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HISTOEY OF GREECE

Volume IV.— Section II.

Duaur Histoiw OF GntlCf

SILVER VASE —

HISTORY OF GREECE

By VICTOR DURUY

CROWNED BY THE FRENCH ACADEMY

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY

J. P. MAHAFFY, D.D.

PBOPESSOB OF JUICIEST HISTOHY, TRINITY COLLEGE, I

WITH 2000 ENGRAVINGS, MAPS, PLANS, AND COLOURED PI ¥f

Volumi IV. Section II.

LONDi

I.I.'. \N PAUL, IBENCH, TBI BNEB i I 0. Ltd.

L892 The English edition of this work is limited to

two hundred and fifty copies. vh roR i'i R' i HISTORY OF GREECE. EIGHTH PERIOD.

THE ACHAIAN LEAGUE (272-146 b. a).

POWERLESS EFFORTS FOR UNION AND SAFETY.

CHAPTER XXXV.

PEOM THE DEATH 01 PYKRHOS TO THE AEEIVAL OF THE EOMANS DT

GEEECE (272-214 B.C.).

T. — The Achaian and Aitolian Leagues.

ATHENS. Sparta, and Thebes have fallen; two peoples, hitherto unknown, now enter upon the stage which has been left vacant, but is narrowed and strewn with ruins. — the Achaians and the Aitolians.

The northern shore of the Peloponnesos is a narrow strip of ground enclosed between the Gulf of Corinth and the chain of

mountains which bound Arkadia on the north. Its fertility is in no way remarkable except near Sikyon. Its streams, very numerous. descend in straight lines from the mountains to the coast. The

shore, more indented than on the we-t of the Peloponnesos, lets the

enter to the foot of the mountains which are its southern boun- dary. Tint what markets could the commerce of these cities have?

Would if seek them in Elis, or in Arkadia ? What means of com-

munication were there in its mountainous interior '.' Moreover,

Corinth, much better situated, early attracted to herself all the commerce of the gulf, which passed 1>\ the Achaians ami left them neither wealth nor luxury. Thej lived poor, hut united. Berodi

tells us that in ven remote antiquit} Aigialeia had a confederation of tweh It was an Ionian country, and the mystic numher ;

FROM DEATH OF PYREHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. cJ15

twelve recurs in it. If obscurity signifies happiness, these cities were long fortunate. In the midst of the sanguinary discords of

1. Aigeira- 2 Sikyon 3. Pallantion.

COIN'S OF THE ACHAIAX LEAGUE. 1

Greece, no doubt attention was sometimes directed towards the calm and peaceful condition they owed to their poverty, their good morals

2. K .i-. r 3. Tcgea. 4. Hernia.

COIN- "I AKKADIAN CITIES.'

and good institutions, since many cities of Magna Graacia, we know, imitated, after the massacre of the Pythagoreans, the laws and of Ai-h.ua.

1 l. Laurelled head of /•u- Homagyrios, rL'lit profile Reverse: aaki (supposed to be

'_">.'ii. ri'jlii, Alkflriades); foro-parl of a to the symbol of the name ol Aigeira ; lerneath, the

-'. monogram AX ( Aj(»] ; tlur whole in ;i laurel-wreath. Bronze.) Laurelled head "f

.-lit profile. Reverse: 2. initial <>f Sikyon, the monogram UC[acuv], and a dove, rymbol of the mint-mark of Sikyon; the whole in :i laurel-wreath. (Silver.) —

3. Laurelled head of Zeui Homagyrios, right profile. B UAA kaurriav] ; the mono •rrain AX[auV], the trident, symbol of Pallantion, and mono name; the whole In :i laurel-wreath. (Silv

* 1. Head "f Demeter with a wreath ol hi profile, Revei e ENEON;

Hermei _'*»in^ to the left; be wean thi . "I boldi th< caduceui in lii* righl hand J nn tlir left arm l»' carries, wrapped in hit mantle, tbi in minute

i°> the name atkaz. (Silver.) 2. K\iiio om "I the Dioskouroi, I Poly-

lo the left Pan. uiiaa, vlil !1 1), Ftevi a wlu-i'l wiili eight » |x>ki'i (Silver.) '• Gorgon'i head, fronl face, "iili extended tongue

!• • i T, initial of the nami throi , mark of the trihemiobnlion.

-) t. Diademed bead of Here, right profile Revi KfA[imp] in > qui i"'i

)•> with ,-i.linu' (Silver ) 316 HISTORY OF (iKEECE.

