an in-depth understanding of carnelid resource use at Iwawi. However taken as a whole, it provides a stronger basis upon which the role of carnelids can be explored.

Camelid Age Profiles Carnelid age profiles using mandibular eruption and Wear patterns are used to provide insights into herd management practices and indirect evidence for carnelid fùnctions in the Iwawi economy. A profile with good representation of older individuals reveals that longevity is a goal in herd management strategies. With an older population it is also possible to infer that the use of secondary resources and services from camelids was important for the inhabitants at Iwawi. In contrast, a profile emphasising younger members of a herd rnay suggest meat production is a pre-eminent concern (Wing 1972: 337, 1986: 248, 1988: 306). The two most fiequently cited population profiles for wild animals are the catastrophic and attritional profiles (Flannery et al. 1989; Klein and Cruz- Uribe 1984). They are included in this discussion as they provide a basis for comparisons. The attritional profile contains good representation of young and old individuals with prime age groups represented in relatively low proportions. In this profile, mortality is ofien associated with disease, starvation, accidents and predation fiom pumas and foxes- factors that pnmarily affect the youngest and oldest members of a herd. A catastrophic age profile differs from the attritional profile in the higher representation of prime age speciinens. The catastrophic profile suggests a cause of death that affects the herd uniformly such as weather related phenornena. S 5 Demographic profiles obtained through tooth emption and Wear patterns ofien assume cranial elements are representative of patterns exhibited in the post-cranial skeleton. It is possible that minimal correspondence exists between cranial and post- cranial elements at the site. Ideally, a more comprehensive treatrnent of this subject would have supplemented information derived fkom dental data with epiphyseal fiision data to provide two sets of data that could be cross-referenced to examine overall patterning.

Factors Effecting Eruption and Wear -4s animals mature deciduous teeth are replaced by permanent dentition and as a result of tooth Wear the relative proportion of dentin to enarnel on the occlusal surface increases in a generally recognised and regular pattern. It is important to acknowledge the nurnerous genetic and environmental factors that cm produce variation in rates of eruption and Wear at different phases of the life cycle. Genetic influences cmhave an effect on jaw growth, shape and dental development and morphology. in a population of alpacas fkom La Raya research station, Kent (1982: 6 1) observed that variations in the presence or absence of premolars "results in a very different relationship between premolar Wear and age than is observed in the rnolar teeth." Developmentally related errors in tooth alignrnent, malocclusion, tuoth rotation, impaction and incorrect angulation can al1 affect tooth Wear patterns (Baker and Brothwell 1980: 139). Environrnentally-reIated factors also have a significant impact on eruption and Wear patterns. An individual's nutritional status, the quality of foragelpasturage (Grant 2978: 103; Silver l963), soi1 ingested while grazing, regional differences in tooth hardness based on locally available quantities of calcium and minerals (Kent 1982), incisor loss, and idiosyncratic behaviour such as favouring one side of the mouth during mastication have al1 been identified as factors that can affect tooth eruption and Wear patterns (Grant 1978). himals with higher activity levels have higher energy requirements resulting in increased feeding tllat may produce more advanced Wear patterns. Environmental and genetic faciors have the potential to: 1) delay dental eruption and development, 2) produce hypoplastic effects and 3) result in malocclusion (Brothwell 1978: 9 1). Consequently, results derived fiom tootii Wear rates should be 86 treated with caution due to variability associated with dietary, nutritional, health and other factors (Wheeler 1982: 16).

Basic Description of Camelid Dentition Full term crias or newborns fiequently display the full range of deciduous 04-34 dentition ( /3-1-3-0) at birth (Wheeler 1982: 15). Toothwear in crias can begin as soon as 15 minutes after birth (Pilters 1954 in Wheeler 1982: 16). The deciduous teeth are gradually replaced by their permanent ccunterparts in a general developmental pattern

(Table 21). The permanent dental formula for males and some females is: '-'-'"/ 3-1.1-3. The development of maxillay canines is variable in females and when present tend to be less robust than their male counterparts. In males, al1 four canines are present and when coupled with a pair of maxillary caniniform incisors they make up the fighting teeth- The fighting teeth are sharp, angling towards the back and designed to wound male cornpetitors. A diastema separates the incisors and canines that are used for grabbing food, fiom the hypsodont premolars and molars used for mastication. The permanent dentition is ofien complete by the end of the fourth year and most definitely by the sixth year of life (Kent 1982: 61).

Table 2 1 Permanent Mandibular Tooth Eruption Sequences Tooth Wheeler 1982 Stamberg and Wilson 1998 11 25-29 mos. 24-29 mos. 12 36-39 mas. 29-41 mos. 13 37-72 mos. 36-48 mos. Ci 24-84 OS. 24-41 OS. 1 P3 1 41-60 mos. 1 41 -60 mm. 1 PJ 1 4 1-60 mos. 41 -60 mos. Mi 6-9 mus. 6-9 OS. M2 17 -24 mos. 17-24 mos. Mq I 33-44 OS. 33-44 OS.

The reported life expectancy for domesticated camelids appears to Vary fiom 20 (Flannery et al. 1989; Tomka 1994: 1 15) to 35 years (Romero 1927: 55) depending on the environmental conditions. Flannery et al. (1989) indicate that although llamas in the Ayacucho can live up to 20 years of age, afier 15 years the teeth are so worn that the 8 7 llarna is no longer capable of foraging effectively. At that point there is almost no occlusal surface to speak of and the teeth are mere stubs.

Age Profile Methods There are two general sources of data used in attempting to age dental specimens: isolated teeth and tooth rows. Crown height measurements or more specific degrees of wear on the occlusal surface of individual teeth have been used to determine camelid age profiles by other investigators of sites near Iwawi on the Tarrco peninsula (Kent 1982; Webster 1993). Although loose teeth were recorded during the identification process, they were not drawn upon for the age structure analysis. The method favoured in this analysis involves exarnining mandibular tooth row eruption and wear patterns associated with the prernolars and molars. There is a great deal of variability in the crown height measurement method. Using a single tooth or tooth fiagment was not considered as reliable as a row of teeth intact in the mandible. As noted earlier there are numerous factors surrounding the complex relations brtween jaw mechanics, aging and toothwear that create variability in the degree ofwear within a single tooth row. MandibIes displaying tooth eruption and/or some degree of occlusal Wear are described and recorded (Appendix I). In order to facilitate demographic reconstruction, left and right elements recovered fiom the same locus were compared in order to eliminate pairs korn the same individuais. When pairs were present only the most complete side was used for aging purposes. The mandible ofien breaks around the diastema resulting in three different pieces: the front incisor teeth area and the two posterior portions associated with the cheek teeth (Moore 1989: 237). Many of the specimens found suitable for this analysis consisted of the posterior portion of the mandible. It was less comrnon to find specimens with the anterior portion of the mandible containing intact teeth. Hence much of the data (N=45,82%) discussed in this chapter are based on information derived from premolars and molar eruptiodwear patterns. Wheeler's study (1982) of the tooth eruption and Wear of 235 known age alpaca, llarna and alpaca-vicuna hybrids fiom the Osteology Laboratory of the National Center for South Amencan Camelids at La Raya was used as the bais for recording information. Wheeler's study followed Payne's diagrammatic schema (see 1987 for an example) of illustrating tooth eruptiodwear sequence stages, first introduced in the 1970s. Specimens were separated according to discrete categories evident within the sample resulting in age categories of unequal duration. Dates were assigned by correlating the definitions for the categories with previously established eruption and Wear sequences (Kent 1982; Moore 1989; Wheeler 1982). A nurnber of different researchers (Kent 1982; Moore 1989; Wheeler 1982) examined the specimens available at the La Raya research center. The ages assigned to younger specimens were relatively similar, however divergences in categories though minor were apparent after i 2 months of age. In general it is easier to identify young specirnens to more restricted age ranges due to rapid changes associated with the emergence of the permanent molars. In the case of their mature counterparts, there are more subjective evaluations of wear and al1 the factors associated with Wear patterning. This highlights the approximate nature of estimating age on the basis of dental specimens. The categories mcrely represent what is commonly perceived as the age range associated with a particular eruption and Wear pattern. Hence the interpretation section of this analysis will focus on relatively broad categories following Tomka (1 994): neonates or newborns are individuals fiom newborn to three months, juveniles are defined as three to nine months, sub-adults are roughly around one to hvo years of age and adults are defined as older than two years.

Age Categories at Iwawi In the Iwawi sarnple, a total of 46 specimens were divided into six age types (Table 22 and Figure 14). Young anirnals tend to be underrepresented because their bones are more susceptible to chemical and mechanical erosion. The high representation of newborns in this sarnple suggests differential preservation was not a significant factor. In general, the sarnple itself is not sufficiently large to make definitive statements regarding temporal trends, however it cm be used as a launching point to highlight potential patterns that can be explored in the future. Specimens characterized as Type 1 (N4) do not exhibit any degree of wear under macroscopic or rnicroscopic examination. These specimens most likely represent fetal or newbom individuals. Type 2 specimens (N=14) are the most frequently represented type in this sample. Type 2 spans approximately one to three months of age and is characterised by some degree of wear on the deciduous premolars. Hence 39.1% of the sample (N-18) falls under the category of newborn. The second most fiequent age set is Type 3 with 13 specimens representing 28.3% of the total sample. The diagnostic feature for Type 3 is the eruption of the first molar which can appear from three to nine months of age. When taken as a group the juveniles and neonates (types 1-3) comprise 67.4% (N=3 1) of the identified Iwawi specimens.

Table 22 Mandibular Age Sets for QE Sarnple Type Description Quanüîy % AgeRange 1 DP3 & dP4 enipted, not wom 4 8.7 Fetal-newbom 2 DP3 & dP4 worn, some specimens Ml in crypt 14 30.4 1-3 mos. but not erupted 3 DP3 & dP4 continues to Wear, Ml erupting 13 28.3 3-9 rnos. 4 MIerupted & beginning to Wear, Ml absent 6 13.0 12-18 mos. 5 Mt continues to Wear, MI erupted & worn, M3 in crypt or erupting 3 6.5 21-331110s. 6 P4 erupted & wom, Ml, M1, M3 al1 worn 6 13.0 75+ rnos. Total 46 1O0 Agr Ta Chronological Age Class FrOm -

12-15 mos.

5 -riUC= kZ œ~~ CI = 2 1-33 mos.

75- 156 mos.

Figure 14 Payne Diagram of Iwawi Age Sets

The subsequent age sets are not as nurnerous as the earlier categories. Type 4 (N=6) is characterized by erupted first molars that are beginning to exhibit wear. This age set represents individuals approximately 12-1 8 months old or yearlings and makes up 13% of the total sarnple. These specimens are approaching adulthood, but are neither sexually mature nor have they reached maximal weight. The diagnostic feature for type 5 is the eruption and Wear of the second molar combined with the presence of the third molar in the crypt or in the process of eruption. According tc' Wheeler's study (1982) this eruption and Wear pattern suggests a chronological age of 2 1-36 rnonths. Type 5 (N-3) is represented by three specimens constituting 6.5% of the sample despite the fact that it correlates with a 15 rnonth span of tirne that is significantly longer than any of the previous age sets. By two or three years of age depending on the species, carnelids are mature, capable of breeding, ready to work as pack anirnals, and available for shearing wool (Wing 1988). Consequently if the population was valued for secondary products and services, it is advantageous to maintain animals beyond three years of age. Type 6 represents older adults and is distinguished by the degree of wear on the permanent premolar and molars. These specimens are approxirnately 6-13 years of age. The wide range associated with this age set is due to the fact that this determination is primarily based on Wear patteming which is quite variable. Nonetheless the presence of these older adult specirnens reveals they were exploited for secondary resources such as cargo- carrying or wool production amongst other possible functions. The individual age sets cm be grouped into five general age categories (Table 23): neonates, juveniles, sub-adult, prime-aged adults and older adults. At the Iwawi site we see an attritional profile with a high proportion of neonates and juveniles (67%), followed by sub-adults (13%), older adults (13%) and lastly prime aged adults (6.5%).

Table 23 Camelid Age Groups at Iwawi Categories Types # ?40 Neonate & Juvenile 12 18 39 Juvenile 3 13 28 Sub-adult 4 6 13 Adult (prime age) 5 3 7 Older Adults 6 6 13

m Neonate Juvenile Sub- Aduh Older adult Adults Age Categories

Figure 15 Camelid Age Profiles at Iwawi

Given the sample size, it is difficult to examine changes through time, however the temporal perspective is included as it may prove usefûl for future investigators. Any conclusions denved herein should be considered tentative. Strata O, V and iX are not included in the temporal analysis, leaving strata II-IV and VI-VIII for discussion (Table 24 and Figure 16). In stratum Vm (N=2) both identified specimens fa11 into the juvenile (3-9 mos) category. As we move into stratum VII (N=5), 75% of the sample are neonates and juveniles and 25% are adults. Strata VI (N=9), 4 (N=8) and DI (N=16) contain significant numbers of neonates and juveniles as well as increased representation of yearlings (Type 4) and older adults (Type 6)and in the case of straturn IV one adult specimen (Type 5). In ternis of relative proportions strata N and VI are more similar to each other than straturn m. In stratum III, neonates and juveniles make up a striking 81% of the sample with some yearlings (13%) and a single older adult specimen (6.3%). Straturn II contains 1 juvenile specimen- Based on the sample sizes it reatly is difficult to draw conclusions fronl the data. It is interesting to note that although strata 11 and Vm do not have large sample sizes, only the juveniles are represented. These are the two strata that lie outside of the tirnefkame associated with the rise and fa11 of the Tiwanaku polity. Straturn III which falls towards Tiwanaku V contains many more neonates and juveniles (8 1%) than other strata. However the overall pattern of high numbers of neonates and juveniles with some representation of yearlings, adults and older adults is consistent fiom strata III-VIL The temporal changes rnay suggest that with the demise of the Tiwmaku empire, centralized contrvl over carnelids decreased and there was less need to procure secondary resources and services fiom the camelids, hence the pastoral economy rnay have shifted back towards a subsistence focus. Some may suggest the post-Tiwanaku period witnessed more natural, less regulated breeding practices. Or, it rnay demonstrate a need for more meat. Others rnay suggest that the demise of the Tiwanaku Empire sparked off rititalistic offerings of young carnelids in stratum III- however that would be unsubstantiated until the contextual information is incorporated. In any case there is definitely decreased representation of camelid mandibles surviving for the purposes of aging. It rnay even suggest animals were being moved around following a pastoral regimen. This is highly speculative due to the small sample sizes noted as well as the absence of contextual information that rnay protide fûrther information. Table 24 Age Classes According to Strata Type 1-2 Type 3 T'$e 4 Type 5 Strata #- % Stratum II Straturn III Stratum IV Stratum VI Stratum VII Stratum VIII Total

Straturn Stratum Stratum Stratum Stratum Straturn II III IV VI VI1 VI11 Strata

Figure 16 Relative Proportion of Condensed Age Sets According to Strata

Age Profile Interpretation As rnentioned previously, the sample being reported on falls within the attritional profile. The neonates and juveniles make up 67% of the total sample. Camelids are bom in the rainy season from December to March (Flores-Ochoa 1979 [1968]: 88). The large number of neonates and juveniles at the site indicates camelids were raised on site and

94 present throughout the year- during both wet and dry seasons. Newborns yield very low meat rates per animal, avera,oùig 1.75kg/7kg live weight (Wheeler 1984: 403) and it is unlikely that herders would select newborns for consurnption purposes alone. Mortality rates are often high for young anirnals, particularly during the rainy season that spans the first few months of life. Reports of mortality rates range fi-om 50% in the first 40 days of Iife for domesticated camelids (Fernandez-Baca 1971 : 29 in Wheeler 1984) to 35-40% mortality for wild vicuna and guanaco populations and Maccagno reports (1932 in Browman 1974) 5% for year olds and 30% far those under one years. There are a variety of factors that can produce this pattern: ritual, disease, harsh environments and herd management techniques. It is possible that neonates or juveniles were associated with ritual practices (Bastien 1978). Carnelid sacrifices have been reported at other Tiwanaku sites (Manzanilla 1992; Sampeck 199 1). Ovalle reports on offerings of young decapitated llamas in the corners of structures at San Lorenzo (1993:98). At sites such as Telarrnachay, hi& proportions of fetal and neonates similar to those at Iwawi have been interpreted as indirectly representative of domestic carnelid herding (Wheeler 1984: 403). Neonates have f?agile immune systems that when cornbined with unsanitary living conditions increase their susceptibility to potentially fatal communicable diseases and parasites. Diseases that have been identi fied include llarna mange or scabies through Sarcoptes scabiei, septicemia, pyosepticernia, (Browrnan 1974) and enterotoxemia caused by the Clostridiwz wilchi bacteria (Flannery et al. 1989). Enterotoxemia produces excessive diarrhea which cm result in mortality rates of up to 40-60% for young camelids (Ellis et al. l990:2). Weather related loss of herds is also a significant concern for pastoralists. Occasional fieezes and heavy snows near the end of the winter months can prevent lIamas f?om finding forage resulting in hi& loss arnongst weaker newborns (Browman 1974, 1989). At Iwawi, neonates and juveniles represent a sizable portion of the sample. High proportions of juveniles are fkequently considered indicative of meat-onented camelid herding (Browman 1989). Gilmore (1 950: 439) notes the meat of very young llamas is considered very palatable, but he does not provide definitions for the 'Young llarna". It suggests that culling of crias was practiced at Iwawi. Tomka's (1394) ethnoarchaeological study of the agro-pastoral communities of Estancia Copacabana and 95 Villa Alota in the Department of Potosi, Bolivia, points to herd management practices that may account for the high rate of deaths arnongst newborns and juveniles. Tornka (1994: 38) notes that the most cornmonly slaughtered individuals in a herd were three to five month old crias, sick new-born or juveniles, and reproductive adult males culled to provide carcasses for intra regional exchange and barter. When the unsupervised breeding of young mothers takes place, their three to five month old crias are often killed in order to reduce physiological stress on mothers who may not have had time to fully develop and strengthen. This is believed to lead to healthier mothers whose future offspring are more successful in ternis of higher birth weights and lower newborn deaths. Taken as a whole, there are similar numbers of subadults (N=6) and older adults p5)represented with relatively fewer prime aged adults (N=3). Although the sarnple size hardly inspires confidence it does seem to suggest there was mixed camelid use at the site with a tendency towards exploitation of secondary resources. The presence of sub-adults indicates meat procurement activities took place at the site. Tornka (1994) notes that animals are fkequently slaughtered at the end of the summer in order to exploit fat reserves. Ethnographically young males are often slaughtered when they approach adult size to minirnize costs involved in care and to maximize meat yields for herders (Flannery et al. 1989). The fact that prime aged adults are relatively rare whereas older adults are better represented reinforces the view that herders valued secondary resources associated with the camelids and strove to maintain the longevity of selected members of the herd. The upper limit for mortality in a herd varies in the literature. Maximum body weight is attained between the ages of six and seven (Tomka 1994: 1 17) and Flores- Ochoa (1968: 89) notes alpacas are fiequently slaughtered at seven years of age. Romero (1937) likewise notes that after five years of use as cargo carriers, llarnas are often slaughtered at seven or eight years of age. In conternporary accounts, a seven or eight year life span permits optimising secondary products and labour fiom each individual and also represents the upper age limit for the palatability of camelid flesh (Miller 1979; Romero 1927). Others (Moore 1989) state modem camelid pastoralists kill camelids used as wool producers or cargo animals at 10 years of age. Ethnohistorically, Inka Hama and alpaca herders also considered 10 to be at the end of their productive 96 years (Rowe 1946). Although there is no agreement, it appears that most camelids used for secondary services and resources are killed between seven and 10 years of age. When we view the sarnple fiom a temporal perspective, some interesting trends emerge. Ewe assume individuals under nine months of age represent meat production of a highly desirable food, an interesting pattern emerges. It could be argued that the residents of Iwawi had increasingly less access to young camelids at Iwawi as the site of Tiwanaku increases in influence from 100% of the sarnple in stratum VIII down to 43% in stratum VI and 50% in stratum TV. As Tiwanaku declines in influence, access to young camelids increases significantly in stratum III (N=13, 8 1%). Along with the decline in young camelid representation there is a corresponding increase in the representation of older adults suggesting the importance of secondary resources and labour from strata VI to IV, tapering off in stratum III. Some may suggest the age profiles reflect changing transhumance patterns. In strata II and VIII camelids were brought to the Iwawi site during the rainy season and subsequently moved to puna locales for pasturage during the dry season. However this pattern is contrary to that of agro-pastoral and pastoral transhumant households described by Tomka (1994: 174) where herds were moved to higher elevation rainy season pastures. The pattern in strata III-VI1 differs as it suggests camelids were retained on-site during the wet and dry seasons as permanent livestock.

Site Comparisons Comparing the results fiom Iwawi with other sites on the Taraco peninsula is difficult due to differences in methodology, age groupings and attribution of meaning. Webster (1 993) exarnined faunal remains fi-om Tiwanaku, Lukurmata and a number of rural sites in the Tiwanaku Valley using the crown height method. Kent (1982) also focused on single teeth to assess demographic information from thz site of Chiripa. Apart fi-om methodology another significant difference lies in the definitions and meanings around the devised age categories. Despite the differences, in the interests of examining general trends their results will be summarized and brief cornparisons with the Iwawi sample follow. As mentioned earlier, Webster (1993) uses the crown height method of aging to 97 provide data to compare dental assemblages fiom Tiwanaku, Lukurmata and a number of rural sites. Data is presented in the form of percentage of life span categories presumably based on a maximum life expectancy of fifteen years. However the age ranges thernselves are not clearly defined in the body of the text. Webster's first category encornpasses the first four types in the Iwawi sample making it difficult to conduct exact comparisons. Hence the data fiom Iwawi was altered to fit into her schema for comparative purposes. Webster's sample contains older individuals suggestive of secondary resources and services such as cargo carrying or wool production pnor to death or butchery. Individuals falling in the 10% life span (0-1 -5 yrs) category were very ive11 represented in her sample, leading her to conclude camelids were used for meat production. Webster (1993: 214-2 15) states that carnelids reach full or maximum size by 1.5 years and maintaining animals after this time period is not cost efficient leading to the processing of yearlings for meat. At Iwawi 80% of the sample (Types 1-4) fit into Webster's 10% lifespan category. According to Webster's characterization this would show there is a significant arnount of meat production and consurnption of young camelids at the Iwawi site. Yet almost 40% (N=18) are newborns or neonates who do not yield great quantities of meat. A significant arnount of development occurs during the first year and a half of life and it would be misIeading to characterise al1 specimens that fit into such a broad category by its upper ranges. At Iwawi only 13% of the sample (Type 4, N=6) would fit into the size range that maximizes meat yield and energy considerations. When Webster (1993) compared Tiwanaku, Lukmata and rural sarnples she notes slightly different though not statistically significant differences in the age profiles. In rural sites individuals in the 10% of life span (1.5 yrs.) category are most abundant, followed by 20% (1 -5-3 yrs.) and 30% (3-4.5 yrs.) each ïepresenting 15% of the population. The 60% (9-1 0.5 yrs.) age category represents 18% of the population. This pattern generally follows the attritional profile with young and old well represented but prime aged or four to nine year old (40-50%) specimens being completely absent. She interprets this pattern as suggesting inhabitants of rural portions of the Tiwanaku Valley had access to the meat of older indivlduals (154.5 p.,7.5-9 yrs) and less access to younger individuals compared to the urban centres of Tiwanaku and Lukurmata. Iwawi 9 8 does appear to be more consistent with the rural profile in Webster's dissertation. There is a definite gap after the carneIids mature and then a very good representation of older individuals. Kent's temporal analysis (1982: 253-254) of camelid age profiles at the Chiripa site demonstrated adults were the most kequently occurring individuals in the contexts at his site. However, through time, the relative abundance of adult camelids decreases fiom 89.07% to 8 1.52% of total sample in phase 4 whereas the relative fiequency of newborn or foetal individuals (less than three months) increases over time.