Achaia cannot be congratulated on having remained outside of

tile national struggle against the Persians, and it would have pleased her if Sparta and Athens had left her the repose she loved. This was cruelly interrupted by the Peloponnesian war, which tolerated no neutrals. Patras declared for Athens, Pellene for Sparta; and the Dorian influence extended over the other cities. The confederation was already endangered. It was still further imperilled

ENTRANCl TO THE cell OF CORINTH.1 when the kings of Macedon came, who appeared to wish to punish the Achaians for having fought against them at Chaironeia with

Athens, and in 330 b. c. at Mantineia with Sparta. Achaia was

so enfeebled that it could not take pari In the Lamian war. The

number of its cities was reduced to ten after an earthquake in

373 b. c. bad destroyed Helike, the ancient capital, and Olenos had been abandoned by its inhabitants. Demetrios. Kassandros,

An' Goi iatas, in turn garrisoned some of the Achaian cities. and gave others up to tyrants: "for from this Antigonos," says

Polybios, "came all the tyrants of 6r e."

1 Pro Iberg, La Oriet At the right is tlio rite of Patras, and farther ofl the

ntory Rhion; al the left, the promontory ^ntirrhion FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 317

About the year 280 B. c. the Achaians took advantage of the disasters of Maeedon to set themselves free and to reconstruct their league.

"The first cities that united were Dyme, Patras, Tritaia, and Pharai. Five years after, the people of Aigai put to death their Macedonian garrison and joined the confederacy. Then the Bouraians destroyed their tyrant, and the tyrant of Keryneia abdicated. Leontion, Aigeira, and Pellene completed the union of the Achaian cities. But this confede-

ration was still very feeble until Aratos introduced into it the important city of Sikyon." (Poly bios.)

Sikyon had formerly been governed by the Dorian aristocracy.

The fall of that party was followed by a prolonged state of disorder, out of which at last emerged tyrants. On the death of one of these, Kleon, the city n covered her independence, and placed the gov-

ernment in the hands of two esteemed citizens, bbonzb conr.* Timokles and Kleinias. The former dying, a certain Abantidas Beized the tyranny, put Kleinias to death,' and endeavored also to destroy Aratos, his son, a child seven years

old. The boy, saved bj the tyrant's own sis-

took refuge in Axgos, where bis father's

friends received him. He remained there thirteen years, quite indifferent to the teaching su.viat <-(iin- ; of the philosophers, but very assiduous in gym-

t II i lied in hem, and was victorious in tin-

.f the pentathlon. His Bgure was thai of an ath-

but in character be was wise and considerate, taking pleasure

both in politics and war. in ambuscades and surprises; fearing the

ispicuous action, the rapid decisions, and the direct advance of war

;i a of llelike i:\ik niwv] ; diademed bead of Poieidon, righl profile, In circle of

dicating thi lent between two dolphins; the

whole i" :i l.iun I -wreath. ,< Ii.uk- righl profile Sib, i Diademed female head, Revei e: &YMA[f«>i']; to

• Coin of the Achaian I.- Laurelled head of Zi Fl III pro

in •'! fil,-. R nl the right, UA rpaiav], two I mngi

. il"- • dolphin, mini marl ol Pali i . irholu in I ith 318 HISTORY OF GREECE. in the field: a brave soldier, but a poor general; a great citizen, but perhaps a bad statesman.

From boyhood Aratos had cherished the hope of returning to his Dative city and freeing it from the tyrants who had succe>- sively ruled over it.

••While he was considering," says Plutarch, "how to seize some post in the territories of Sikyon whence he might prosecute hostilities against

ll \-WT ON BIS WAY TO HARKE1 ' the tyrant, a man of Sikyon arrived at ArgOS who had escaped out of prison. Being introduced *<> Aratos. he informed him that the part of the wall which he had gotten over was almost level with the ground on the inside as it joined upon a high, rocky part of the city, and that on the outside it was not so high bnl that it mighl be scaled. Upon this Aratos

-nl two of his servants to reconnoitre the wall. . . . who at their return reported that it was neither impracticable nor difficult, but that the attempt would l"' dangerous, on accounl of some dogs kept by a gardener, which

indeed little, hut at the same time extremely fierce and furious.

1 Marble relief discovered al Otricoli and now in the Vatican; From Vuconti, .1/«jw Pie

<:ilf ;i1m> i, vol. v. pi. S3. Peasant leading a cow and to the city, carrying ducks.