53% are 0-3 1 dp4 Majority 0-1 -5 yrs 70% are 0- 1-5 yrs

Yrs Majority 2-3 Slight increase in 4- i 16% 1.5-3 yrs some old YS 5.5 yrs i Slight increase in individuals 1 very worn Oldest specimen 9 9-1 0.5 yrs vs. 6-7.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Percentage of LZespan

Figure 17 lwawi Camelid Age Profile According to Webster's (1993) Schema It is clear fiom the results that a significant number of individuals in the sample are very young- perhaps too young to be of significance in meat production as Webster (1993) characterises in her sarnple. Whatever the variables associated with their death, the inhabitants at Iwawi had access to the meat of very young individuals as well as older individuals and even prime aged individuals - though in significantly less quantities. The profile suggests camelids were exploited for meat in addition to secondary resowces. The profiles also appear to suggest camelids were permanent dry and wet season residents of the site fiom strata W-III.

Trauma and Pathologies Analyzing specimens exhibiting trauma and pathologies provides an additionat avenue of data that cm be used to assess the models. The presence of disease proliferation, trauma associated with specific elements and occupational stressors may provide information about herd management practices and camelid use or fûnction. Changes in the temporal fkequency of traumas and pathology may present evidence for changing animal management practices at Iwawi, possibly a window to examining the extent of Tiwanaku hegemony over the hinterland. It is important to note that we do not have access to the full range of diseases that may have affected specimens represented at the site. Diseases evolve and some of the diseases observed today may not have existed in similar forms in the past (Roberts and Manchester 1995: 3). Diseases such as psoroptic mange and scabies, documented for their role in the decimation of camelid herds (FIannery et al. 1989; Tornka 1994), are limited to sofi tissue involvement and do not impact on the specimen osteologically. We are limited to those instances when trauma and pathology have been granted sufficient time to develop and impact on bone remains. Culture may also intemene to inhibit the progression of diseases. It has been well documented that pastoral cornrnunities in Pen and Bolivia fiequently employ herd management practices that endorse the slaughter of domestic animals at the first signs of serious illness or disease, pnor to impacting the maximal utility of the animal. Pathological bone also tends to be fiagile and may not survive for analysis (Roberts and Manchcester 1995: 9). Thus it is possible that disease was a much more significant phenornenon in the past than is suggested by osteological 1O0 analyses of faunal remains such as these. There are a finite number of responses bone rnay take in reacting to stress, trauma and foreign pathogens: 1) proliferation 2) destruction or 3) a combination of proliferation and destruction. In many cases it is difficult to assign a particular diagnosis to a specimen. Different disease processes can manifest themselves similarly on bone. Observable lesions observed rnay or rnay not be associated with the principal agent of death. For example, load bearing vertebrates such as camelids, bovids and equids rnay develop degenerative arthropathy. In this case, animal function rnay affect its propensity to develop disease or trauma, however it rnay not be the principai agent of death. Diseases are fiequently the product or culmination of multifactorial agents. In general, it is rare to corne across a complete skeleton, often a prerequisite for determining a definite diagnosis.

Methods This analysis is based on the macroscopic observation and description of unusual changes in bone. The observations are included in Appendix J to facilitate reinterpretation in light of new knowledge as recomrnended by Ortner (1985: x) and a photographie atlas of sorne of the lesions under discussion in this chapter is available in Appendix K. The emphasis on description lies in the fact that it is difficult to attribute specific causes to the pathologies. Many different processes can provoke similar responses from bone. It is possible that subtle lesions were overlooked due to their arnbiguity. This study only includes lesions that can be discemed with certainty; lesions that appear to be associated with a pathological or stress related condition. The following gross categories of pathologies and traumas were used during the course of this analysis: infection, trauma, stress, joint disorders, miscellaneous and dental disease. The pathological specimens were analyzed, described and photographed when possible. They were also compared to pathological specimens from the SFLi Zooarchaeology Teaching Collection. Infections are observable in the proliferation of osteophytic lesions in conjunction with reactive unorganised bone growth and septal apertures or sinus drainage passages and canais. Trauma is observable in the fonn of fractures and healed fkactures. The 101 category of stress related conditions encornpass a number of different manifestations including robusticity, remodelling and pitting, porosity and thinning of bone. Robustness indicates the element is markedly wider, squatter and generally more robust than typical specimens. Pitting, porosity and thinning were lumped together due to their association with the erosion of articular surfaces and destruction of cartilaginous tissues. Stress involves robust overall rnorphology and also includes anything that suggests cartilage removal such as thiming or pitting of bone surfaces. Remodelling due to unknown stressors as evidenced in osteophytes and exostoses were also included under the stress related conditions umbrella. In many cases these specimens did not rneet the &il criteria to be categorized as a joint disorder specimen. Osteoarthritis or degenerative joint disorders was only tabulated for specimens dernonstrating three of four following possible osseous responses: grooving of the articular surface of the bone, eburnation, extension of the articular surface by new bone formation and exostoses around the periphery of the bone (Baker and Brothwell 1980: 115). Dental disease includes a wide range of disorders from cavities, abcesses, extra cusps on molars, and inadequate conformation of teeth. In cases where specimens exhibited more than one type of disorder, the specimen was recorded under the category in which they exhibited more syrnptorns. For exampie if a specimen displays osseous responses to infection it would be categorised under infection, but if there is a specimen exhibiting trauma and infection then it would be recorded as trauma because the infection is presurnably associated with the trauma.

Sample Description A total of 70 specimens fi-om the Queneqere area exhibited evidence of trauma or pathology. Unlike other components of this research, this analysis includes specimens excavated dwing the 1993 and 1996 field seasons. The relatively small sarnple size of pathological specimens excavated during 1996 necessitated the inclusion of specimens from the 1993 excavations in order to increase the sarnple size to a more meaningful level for interperative purposes. Although the sarnple size is larger than those previously published (Webster 1993), it represents less than 0.2% of the total analysed sarnple. This may suggest that, 1) animal husbandry and management practices may have prevented 102 the proliferation of disease producing agents, 2) diseases that affected animals represented in the sarnples did not affect osseous material, or 3) animals were relatively disease fiee. All affected specimens were members of the camelid family. A nurnber of arnphibians exhibited healed fi-actures, but they are not included in this discussion. The fractures associated with the amphibians were most likely obtained during the natural course of their life histories. Stress related conditions constitute 54.3% of al1 pathological specimens, followed by infection (20%), joint disease (IO%), trauma (7.1 %), dental related (7.1 %) and a single case (1.4%) of auditory exostosis çategorised as miscellaneous (Table 28). The phalanges represent 41 -4% of the pathological specimens in the Iwawi sarnple. They are followed by the thoracic cage (ribs and costal cartilage) representing 15.7%, fore limbs (scapula, humerus, radiouha) which make up 15.7%, the skull (auditory bulla, mandible, dP4, tooth fragment, incisors and hyoid) at 996, followed by the hindlimbs (4.3%), vertebrae (4.3%) and a metapodial(1.6%).

igue 18 Skeletal Diagram of Elements Displaying Lesions 1O3 :ncy of pathologicaf specimens .O elem iit and condition Stress-Related Conditions Joint l3auma Dental Elemen Elements Robust Remodeiied Thïune'd Total Phalam 2 15 PhaIanx 1 13 Ribs 9 Humerus 9 Costal cartiIage 2 Hyoid 2 Innominate 2 Asmgalus 2 Incisors -3 Mandible 1 Pd4 1 M3 1 Tooth hgrnent 1 Temporal - EAM 1 Vertebra- thoracic 1 Vertebra- lumbar 1 Vertebra 1 Scapula 1 Radioulna - prox. 1 Tibia 1 Metapodial 1 Calcaneus 1 Phalanx 3 1 Total

Stress Related Conditions Specimens grouped under "stress related" cornmonly exhibit joint related lesions or conditions, but could not be considered or did not fulfill criteria to be defined as degenerativejoint disease. In individual joints, the area of cartilage bearing the most stress is vulnerable. As the cartilage erodes, the articular surfaces are subjected to thinning, porosity and possibly pitting as evidenced in seven specimens (1 0%). RemodeIling was observable in 17 specirnens (23.3%). In some studies, exostoses around joint rnargins are frequently labelled osteoarthritis. In this study, if the specimens did not meet the reniaining criteria listed for osteoarthritis they were placed into the rernodelling category. Occasionally when exostoses are found in the vicinity of muscle attachment sites there is a possibility that it was associated with conditions such as tendinitis. Increased robustness was recorded for 14 (20%) specimens. Robustness may be a response to increased mechanical stress in the affected joint areas.

1O4 Movement exposes the joint structure to minor and major stresses. These mechanical stressors may be incidental to normal activity, linked to specialized occupational activities, abnomal confk-nation, congenital or adaptational deformities and abnormal locomotion (Jubb 1970: 69). Based on the data presented in the tables it can be argued that specialised occupational activities such as burden bearing may be a major factor contributing to these conditions. Many of the elernents demonstrating stress related conditions are predominantly those associated with locomotion: scapula (N=l), humerus (N=6),innominate (N=2), calcaneus (N=l), astragalus (N=2) and phalanges (N=24). In carnelids, the forelimb bears much of the body's weight during locomotion (Birutta 1997). Locomotion involves a plantigrade to digitigrade stance with the splay toed feet bearing up to 65% of body weight (Webb 1972), possibly explaining the predominance of phalanges in this category. Increased robusticity and the presence of exostoses on the interphalangeal joints may be indicative of "ring bone", a condition commonly found in draught animals (Baker 1978; Jubb 1970: 7 1). Ring-bone is a degenerative arthropathy of the interphalangeal joints associated with repeated minor mechanical stresses. Ring-bone causes varying degrees of lameness until ankylosis occurs at which point the animal cm be used for slow draught work. There is also a condition referred to as "dropped pastems" involving the first and second phalanges. This condition is cornmon in pack llamas that have been consistently overloaded and older females that have reproduced for many years and obese Ilamas. In the case of pack llamas, this type of poor leg conformation resuIts in early retirement as it compromises their capacity to pack heavy loads (Birutta 1997). Although the appearance of ribs and vertebrae do not seem to fit the burden bearing hypothesis, when one considers that these specimens are often rib heads the hypothesis remains plausible. These joints may develop lesions due to the cinching of loads on the ventral aspect of the llarna's thoracic or abdominal region (Webster 1993: 255). The Ilarna's centre of gravity is located midshoulder and packs are frequently laid forward to the centre of the Ilama's back. Hence the area above the scapula bears up to 60-65% of a load (Birutta 1997). Degenerative Joint Disorders When stress related specimens (N=38) are combined with specimens exhibiting joint disease (N=7) they comprise 64.3% of the sample. Osteoarthritis is multifactorial in etiology, but is frequently defined as a mechanically induced condition resulting fkom constant trauma to the joint. This study follows Baker and Brothwell's (1980) rigorous definition of osteoarthritis as noted above in methods. A total of nine specimens represented by the following elements, in order of fiequency, exhibited observable signs of osteoarthritis: ribs, phalanx 2, and the lurnbar vertebra. In areas of contact where the greatest movement, strain and weight bearing occur, cartilage wears away exposing underlying bone. The bone degenerates and exhibits local osteoporosis. Cartilage erosion produces irregular grooving of the underlying bone and exposed bone surfaces may become sclerotic, polished or eburnated. Cartilaginous excrescences can form at the rnargins of the articular surface and may ossi& forming osteophytes, finger Iike projections of new bone. These new bone formations may reduce mobility and eventually lead to ankylosis (Baker 1978, 1984).

Infections Fourteen specimens represented by the following elements demonstrated evidence for infective lesions: phalanges 1 and 2, ribs, humerii, radioulna, metapodial, hyoià and a mandible. Infective bone lesions or osteomyelitis are caused by bacteria such as sraphylococci, streptococci, and pneunzococci @.O berts and Manchester 1995 : 126). Osteomyelitis is often associated with traumatic injuries and frequently extends f?om haematogenous oriejns or sofi tissue lesions (Baker 1978). The infection can spread to the bone through the blood stream from its original septic locale and this pathological process can involve bone destruction, pus formation and bone repair (Roberts and Manchester 1995: 126). The bone itself becomes eniarged in the affected areas and is charactex-ized by large deposits of bone exhibiting irregular surfaces and unorganized bone growth. Occasionally an abcess or cavity containing pus may develop along with a central sinus for drainage of fluids (Ortner 1985: 18). Of particular note amongst these specimens is a left mandible (QE 437-2) dernonstrating traits consistent with "lurnpy jaw" or mandibular actinomycosis - 1O6 specifically infectious lesions on the lingual and buccal aspects of the molar region. Exarnples of the disease are well known in bovids and it has also been associated with camelids (Baker and Brothwell 1980). It is an infectious disease caused by the Acfinomyces (bacteria) organism manifested in the marked expansion and proliferation of the rnandibles, ofien in the molar region. hvolvement of other bones such as the maxilla is unusual. The osteomyelitis is a direct extension of periodontal or gurn infection which occurs when the barriers are injured by foreign bodies such as coarse vegetable material or as a complication of periodontitis fkorn other causes (Jubb 1970: 50).

Dental Diseases In the paleopathological sample there are five teeth that provide evidence for abcesses, dental caries and an unusual Wear pattern. Abcesses may develop in males when teeth are broken during fights and in older specimens the teeth are more prone to infection pirutta 1997). There is a single deciduous fourth premolar exhibiting a large pit or cavity approximately 4 mm (max length) on the media1 side of the occlusal surface. Pitting as well as horizontal grooving is characteristic of hypoplasia. Dental caries is produced by the fermentation of food sugars in the diet by bactena occurring on the teeth. The process demineralizes the enamel, leaving cavities in its wake. The most unusual specimens amongst the teeth include two incisors whose appearances depart fkom the nom, yet de@ definitive assignation to cause. Both specimens display a significant degree of wear, appearing notched in an area located between the crown and the root moving fkom the distal towards the media1 side. This may be associated with genetically based defects in dental conformation resulting in behaviourally induced modifications or it may only be behaviourally related alone. The departure from normai incisor conformation may have been induced by feeding activities such as pulling tough grassy materials through the teeth over a period of time.

Trauma Al1 examples of trauma in the sample are fiacture related. Fractures are defined as "the result of any traumatic event that leads to a complete or partial break of a bone" (Roberts and Manchester 1995: 67). Fractures occurrïng irnmediately pnor to death are 1O7 difficult to distinguish fiom post-mortem breaks. Consequently only healed fractures or fractures in the process of healing are included in this section. The fkactured elements in this sample include costal cartilage, a rib and the lateral spine of the thoracic vertebra. The rib (#Il- 12) presents with a healed fiacture with an infectious response. There is a costal cartilage specimen also exhibiting a healed fiacture, but another specimen exhibits a non-union fracture that is in the process of healing, demonstrating soft rnargins and some callus formation. Finally the thoracic vertebrae displays a healed fracture.

Temporal View The trauma/pathology types are exarnined according to strata in order to see if there are pronounced changes through time. Al1 specimens are kom strata II through VII (See Table 27). There are no pathological specimens in stratum VIII. Stress related modifications dominate al1 strata, suggesting carnelids carried out burden bearing functions throughout the site's history. In strata III, IV and VI, the tratuna/pathology types most likely to be associated with cargo carrying - Eractures, stress and joint related modifications, make up 59.2%, 84%and 55.5% of al1 pathological specimens in their respective strata. The prevalence of infections in these strata range frorn a low of 16% in Straturn IV to 33.3% in stratum VI. The prevalence of infections appears to suggest that herd management practices were not as stringent as those espoused in ethnohistonc documents where members of Inca controlled herds were irnmediately slaughtered upon the first signs of disease (Garcilaso de la Vega [1603] 1966). Strata ID, N and VI contain the most diverse range of trauma/pathology types and this is most likely related to issues of sarnple size. Table 27 Pathological types according to strata Type Stratum Stratam ~tratum &atum Stratum Stratom Stratam

O II ' IIL IV V VI VII Stress 2(66.6%)3(100%)13(48.1%) 14(56%) 4 (44.4%) I ( 100%) Misc 1 (3.7%) Dental 3 (11.1%) 1 (50%) 1 (1 1.1%) Fracture 2 (7.4%) 2 (8%) 1 (50%) infection 1 (33.3%) 7 (25.9%) 4 (16%) 3 (33.3%) Joint 1 (3.7%) 5 (20%) 1 (11-I'XO) Total 3 (4.3%) 3 (4.3%) 27 (38.8%) 25 (35.7%) 2 (2.9%) 9 (12.9%) 1 (1.4%)

Imisc 0dental H fracture üiî joint tl infection O stress

rI IV VI VI1 Strata

Figure 19 Pathological Types According to Strata

Site Cornparisons Webster's (1993) analysis uncovered a relatively small number of pathological specimens (N=26), precluding a detailed analysis. In comparing the elernents (Table 27) recovered in the two samples, it is apparent that the larger sarnple size at Iwawi is associated with the recovery of a wider range of elements and types of lesions. The following elements exhibiting pathologies were not found in Webster's analysis: humerus, costal cartilage, hyoid, incisors, innominate, astragulus, phalanx 3, mandible, dP4, radius, temporal, and lurnbar vertebrae, tooth fragment. Webster (1993) had pathological carpals and tarsals in her sample, none have been recovered at Iwawi to date. In Webster's (1993) analysis, a total of 20 specimens exhibited joint pathologies particularly in the metapodial-phalangeal, interphalangeai, and carpal and tarsal joints. Identified joint pathologies include spavin, ring bone and osteoarthritis. In Webster's analysis joint involvement was primanly defined as boney exostoses on articular surfaces and along the bone shaft. In my analysis specimens displaying exostoses alone were categorized as "remodelling". The remainder of Webster's sample is composed of three first phalanges with fractures in the mid-shafi region and three specimens demonstrating congenital defects such as an extra premolar in the maxillary tooth row of a specimen and two specimens with extra articular facets on the distal metapodial.

Element NISP Element NISP Second phalanx 15 First phalanx 8 First phalanx Metapodial Ribs Thoracic vertebra Humerus Scaphoid Costal cartilage Second phaianx Hyoid Rib incisors Maxilla Astragulus Entocuneiforrn hominates Magnum Tibia Scapula Calcaneus Third Phalanx Long bone Nandible P4 Xadius hapula ïemporal rooth Fragment {ertebra hmbar vertebra moracic vertebra rotal In cornparing pathology types (Table 28), it is evident that lesions associated with the joints dominate both samples. This provides some evidence for the burden bearing functions of the llamas. Weight bearing while carrying loads and packs increases the stresses placed on joints resulting in various lesions. It is interesting to note that although there are a significant number of specimens exhibiting joint problems in the fonn of osteophytes or exostoses, there are no specimens in Webster's sarnple nor my own that exhibit ankylosis. Perhaps herd management practices promoted culling of animals that were not in their prime as a means of risk management. A significmt difference between the two sarnples lies in the incidence of osteomyelitis and dental disorders at Iwawi. Webster did not find any specimens with mandibular actinomyces in her samples, however one example of this condition has been recovered fiom the Iwawi site. It is also interesting to note the relative absence of specimens showing signs of infectious lesions in her sample.

Table 29 Cornparison of Pathological Types Between Analyses Iwawi 1998 Webster 1993 Pathology/Trauma NISP Pathology/Trauma NISP Joint Disease 7 Joint Disease 20 Stress Related - Robust - Remodelling - Thiming Infection Possible Trauma 3 Dental Disease Congenital Malformation 3 Trauma Total 26 Auditory Exostosis Total

In reviewing the Iwawi sarnple, we can see that the elements and lesions are consistent with the use of camelids for burden bearing purposes. The majority of affected specimens and types of lesions are related to locomotion. This suggests that some of the llamas at Iwawi were used for packing and in the course of their lives accurnulated work- related lesions. The specimens exhibiting joint disorders, infectious lesions and healed fractures are of interest because they suggest that camelids were kept alive long enough for significant darnage to occur. This is a pattern that is contrary to the ethnohistoric record which States that domestic camelids were killed imrnediately at any sign of illness 111 with no attempts to heal the animals for fear of epidemics (Cobo 1993 [1653]: 216; Garcilaso de la Vega Cl6031 1966).

Conclusion The age profile presented earlier highlights the preponderance of young camelids suggesting Iwawi residents had access to the meat of very young camelids. Based on the presence of young adults and subadults we cm infer sorne form of purposefil meat production activities took place on site and the older adults are suggestive of wool production or cargo carrying as aspects of the Iwawi economy. The analysis of elements exhibiting traumatic or pathological lesions offers direct evidence for the burden bearing fünctions of some of the camelids in the Iwawi sample. The presence of infectious lesions in strata III, IV and VI also suggests that herd management itself was less rigorous than the highly managed herding practices during Inca times. So how does the information presented here relate to the models presented in Chapter l? Proponents of the altiplano or zona1 complementarity model may suggest the subadults were slaughtered to produce ch 'a& and bone tools. Wool in turn was procured fiom llamas that lived to over six years of age and al1 of the products were then carried on the backs of cargo llamas for trade in far-flung regions or mutual exchange with kin located in different ecological zones. Yet the high representation of juveniles is unexpected and incongruent with both these models. Instead, we should see more significant representation of older adults from which secondary services and resources have been extracted. The age profiles are also inconsistent with expectations for the centralized imperialist state model. In that rnodel we would expect to see centralized control of herds and more stringent herd management practices in relation to diseased animals. We would also expect to see large numbers of subadults around 18 months of age associated with a subsistence and meat production focus. Given the site's proximity to Tiwanaku, it is possible that camelids reaching desirable size or ages were relocated "on the hoof' to other locales. At this point in time, the pattern described in this chapter complements the local autonomous model. The high proportion ofjuveniles and the specimens exhibiting

112 infectious Iesions suggest that herd management was more hissez faire. The healed fractures confïrm that carnelids were a valued resource and were maintained as long as possible. Wool production, rneat production and cargo carrying can al1 be considered aspects of local production and consurnption designed to promote self-sufficiency. To some extent, the aspects of the resdts presented cm relate to any of the models, depending on how it is interpreted. nius it becomes more important to examine these results with some of the other analyses presented in this study. Chapter 6: Bone Artifacts Introduction Bone artifacts are included in this project for two primary reasons. There are often strong selection factors bsed on age, sex and taxa involved in choosing elements appropriate for bone artifact manufacture (Driver 1984). Hence it becomes important to identify elements favoured in raw material selection as the cultural modification of bone during artifact manufacture can decrease the degree to which these elements are identified. Curation can also impact on skeletal part survivorship patterns. Secondly, examining changing fiequencies of bone artifacts over time can help us evaluate models referring to trade and specialised craft production. The differential production of bone artifacts in strata, especially those associated with Tiwanaku influence, may indicate that specialised production for trade purposes was a component of economic activities at Iwawi. This is also relevant for addressing the nature or degree of economic centralisation associated with the rise of the Tiwanaku polity.

Methods During excavations, al1 recognised bone artifacts were separated f?om the faunal remains and designated special finds numbers. These special finds bone artifacts were the focus of a typology presented by Alexis Gang (1 998). Throughout the course of the faunal analysis it was apparent that a large number of culturally modified bone artifacts were overlooked and not recognised as special finds during the field seasons. Many of these artifacts were by-products of artifact manufacture and others were complete tools. Most of these artifacts were gathered together, bagged separately fi-om the faunal material and deposited at the future site of the Taraco museurn. Some of the artifacts were exported and subject to further analysis. Hence three sets of data have been amalgarnated for the purposes of this discussion on culturally modified bone at Iwawi: 1996 Queneqere artifacts (N=78) discussed in Gang's typology (1998), artifacts encountered in faunal bags during the 1997 field analysis (N=407), and artifacts (N=164) associated with exported remains (Appendix H). Data recorded for this analysis included observations on element, eIement portion and modification type, generally following Fisher (1 995) though with some additional

114 categories. There are a wide range of modifications in the sample: chipped gactures, grinding, polishing, smoothing which is evident in rounded and polished edges, incising, sawing, grooving, drilling smaII precise holes in spindle whorls and other artifacts to pyro-engraving or heat carving of complex designs and carving in the round. In addition to this information, the exported specimens were measured using a digital sliding caliper and then photographed. For the purposes of this analysis al1 artifacts have been grouped according to taon and element portion representation. The modified bone assemblage is then compared to the overall Iwwi assemblage using MSP.

Sample Description A total of 649 bone artifacts (1 -7% of the total bone sample) were recovered fiom the 1996 Queneqere area excavations. Camelids, birds, marine sheII and the femoral epiphysis of a small marnrnal were al1 fashioned into artifacts, though carnelid remains are the predominant source for artifact manufacture. There are 19 taxdcamelid elements drawn upon: mandibles, metapodials, ribs, 2ndphalanges, 1" phalanges, innominates, scapulae, marine shell, femori, radio-ulnae, tibiae, crania, vertebrae, a third molar, long bones, indeterminate elements and aviar! elements including a Frtlica sp. coracoid, humerus and metatarsus, and indeterminate avian rnetatarsus and tibiotarsus (Table 20). Al1 examples of marine shell in the sample have been modified to some extent. The small mammal femur epiphysis is most likely derived fiom a canid - either a small dog or a fox. Li viewing Table 20 and Figure 14, it is apparent that almost the entire carnelid skeleton was used in the making of bone tools and artifacts at the Iwawi site. In some cases over 15% of al1 elernents in an elernent category were intentionally modified. The scapula (21.9%), mandible (19.5%) and metapodials (12.4%) are al1 significant in the relatively high percentage of modified bone in their respective element categones. Phalanges one (5.2%) and two (5.7%) also have a notable arnount of modified elements. Non-meat bearing elements are highly represented. Most of these elements are relatively dense demonstrating the importance of high bone density in raw material selection. In examining the elements as a whole, long bone derived ârtifacts comprise 30.8% of the sample, followed distantiy by nbs (15.6%), indeterminate specimens (14.2%),

115 metapodials (1 l.4%), mandibles (8.8%), scapulae (7.6%), first phalanges (2.8%), cranial fragments (2.2%), second phalanges (1 -5%) and innominates (1.2%). In this sample, 45% of bone artifacts could not be identified to element, resulting in a high percentage of long bones and indeterminate specimens. Compared to the overall sample where 55% of was recorded as indeteminate or long bone, this represents a slightly higher degree of element identification. It seems that the selection of elements on the basis of their overall morphology which best fits the intended use of the tool has helped increase the likelihood of identification.

Table 30 Elements and Bone Tools Taxon Element Count Relative % ElementlTaxa Relative % ArtUacts NlSP Worked Carnelid Cranial Teeth Mandible Vertebrae Thoracic Axis Rib Innominate Tibia Scapula Radio-ulna Metapodial Phalanx 1 Phalanx 2 Small Femur - prox. Mammal Epiphysis Indeterminate Long bone Indeterminate Fzrlica sp. Coracoid Humerus Metatarsus Bird Metatarsus Tibiotarsus Marine shell Olive shell 16%of elernents

Figure 20 Carnelid elements selected for bone tool production

Ln order to evaluate whether the trade of bone artifacts was a significant component of the Iwawi economy, modified bone was exarnined according to strata and the relative proportion of modified bone per strata was cornpared. For reasons stated earlier, artifacts associated with strata O (N=4) and V (N=22) were not included in this section. At Iwawi, not surprisingly the fiequency of modified bone tends to be highest in strata with larger sample sizes (strata III, N, VI). However when we view the relative proportion of bone artifacts per stratum there is a definite trend towards decreased representation of bone per strata over time. The relative proportion of bone artifacts is highest in stratum VIIi at 7.3% of the sample and decline to 3.6% and 2.4% respectively in strata VII and VI. By the time Tiwanaku influences are present at the site in stratum IV, bone artifacts only account for 1.4% of a11 bone recovered fkom that layer and continues to decline to about 1% in subsequent strata. It is possible that bone tool production or activities associated with the bone tools shifted over time at the site. Perhaps these activities moved to other areas of the site or the economic focus at the site changed over tirne or it is possible that other media replaced bone. It is difficult to draw any solid conclusions based on the results thus far. However it is apparent that at this point in time bone artifact production was not a significant component of the Iwawi economy at a time when Tiwanaku influences dominate the area.

Table 3 1 Mcdified Bone According to Strata

Sîrata Modifieci Strata Sample- Relative % of Bone Size Sample Stratum 1 1 84 1.2 Stratum II 20 2235 0.9 Stratum III 194 16255 1.2 Stratum N 157 11210 1.4 Stratum VI 124 5112 2.4 Stratum VII 68 1864 3.6 S tratum VKiI 58 794 7.3

Conciusion At Iwawi, bone was a valued and readily avafiable resource. Almost al1 parts of the camelid skeleton were used in the manufacture of bone tools recovered at the site. In particular the mandible, scapula and metapodials al1 have at least 15% of al1 identified elements modified to some extent. All of these elements have been excluded fiom the structural density and meat utility analyses following Lyman (1994) who indicates that arti facts favoured in bone tool manufacture may distort these analyses. The modified bone reported on in this chapter is far more numerous than mentioned in previous analyses (Webster 1993). For some, this would suggest that trade based models are supported by significant arnounts of bone artifact production activities taking place at Iwawi. One could also Say that the modified bone represents specialised crafi production activities that serve the centralized state. However given the significant amount of worked bone waste in conjlmction with artifacts representing al1 stages of their use life, 1 suspect there is significantly more worked bone at Tiwanaku sites than has been previously reported in the past. Given the large nurnber of worked bone recovered during the faunal identifications, this is an area that needs further work. The inclusion of a pictorial index of special finds worked bone at Iwawi by Gang (1998) should help facilitate the recognition of a wider range of bone artifacts for future investigations in the study area- Chapter 7:Conciusion Introduction Political economy depends on mobilizing agricultural surplus and increasing household agriculturd production. Incorporation into larger political units often leads to shifts in household economic activity (Mc Anany 1992). So what do the faunal remains suggest about the Iwawi economy? 1s there evidence for economic reorientation at the cornmunity !evel, and direct or indirect control over faunal resources at Iwawi? Examining economic processes at Iwawi provides the frarnework for understanding the patterns that pre and post date the appearance of Tiwanaku style materials and cuitural influences. "Understanding the effects of interaction with Tiwanaku on local populations is basic to assessing the nature of the Tiwanaku polity itself, and the role that interaction with Tiwanaku played in the cultural evolution of outlying populations." (E3ermann 1994: 252). Results from analyses presented in earlier chapters will be reviewed, followed by a temporal examination using stratigraphic layers and an evaluation of the models outlined in Chapter 1.

Summary of Results Faunal analysis of the Iwawi sample suggests overall continuities in faunal resource use fiom the begiming of site occupation to the end. Overall, economic activities focussed primarily on local resources with some evidence for long distance contact in the recovery of marine shell and a marine fish vertebra. A mix of resource procurement strategies were employed by the inhabitants - tiom hunting rodents, deer and vicuria to fishing, catching birds and herding llarnas and alpacas. Fishing and camelid exploitation represent the dominant economic activities at the site as represented in the faunal remains. It is difficult to assess the relative importance of these resources in the diet based on faunal analyses alone, especially considering recovery biases. Ethnographically, tubers are a much more significant component of the diet, though supplemented with soupy broths made &om animal bones ~amarnoto1985). Species identification of the camelids indicated both wild and domestic were most likely exploited, with a particular focus on larger camelids. Camelids provided a wide range of resources for the Iwawi inhabitants. They provided nourishrnent, wool, labour 120 and raw materials for artifact production and expedient tools. Camelid skeletal parts patteming indicates camelids were a valued and intensively used resource at Iwawi, Skeletal parts patteming at the site is not correlated with bone density or meat utiIity. Instead it is more consistent wïth a habitation site where domestic consurnption and production predominate. It is possible that artifact manufacturing activities may have played a role in the skeletal parts patterning, particularly with respect to high kequencies of head elrments. Carnelids were fkequently favoured in artifact production, possibly leading to the accumulation or dispersai of specific elements such as the mandible, scapula and metapodials. Differential spatial patterns in bone tool production activities may have existed in the pst. Age profiles based on mandibular eruption and Wear suggest that 67% of the aged specirnens are under 12 months of age with some representation by adults (7%) and older adults (13%). The very youngest groups are most likely associated with neonate related attrition while the yoüng adults (13%) and prime aged adults were more likely to be slaughtered for meat production purposes. Individuals surviving to older adulthood (13%) indirectiy suggest secondary resource and labour extraction. The use of camelids for secondary services is fùrther substantiated by the analysis of trauma and pathologies. Many of the specimens exhibited stress and joint related lesions consistent with cargo carrying-

Temporal Perspective on Iwawi Faunal Resource Use Stratum VID represents the Cocha Phase (1000 BC-AD 100) and provides the first evidence for occupation at the Iwawi site. Faunal remains indicate the inhabitants of Iwawi had a very broad subsistence base drawing on hunting birds, rodents and wild camelids as well as fishing and herding domestic carnelids. The emphasis is on exploiting a wide range of local lacustrine and terrestrial resources. There is evidence for long distance contact in the form one worked marine shell fragment. Based on fauna fkom the 1996 Queneqere excavations, there is evidence for 1 large sized carnelid. The two aged individuals associated with this stratum are both juveniles under nine months of age. Worked bone makes its appearance in this stratum and continues to be found in every strata associated with the Iwawi site. 121 Stratum VII continues the pattern outlined for stratum VIII with an increased sample size. Departures fiom the pattern for stratum VIII are increased amphibian representation and the camelid age profile includes prime aged adults (25%) as well as the ubiquitous juveniles (75%). Species identification indicates the presence of both small and large camelids at this time. The smaIl camelids were most likely exploited for wool whereas the large camelids provided meat and may have canied cargo. Herd management techniques designed to reduce predation on herds is evident in the presence of fox remains. Although there is no faunal evidence for extra-regional contact, other media such as non-local mica in Ojepuku ceramics and non-local Stone blocks and lenses of crushed andesite indicate such contacts were in place (Burkholder 1997: 2 10). Straturn VI is associated with increased sample size (N=5 1 12) and taxonomie diversity (see Table 6). This stratum contains both large and small camelids. Vicuiïa incisors appear, providing direct evidence for the exploitation of wild camelids as well as possible participation in wild camelid hunts, most likely communal in nature. The age profile differs fiom previous strata in the inclusion of older adults (22%) which supplement the juveniles (43.3%) and immature (33%) specimens. The presence of older camelids indicates secondary resource/labour extraction. This is supported by stress and joint related lesions on some individuals suggestive of a lifetime of burden bearing. Tiwanaku material culture makes its first appearance in stratum IV at the Iwawi site through decorated serving or ceremonial vessels in the form of tazons (bowls) and keros (cups). Analyses of czrenco vessels fkom the Akapana area at Tiwanaku contained residues high in organic fats and oils that might be found in meat (Marschbank in Alconini 1994: 72). Burkholder suggests ceremonialism "centered on rituai consumption or offering of food and drink ..." emerged at Iwawi during this time (1997: 215). In many ways the general trends noted in stratum VI continue in stratum IV and peak in stratum III. We see marked increases in sarnple size as well as the presence of rare species such as puma, deer, and vicuiia a11 occurring within a more restricted time frame. There is an apparent broadening of the resource base to include more species and increased overall diversity. Both small and large camelids are represented with evidence for cargo carrying llamas in lesions on bone as well as age profiles that indicate 22% of specimens in stratum IV and 25% in stratum III lived to old age. This also provides 122 indirect evidence for wool production and there are increases in modified bone during this time fiame as well. Stratum III marks the last stratum influenced by Tiwanaku materid culture and contains the largest sarnple (N=16 255) of al1 strata at Iwawi. This is also reflected in increased tazokero representation at the site near the end of the Ch'aska phase (AD 725- 950). New ceramic styles such as Negro Pulido, Acarapi and Marnani "clearly indicate a heightened interaction between places like Iwawi and regions such as the eastem slopes of the Andes, the Huari Empire and perhaps the Atacama Desert" (Burkholder 1997: 21 8). Extra-regional interaction is also evident in the lapis lazuli, green Stone, obsidian and gold found in deposits associated with the Ch'aska phase. In terms of the fauna, aside fi-om evidence for cargo Ilamas, long distance contact with coastal populations or intermediaries is supported by the presence of marine shell as well as one marine fish vertebra. Stratum II is associated with a time period that witnesses a return to regionalization and is characterized by an absence of Tiwanaku material culture. Foreign influenced ceramic styles disappear as well as al1 the exotics found in strata DI and N. Burkholder suggests there is a return to "older ways of life" and simplified ceremonialism (1997: 21 9). The retum to a previous lifestyle is supported by the faunal rccord which is characterized by marked similarities with stratum VIII. Once again both small and large carnelids are present and the one aged camelid fiom this stratum is a juvenile. There is evidence for stress related changes in camelid sprcimens fiom this stratum suggestive of cargo canying. There is no evidence for exotic fauna in this stratum, but it is possible that residents of Iwawi used llarnas for activities that required local interaction and movement of goods. It has previously been suggested (Kolata and Ortloff 1996; Ortloff and Kolata 1993) that a severe drought roughly coinciding with stratum II, contributed to declining Tiwanaku influences. However the results from this analysis do not appear to support the drought hypothesis. As indicated in Stanton's (1994) earlier study of fauna recovered from twenty flotation samples at Iwawi, fish are present in these strata. Additionally aquatic birds have also been identified during this time period in this study. OveralI, the results of the individual analyses that make up this study indicate there are two groups of strata based on similarities in overall proportions, range and abundance of taxa. Strata II and VIII which pre and post date Tiwanaku influences at the site are characterîzed by smaller sample sizes and decreased taxonomic diversity. In contrast, strata VI, IV and III are most similar to each other. They a!l have large sample sizes and increased taxonomic diversity. This may suggest that during these tirnes, the Queneqere area of the site was more intensively occupied. Future studies comparing different areas of the site may clarify this relationship. Now that the overall patterns of faunal resource use at the Iwawi site have been reviewed, we can begin to evaluate the models of Tiwanaku political economy

Evaluation of Models Zonal Complementarity There is varying support for the ecological complementarity model. It is obvious that there were cargo-carrying llarnas at Iwawi fiom strata II through VIL This was established through the results of the camelid identification methods, age profiles and analyses of trauma and joint pathologies. The Iwawi faunal sarnple does support that long distance contact, either direct or indirect in nature, was in place fkom the start of the site's occupation in stratum VIII and continued in stratum III where exotic specimens include status enhancing marine shell and comestibles in the fcrm of dried fish. Trade or the movement of goods in some form of exchange was obviousiy a part of the economy. Yet there is very little direct evidence for the kind of intense prolonged interaction outside the circum-Titicaca region one would expect if local subsistence needs were regularly supplernented by colonies in different ecological zones.

The altiplano model focuses on extra-tenitonal contact in the forrn of trade relations to supplement local resources. There is evidence for contact with exotic locales fiom strata VIII to III. In terms of the faunal remains, the expected patteming for the altiplano model is largely similar to that outlined in the zonai complementarity model, with the addition of trade related production activities. This would include increased 124 bone artifact production, production of meat parcels such as ch 'arki or an emphasis on wool bearïng camelids for wool and textile production - al1 geared towards export and exchange. A large quantity of modified bone was recovered IÏom the Iwawi site - significantly more than has been reported for other sites in the surrounding area. It is ternpting to argue for the presence of a bone tool industry at Iwawi, however these results may be more easily attributed to selective reporting of rnodified bone artifacts firom other sites as weH as a lack of recognition of modified bone. At Iwawi, a large number of modified bone artifacts were not recognized a; such during excavations and this may very well apply to other sites in the area. SkeIetal parts patterning at Iwawi indicates that the mandible and metapodial are well represented relative to meaty lirnb bones. This was not interpreted as indicative of meat parcel production activities, instead it is more likely to be associated with the accumulation and storage of these elements for artifact production. Age profiles suggest older adults were present at the site fi-om strata III-VI. The presence of older adults at this time suggests secondary resources such as wool and cargo carrying fùnctions were canied out by these individuals prior to their deaths. Small camelids are present at the site and can be indirectty taken as indicators of wool production. Whether they were dornestic or wild, the small camelids were a valued source of wool for textiles that could be trabed.

Imperialist State The imperialist conquest state model is also supported in some aspects. The model is ptimarily associated with a pattern of provisioning as well as redistribution. Iwawi inhabitants are hypothesized as having contributed to political coffers as well as receiving meat from higher order settlements. In terms of provisioning, there is a distinct possibility that camelids were moved to various consumption locales "on the hoof' instead of meat parce1 packages. This would result in the removal of large numbers of young camelids reaching an age that maximizes meat yield while minimizing labour costs, approximately 1.5 years of age. Contrary to this pattern, at hvawi individuals in that age range are only present in strata III-VI during a time in which rural sites are 125 presumed to supply the needs of Tiwanaku. ne data seem to indicate increased meat consumption at the site. This introduces the possibility that meat in the forrn of whole individuals was being re-directed to the site. Regardless of the interpretation, there is a distinct increase in sarnple size and taxonomie diversity fiom strata VIII onwards, peaking in stratum III. Based on the faunal data aIone, the significance of this increase is unclear - whether it represents changes in site fùnction, population or site expansion. Garcilaso de la Vega (1966 [1609]) indicates camelids were irnmediately killed at the first sign of disease. The presence of infectious bone lesions on specimens at Iwawi does not support the kind of intense involvement in herd management activities fiequently attributed to the Incas.

Local Autonomous There are continuities in faunal resource use at the site. Local lacustrine resources are exploited throughout the site's occupation. Large and small camelids are found throughout strata VKE-II indicating some degree of economic self-sufficiency. People at Iwawi had access to wool fiom the small camelids for textile manufacture as well as the meat and burden bearing capacities of the larger camelids. They participated in communal hunts for vicuiïa in strata III and VI. Bone artifacts were also present at the site in al1 strata associated with its occupation. Carnelid skeletal parts patterning is characterized by both hi@ and low utility elements indicating local domestic production and consumption consistent with a mode1 focused primarily on local resources. Much of what we are seeing suggests that faunal paîteming at Iwawi is domestic in orientation with significant increases in fauna during strata ID and IV.

Discussion Although aspects of each model are supported to some degree by the results of the faunal analyses fiom the Iwawi site, it is evident that the local autonomous model in particular is strongly supported by the results of this analysis. There is strong continuity in the pattern of faunal resource use over time with no clear overall changes in Tiwanaku influenced strats. There is no evidence for major shifts in the focus of the economy or a singular focus on meat, wool or bone tool production. Instead we see a pattern that 126

Table 32. Results of Faunal Analyses According to Tiwanaku Models of Political Economy Variables Vertical Ntiplano Centralized Local Archipelrigo Mode1 State Autonomous Time Frame Strata Strata Strata Strata vm-n m&rv m&rv vm - n Taxon Frequencies + Local resources dominate X X -P Some "exotic" coastal specimens: X X X X marine shell artifacts (N=2), marine fish W=l) + Increased species diversity in strata III, IV and VI relative to strata II, VIi and vm Camelid Species -> Predorninantly large camelids, rnost likely llarnas with some guanacos -P Minor representation of small camelids, both domestic (alpaca) and wild (vi cuiï a) Camelid EIement Frequencies + al1 parts of camelid present, both high & X low meat utility elements, indicating local production & consumption + disproportionate representation of head elements (NISPNEF) -+ disproportionate representation of mandibles and metapodials most IikeIy due to selection for artifact production Bone Tool Industry + Large quantity of modified bone at Iwawi

Camelid Pathologies -+ Occupational stress markers on camelids indicate cargo carrying functions + Infectious lesions indicate camelids were valued and herd management focused on keeping animals alive as long as possible Camelid Age Profiles + 67% of sample under 9 months of age -+ 13% sub-aduit ideal for meat production -+ 7% prime aged adults indicate meat production -+ 13% older adults indicate wool and cargo carrying hnctions during life References

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Unit : - Strata . Loci - Unit Strata Loci ' 3 106, 107lI08, 1271128, 131, 132, 168, 169, 186, 188 - Unit Sîrata Loci . N540, E508 3 136, 155, 16 1, 162/23O, 19 l/l92, 195,204,205,206/207,23 1, 243/244,255 N540, ES10 2 74,78 N540, E5 10 3 149, 156,165, 182,208,lGY164 N540, E510 4 209,211,227,245,237/238 Appendk B: Description of Measurements for Osteornetric Analysis

Element Variable . Description Phalanx 1 VI Maximum lenad: baseline tangent to proximal plantar (FP1 or HP1) condyles with end point as most distal *V2 Proximal medio-lateral width *V3 Proximal antero-posterior width: perpendicular to V2 V4 Distal medio-laterai width: taken on plantar side V5 Distal antero-posterior width: perpendicular to V4 Phalanx 2 (P2) V6 Maximum length: similar to V1 except tangent to distal surface as baseline V7 Proximal medio-lateral width: similar to V2 V8 Proximal antero-posterior width: similar ta V3 V9 Distal medio-lateral vridth: similar to V4 V10 Distal antero-postenor width: similar to V5 Phalanx 3 (P3) V11 Proximal medio-lateral width: similar to V2 VI 2 Proximal antero-posterior surface: based on dorso-plantar plane V 13 Maximum proximal rnedio-lateral width V 14 Maximum length of plantar surface Dist. Scapula VI65 Glenoid fossa width: taken cranio-caudally fiom most @CA) cranial to most caudal edge of fossa V 166 Glenoid fossa breadth: taken medio-laterally from most lateral edge of fossa to most media1 point V169 Cranio-lateral breadth of process portion of glenoid fossa: measures the process portion of the fossa..?: Dist. Humerus VI50 Distal medio-lateral width: similar to von den Driesch's (HUM) BD (1976, fig 32e), measurement scale tangent to most cranial points on media1 and lateral edges of distal condyle *VI51 Maximum distal condylar width: taken medio-laterally parallel to VI 50, von den Driesch's BT (1976: 76-7) *VI56 Distal antero-posterior width: taken perpendicular to mediolateral plane fiom rnost caudal point on medial epicondyle at level of epiphyseal plate to most cranial point of media1 condyle V157 Distal antero-posterior width: similar to VI56 except on lateral condyle and epicondyle VI62 Distal epiphyseal breadth: taken medio-laterally at height of distal epiphyseal plate from most media1 point to most lateral point * variables also applied to univariate and bivariate approaches Appendix B: Description of Measurements for Osteometric Analysis cont'd.

Element Variable Description Dist. Radioulna VI40 Distal interosseous space height: proximo-distally on volar @AU) side fiom most proximal point between radius and ulna to most distal point of space between them V 14 1 Distal medio-lateral width: taken horîzontal to vertical axis, sarne as von den Driesch's BD (1976: 79-8 1) V142 Maximum antero-posterior width: from most dorsal edge of distal articuIar surface to most volar point on distal vola articular condyle V 144 Maximum distal articular surface breadth: taken mediolaterally, most media1 and lateral articular surface Appendix C *Data Associated with Miller's Univariate and Bivariate Approaches

- -

. Element- LOCUS " Cat # Anteroposterior Mediolaterd width Width (qm)

Forefir~t~ha1a.m" 29 20.06 29 19.9 69 19-26 70 24.3 3 174 21.54 20 1 22.58 257 23.64 277 19.59 289 18.8 307 19-66 325 20.88 389 19.9 1 415 21.19 439 24.3 452 15-98 457 16.83 477 25-11 Distal Humerus 29 44.97 195 48.24 245 46.98 318 45.58 114 44.63 117 37.05 528 38.04 134 4.79 25 1 42.38 280 40.9 209 43 -82 * Note that the rneasurements for fore first phaIanx antero-posterior width is the same as the values for Kent's FPlV2, and mediolateral width is the same as the values for Kent's FPlV3, distal humerus antero-posterior width is the same as HUM 15 1 and mediolateral width is the same as HUM1 56 Appendix D Mean Measurements (mm) for Variables from Modern Camelids (Kent 1982)

Element Variable Guanaco Llama Alpaca Vicuna Fore first phalanx

Hind first phafanx

Phalanx 2

Phalanx 3

Distal Scapula

Distal Humerus

Distal Radioulna Apendix E: Classification Funetions for Camelid Post-Cranial Measuremeats (Kent 1982) Body Part Size %CC Variable Guanaco Llama Alpaca Vieuna - Groap Phalanx 1 Both 1O0 FPlV1 9.367 6.589 5.833 7.273 (Fore) FPlV2 29.36 22.462 18.259 15.824 FP 1V4 -1 7.48 -7.624 -8.093 -12.559 FP 1V5 -16.1 17 -1 1.58 -9.188 -1 1.903 Constant -419.437 -3 15.634 -212.03 -208.336 N= 4 N=7 N=20 N= 7 Phalanx 1 Both 97.3 BPlV177 5.459 4.332 3.803 5.103 (Hind) BPlV17S 3-954 2.943 1.392 -0.736 BP 1V179 29.522 26.662 24.695 2 1-709 BPlV180 24.895 24.712 20.752 2 1.945 BP 1V18 2 -34.2 18 -29.693 -25.62 -26.88 1 Constant -457.146 -377.794 -282.74 -277.204 N= 5 N= 8 N=21 N= 3 Phalanx 2 Large 100 P2V6 -1.719 O. 185 P2V9 7.088 5.541 Constant -127.152 -97.731 N= 5 N= 7 Small 88.89 P2V6 1.557 4-156 P2V8 21.437 18.75 P2V10 11.183 5.129 Constant -204.584 -1 83.182 N= 20 N= 7 Both 89.74 P2V10 - 10.205 -4.486 -3.486 -7.3 18 P2V7 27.04 23.571 19.387 19.492 P2V6 4.679 2.752 2.27 3.414 Constant -270.138 -21 9.607 -1 5 1.588 -2 42.64 N= 7 N=7 N=20 N= 7 PhaIanx 3 Both 75.00 P3V12 24.768 20.869 19.455 19.038 P3V13 2.721 1.871 -0.026 0.213 P3V14 0.429 1.463 2.199 1.53 Constant -175.376 -142.187 -119.042 -105.105 N= 4 N= 3 N= 7 N-6 Distal Large 94.44 RAULN140 1.346 0.797 Radio-ulna RAULN 14 1 1.764 2.364 RAULN142 1 1.O93 8.932 Constant -237.529 -187.378 N= 10 N= 8 Appendix E Classification Functions for Camelid Post-Cranial Measurements (Kent 1982) cont'd.

Body Part Sue %CC Variable Guanaco Llama Alpaca Vicuna . Group Distal Small 79.41 RAULN141 9.864 9.059 Radio-uina Constant -187.67 -158.408 N=26 N= 8 Both RAULN140 1.029 0.637 0.471 0.478 MULN144 13.238 12.01 1 10.13 9.383 -298.01 -237.928 -168.41 8 -145.395 N=10 N=8 N=26 N=8 Distal Large 83.33 HUM150 -5.548 -4.448 Humerus HUM151 12.239 10.963 HUM157 6.354 5.462 Constant -275.78 1 -238.679 N= 10 N= 8 Small 79.41 HUM156 5.823 5.186 Constant -104.638 -83.127 N=26 N=8 Both HUM150 0.38 0.959 0.593 0.708 HUM151 5.29 4.706 3.969 3.236 HUM157 6.887 6.046 5.147 5.015 Constant -284.33 1 -253.37 -172.827 -147.585 N=1 O N=8 N=26 N= 8 Distal Large 66.67 SCA165 4.048 3.838 Scapula Constant -78.661 -70.776 N= 10 N= 8

Small 88.24 SCA165 Constant

%CC = % of cases correctly classified by Fisher's linear classification function Appendix F: Raw Data and Classification Scores Appendix F presents raw data on variables used in the classification formulae (Kent 1982) and their corresponding coefficient scores and species designations. The provenience information (strata, locus, and catalogue number) was noted for each specimen when applicable. The measurements associated with the variables used for separating the camelids into large and small groups are presented followed by their coefficient scores. The specirnen is separated into large or srna11 groups. In cases where this determination was difficult the classification coefficient using both small and large groups was used. Species determinations are based on the highest coefficient score. The difference column refers to the difference between the highest score and the next highest score. in cases where the differences between the scores is less than 2, species determination is considered uncertain and hence the designations were bolded. Fore first phalanx variables and classification scores iStrrta us Cat. FPlVl FPlV2 FPlV3 FPIV4 FPlV5 Guanaco Llama Alpiea Vicuiia Diffa Kent%, Miller%' coef, coef. coef. coef, speck, LtS 16.47 288.508 297.389 29 1,759 289.668 5.630 Hama 15.65 288,455 293.944 289.052 289.042 4,892 llama 15.34 256.076 264.01 2 265.012 264.937 0.075 alpaca 16.6 479.209 449.646 416,746 423.1 14 29.563 guanaco 15.69 350.41 8 346.889 33 1.457 332.050 3.529 guanaco 15.8 343.193 334.178 32 1.359 320.320 9.01 5 guanaco 18.32 405.017 393.409 370.598 368.783 1 1.608 guanaco 15.12 3 15.424 308.605 303.086 3 10,048 5.376 guanaco 15.54 262.280 263.945 266.934 270.933 3,999 vicwna 14.54 262.787 276.846 272.802 269,630 4,044 llama 15,46 322.152 326,054 3 13.788 3 12.625 3.902 llama 14.04 3 1 1.645 306.274 299.502 305.07 1 5.37 1 guanaco 17,16 309.01 8 3 16.310 306,653 302.093 7,292 Hama 17.58 407.5 17 398.457 372.655 368.065 9.060 guanaco 13% 169,329 189.970 204.869 207.76 1 2.892 vicuna 12.8 226.5 1 1 232.801 240.540 248.643 8.1 O3 vicuria 18.17 42 1.006 41 1.930 383.128 376.259 9.076 guanaco Hind first phalanx variables and classi fication scores Strata Locus Cat, HP1 HP1 HP1 HP1 HP1 Guanaco Lhma Alpaca Vicuna Diff* Kent's Miller's

l VI77 VI78 VI79 VI80 VI81 coef. coef. coef, coef. Species LIS 3 70 8 61.5 18.33 14.86 14.72 12.75 319,931 323.941 322,442 326,033 vicuna S 3 109 10 65.52 21.84 19.6 17.67 15.27 482.900 476.138 456.326 443,862 guanaco L 3 126 63 19.12 17.57 15,95 13,95 400.807 399.783 390.951 386.673 guanaco S 3 129 72 63.36 18.87 16.42 16.16 1517 331.316 338.909 336.674 335.542 llama S 3 156 3 64.19 19.34 16.47 15.75 13.82 375,168375.175367.798 367,809 llama S 3 212 2 56.37 17.41 15.73 14.31 12.78 302.739 311.184 313.860 309.615 alpaca S 4 249 60.71 19.26 17.17 16.Oi 1337 381.282 383.468 375,853 369.667 llania S 4 277 65.98 22.73 18.78 18.97 15.14 501.534 494.873 469.373 459.776 guanaco L 4 307 6739 20.29 18.41 17.62 14.51 479.339 471.446 452.228 450.596 guanaco L 4 330 1 57.3 16.3 15.3 13.86 12.61 285.347 294.409 300.250 300.537 vicuna S 7 457 65.06 17.97 17.34 15.53 13.15 417.634 412.565 403.284 405,326 guanaco S C Vi 00 7 472 60.32 17.34 14.89 14.62 12.4 319.948 324.637 324.209 328.605 vicuna S 4 571 9 63.55 18.44 18.18 16.72 14.88 406.476 407.841 399.312 395.121 llama

Third phalanx variables and classification scores cont'd. P3V12 Alpaca Vicuna Difference Kent's Species . Strata Locus Cat. PWll P3V13 P3V14 Guansco Llama , coef. coef. coef. coef. 4 307 11.81 10,97 13.09 22.21 142,018 143,462 141,082 0.894 llama O 311 2 10.32 12.1 11.85 23.09 166266 166.830 163.107 0.550 alpaca 4 325 2 10.23 12.5 10.3 20.85 170,995 169.727 166,964 1.268 guanaco 4 330 2 1 1.99 12.1 1 1.91 20.09 165.143 160.232 158.529 3.140 guanaco 4 331 1 9.6 12.6 10.83 21.46 175.176 173.000 169.914 2.176 gwanaco 5 389 56 12.1 13.01 12.97 21.19 190.79 180.133 177.572 6,412 guanaco 7 453 1 1.95 13 13.67 24.77 194.23 187.987 183.199 3.305 guanaco

Distal humerus variables and classification scores o; Strata Lwus Cat LIS HUM HUM HUM HUM Guanaco Llama Alpaca Vicuna Differpwe Assigrnent t3 150 151 156 157 coef', coef. coef. coef, 3 29 71 L 51 44.97 42,48 42.36 261.258 259.205 2.053 guanaco 3 195 12 L 54 48.24 48.19 44,73 297.143 292.609 4.534 guanaco 4 245 10 L 52 46.98 46.63 41 .52 273.864 271.315 2,549 guanaco 4 318 L 49 45.58 41.17 269.3 18 265.93 1 3.387 guanaco 3 114 L 50 44.63 46.43 42.95 264,729 261.814 2.9 15 guanaco 3 117 12 S 41 37.05 36.89 33.7 110.172 108.185 1.987 alpaca 8 528 11 S 42 38.04 35.66 34.05 103.010 101,803 1.207 alpaca 3 134 ? 47 44.79 42.99 38.96 238.683 237.778 233.183 225.825 0.905 guanaco 4 251 2? 44 42.38 42.62 39,03 225.565 224,712 222,649 216,791 0.853 guanaco 3 280 7 ? 44 40.9 39.88 38.83 216.241 216.240 215.562 210.779 0.001 guanaco 4 209 19 ? 48 43.82 40.63 3667 218.187 220,394 218,180 21 1.959 2,207 Hama Distal radio-uliia variables and classification scores Strata Locus Cat LIS 140 141 142 143 144 Guaaaco Llrma Alpaca Vicuna Di€ference Assignment coef. coef. coef. coef. 7 455 1OL 22 45.91 29.82 27.36 39.7 204,047 205,167 1,120 llama 3 47 19L 27 47.47 26.45 27.32 39.37 175.530 182,372 6.842 llama 3 129 7s 21 38.81 24.5 27.05 33.33 280.574 27 1.623 8.951 alpaca 4 197 2? 29 4L31 26.08 26.91 34.7 191.406 197.460 196.851 194.157 0.609 llama

Distal scapula variables and classification scores Strata Locus Cat LIS SCA164 SCA165 SCA166 SCAI69 Guanaco Llama Alpaca Vicuna Difference Assignment .. coef. coef. coef. coef. 3 29 29 L 27.88 37.81 34.14 21,17 74,394 74,339 0.055 guanaco + 3 29 64 S 21,69 35.59 30.42 17.52 264.54 252.63 1 1 91 alpaca 0I w 2 103 L 41.54 37.89 25.98 89.497 88.658 0.839 guanaco Appendix G: Scan Site- - and Volume Density Data for Iwawi Sample ~canSites Elernents Site, Minimum # scansite . Vbsa . VDSa Counts of scan sites . Rank - -Rank acetabulum astragalus astragalus astragalus atlas atlas mis calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus cervical cervical cuboid cunei form entocuneifonn femur femur femur femur fibula first tarsal humerus humerus humerus ilium ilium ischium ischium lumbar vert. lumbar vert. lmbar vert. lunate magnum navicular pl pl pl ~2 P2 P2 Scan Sites Elements - Site -Mum# - Scan Site VDsa VDsa -

Counts of scan sites Rank - . Rank -

patella pisifom pubis pubis radioulna radioulna radioulna radioulna radioulna rib rib rib rib rib sacrum sacrum scaphoid sternum thoracic vert. thoracic vert. tibia tibia tibia trapezoid unci form trapezoid unci form Appendix H: Bone Artifact Data Sets

Cranial fragments Worked teeth Mandible Scapula Innominate Vertebrae Rib Metapodial Phalanx 1 Phalanx 2 Srnall mamrnal femoral epiphysis Indeterminate Stained indeterminate Long bone Modified marine shell Frtlica sp. coracoid Fztlica sp. liumerus Fulica sp. metatarsus Bird metatarsus Bird tibiotarsus Appendix 1: Catalogue of Specimens used for Age Profiles and Eruption Data

L&* Cat # Strato Age Side dil di2 dk dc,. dk dp, Il 4 - b c P. Ml M2 Mj 126

xx xx xx xx A AAA A A

)iX ?UC

xx xx xx A

XX xx XX AAAx

XX XX

X?C XX XX XX

XX XX

AAAA A xx Locus Cat #. Strata Age _ Side dit dh di3 . dc1 . dfi- dpi -11 I2 4 C P4 Ml MI M3 -

XY XX x?€ XX

XX XX XX xxxxxx x A -4 A A

LX

AAAXY .uc A Axxx

XX?LYXXXX

XX X?i

Legend xx Erupted x Erupting O In crypt, not erupted A ~00thabsent fi& socket Appeodix J: Catalogue of Specirnens Exhibiting Trauma

Temporal Miscelianeous auditory exostosis (toms) Deciduous P4 Dental cavity (R. mandible) Incisor 1 Dental notched in 1/2 distally Incisor 2 Dental notched in 1/2 distally Tooth kagrnent Dental abcessed M2 (Mx R) Dental extra lingual cusp Costal cartilage Fracture: healed healed fracture with callus formation Rib (1 1-12) Fracture: healed healed fracture (at curvature point), septa1 apertures, sinus canals, hard organized bone Thoracic vert. Fracture: healed healed fiacture - obvious break and heaI on the articular surface for rib facets Vertebra Fracture: healed healed fracture Costal cartilage Fracture: healing in progress:soft margins, one portion non-union exhibits callus formation Infection very robust deltoid tuberosity, prox. intertuberal furrow abcessed with soft rnargins, thiming of media1 tuberosity, prox. head is porous by epiphyseal fùsion line Hurnenis - dist. Infection porous coronoid fossa, septal apertures, thiming of postero-lateral condyle and antero- media1 condyle Humerus - dist. Infection osteophytes on lateral epicondyle, osteophytes and septal apertures on distal radial fossa Hyoid - Y Infection roughening of the forked area Hyoid - Y lnfect ion roughening of the forked area Phalanx 1 Infection lateral mid shaft to distal head exhibits bone growth, septal apertures, turnor like Phalanx 2 Infection Radioulna - Infection infected (neonate, epiphyseal darnage) prox. Rib Infection extension of head's articular surface, osseous growth on lateral aspect of neck?towards sternal end infections with septal apertures, tumor on postero-lat canal towards sternum 573-10 Rib Lnfection extension of head's articular surface, unorganized bone growth at margins 144-26 Tibia - prox. Infection lots of spongy vesicdar bone, increasing hardness on lateral media1 zone 2227-22 Metapodial Infection septal apertures & sinus drainage pathways al1 over, extreme bone growth towards epiphysis Cat. # . Element ~iseaseflraka Description - . Phalanx 1 Infection significant osseous response on proximal dorsal surface, septal apertures, tumor like Mandible Infection: mandibular actinomyces: infectious lesions on lumpy jaw lingual and buccal aspects in the Ml & M2 region Lurnbar vert. Joint initial phase of ankylosis: significant ostephytic growth with slowly bridging exostoses along the margins, grooving 187-4 Phalanx 2 Joint extension of articular surface, rnedio-lateraI osteophytes, possible grooving 263-1 Phalanx 2 Joint extension of prox. articular su& medio-lateral osteophytes, grooving, remodelling 392-10 Rib Joint extension of tubercle's articular surface, osteophytes, grooving by head (postero- dorsal), porous along shaft Joint eburnation on anterior head, extension of articular surfaces on the head and tubercle, significant osteophytic growth on head 2130-7 Rib 3 Joint extension of head's articular surface, significant bone growth fiom lateral neck towards tubercle, thinning of tubercle's articular surface 109-25 Rib 5-6 Joint extension of articular surface on head and tubercle, exostoses along margins & posterior shafi of canal, cornpacted bone by anterior head 2 1 89- 1 5 Astragalus Stress medio-laterally compressed at distal end, distal thiming of posterior trochlea, navicular facet and anterior astragular facet 2080- 14 Astragalus (R) Stress medial proximal zone (near area of articulation with fibula), bone resoprtion, depression and porous bone beneath a tougher smoother layer 2098-6 Calcaneus Stress extensive remodelling, media1 distal surface porous spongey bone, posterior remodelling above cuboid's articular surface, distal articular surface remodelling Humerus Stress lateral exostoses Hurnerus Stress extensive remodelling above lateral epicondyle Humerus Stress lateral exostoses & significant bone growth Humerus - dist. Stress thinning and porosity on distal lateral condyle (antr & postr), porous coronoid fossa and media1 condyle: signif. loss of cartilage C& # - Element - Disease/Trauma - - - ~es&ption 392- 19 Humerus - Stress bone is increasing porous, especially around prox. diaphysis the deltoid tuberosity, tendon attachent zone 442-1 Ilium Stress pitting on media1 and lateral surfaces 40% 1 Ischium Stress lateral side of acetabulurn: pitting & porosity evident on lateral and dorsal surfaces 249 Phalanx 1 Stress osteophytes distally 2275-3 Phdanx 1 Stress proximal end: squat & robust, dorsal exostoses 246-1 Phalanx 1 Stress proximal end: exostoses along rnedio-lateral margins, particularily by muscle attachment areas 439-6 Phalanx 1 Stress dorsal exostoses on proximal 70-36 Phalanx 1 Stress dorso-ventral exostoses: in accordance with inflammation of tendons and involvernent of nearby areas 109-10 Phalanx 1 Stress squat robust, and huge muscle attachent areas 2156-7 Phalanx 1 Stress distal lateral depression and bone growth, porous/spongey bone, weathered 203-22 Phalanx 1 - Stress osteophytes off the epicondyles distal 124-3 Phalanx 1 - Stress rabust proximal articular surface, lateral prox. lesions, sulcus like bone growth on diaphysis (mid shaft) 325-12 Phalanx 1- Stress exostoses on media1 and lateral surfaces prox. 307 Phalanx 1 - Stress wider, squatter and more robust prox. 272-1 Phalanx 2 Stress squat & extensive bone growth on media1 and lateral surfaces 19 Phalam 2 Stress squat 101 Phalanx 2 Stress squat 178 Phalanx 2 Stress medio-laterally flattened, squatter & more robust 307 Phalanx 2 Stress squat 170-6 Phalanx 2 Stress squat 177-2 Phalanx 2 Stress squat 2112-5 Phalanx2 Stress very squat and robust, but subadult via size, probably juvenile 241-7 Phalanx 2 Stress squat 257-10 Phalanx 2 Stress proximal articular surface thickened and robust 25 7- 1 1 Phalanx 2 Stress squat . . Cat. # - - -Element . Disease/Trauma ' - Description 135-12 Phalanx2 Stress squat, significant distai exostoses 307 Phalanx 3 Stress wider, squatter and more robust 348 Rib head Stress extension of articular surfaces, osteophytes 194-20 Rib head Stress extended articular surface, osteophytes on margins 29-64 Scapula Stress distal articrrlar surface pitted & thinned 1'70-16 Humerus - dist. Stress/infection thinning and porosity on distal media1 condyle and epicondyle, bone growth and septal apertures around coronoid fossa Phaianx 2 with stress related mediolateral Juvenile astragalus(QE 2 1 89- 15) exhibitîng compression and domo ventral thickening stress related medio-lateral compression

Phalanx 2 with osteoarthritis, note extension Rib head (QE 247-2) exhibithg osteoarthntis of articular surface, medio-lateral osteophytes

Phalanx 1 (QE 2 102) exhibiting an uifectious Juvenile P 1 (QE 427-2 1 ) exhibiting proximal lesion infèctious lesion Buccal view of mandible (QE 437-2) exhibit- Lingual view of mandibule (QE 437-2) exhib- ing mandiïular actinomyces iting rnandibular actinomyces

Hyoid (QE 170- 19 and 20)exhibiting infec- Costal cartilage (QE 3 74-3) and rib (QE tious tesions 57 1 - 10) exhibiting healed fractures

Close up of rib (QE 57 1 - 10) exhibiting healed fi-acture