:it :i iv;ir »:ill .i little Banctuary to water the cow, nml in hii He fa I Fountain the of

band holds a. branch nf » tree. — no doubl to drive awaj the flies. The row is suckling ber calf. For this latter group, of. the coin of Korkyra, Vol III p. 854 i i

FROM DEATH OF FYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 510

" Aratos, however, immediately set about the work. It was easy to provide arms without suspicion, for almost everybody went armed, by reason of the frequent robberies, and the incursions of one people into the territories of another. And as to the scaling-ladders, Euphranor, who was an exile from Sikyon and a carpenter by trade, made them publicly, his business screening him from suspicion. Each of the friends of Aratos

in Argos furnished him with ten men ; he armed thirty of his own servants, and hired some few soldiers of Xenophilos, who was captain of a

band of robbers. To the latter it was given out that the design of their

march to Sikyon was to carry off the king's stud ; and several of them were sent before by different roads to the tower of Polygnotos, with orders to wait for him there. Five others were sent to go in the evening to the

BRONZE COIN.' DRACHMA.2 SILVER COIN'. 3

gardener's house, and representing themselves as travellers, to get a lodging there, after which they were to confine both him and his dogs; for thai part of the wall was not accessible in any other way. The ladders, being made to take in pieces, were packed up in corn-chests, and sent in wagons.

"In the mean time some of the tyrant's spies arrived at Argos, and it was reported that they were skulking aboul to watch the motions of Aratos. Nexl morning, therefore, Aratos appeared early with his friends in the market-place, and talked with them for Borne time. Be then went to the Gymnasion, and after he had anointed himself, took with him some yoong men from the wrestling-ring who used to be of his parties of plcas- nre, and returned borne. In a little time his servants were seen in the market-place, some carrying wreaths of flowers, Borne buying flambeaux, and some talking with the women who used t" Bing and plaj al enter

tainmenl I e manoeuvres deceived the Bpies; they laughed, and said

- * *;« ch other j any one be more cowardly (ban a tyrant, since Niko kb--, who i- master o! to strong a citj and armed with b ich power,

1 Coin of Aigion. AfFlEQN; laurelled head of Zcu Hon right profile. Revei e:

field, , ;i APBTOAAMOC; m the the nogram AX atim the whole in laurel wreath. K. kbi I ile dial tin \ to A ii. mi. where the

bluhcd .1 bod) of tro 1 Coin of the \ iguc befori the hum of Into Laurelled bead of Zeui Homa

! a . laurel h reath.

on, with Corinthian I mpli' head, lefl profile before the head,

r !'• behind it, KOP rvpute>> in monogram Itevi to the lefl 320 HISTORY OF GREECE

lives in fear of a young man who wastes the pittance he has for his support in exile in drinking and revelling even in the daytime.' And they retained to their master. - Then Aratos, as soon as he had ended the banquet, set out for the tower of Polygnotos; and joining the soldiers who were awaiting him there. he to proceeded Nemea, where he disclosed his real intentions to the whole company. Having exhorted them to behave like brave men and promised them great rewards, he gave

' Propitious Apollo' for the word, and led them forward towards

Sikyon. governing his march according to the mot inn of the moon, so as to have the benefit of her light by the way. and to come to the garden by the wall

just after she was set. There

his messenger met him and informed him that the dogs were let out before he arrived, but that he had secured the gardener. Most of the company were great-

ly dispirited at this account, and begged Aratos to abandon his

enterprise ; hut he encouraged

them by promising to desist if the dons should prove very trouble- some. Then he ordered those who carried the ladders to go before, and himself followed softly. The dogs now began to run about and bark violently; but the party approached the wall and planted their ladders. The foremost of them were mounting when the officer who was to he relieved by the morning guard passed that way with many torches and much noise. Upon this the men laid themselves close to their ladders ami escaped the notice of tins watch without much difficulty; hut when the other, which was to relieve it. came up, they were in the utmost danger. However, that, too, passed by without observing them; after which two of the party mounted the wall, and having secured the way both to the righl and left, sent to desire Aratos to advance as fast as possible.

1 This cameo (now in the Museum of tlio Hermitage, St. Petersburg) was given by the

Emprr-^ t<> to Josephine Alexander I . Emperor ef Russia, on occasion of hi- visit Malmaison i" i"i i. It i- generally understood, ai cording to the opinion of Vlsconti, to represent Ptolemy

1 Iclphos nntli named Arsinoe; but this i- not ai>-<>- '•'. FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 321

"It was no great distance from the garden to the wall and to a tower in which was placed a great hunting-dog to alarm the guard. But whether he was naturally drowsy, or had wearied himself the day before, he did not perceive their entrance. But the gardener's dogs awaking him by barking below, he began to growl ; and when Aratos's men passed by the tower he barked out so that the whole place resounded with the noise. Then the sentinel, who kept watch opposite the tower, called aloud to the huntsman and asked him whom the dog barked at so angrily, and if anything had happened. The huntsman answered from the tower that there was nothing extraordinary, and that the dog had been disturbed at the torches of the guard and the noise of the bell. This encouraged the party more than anything else ; for they imagined that the huntsman concealed the truth because he had a secret understanding with Aratos, and that there were many others in the town who would promote their design. When, however, the rest of their companions came to scale the wall, the danger increased. It appeared to be a long affair, because the ladders

Bhook and swung extremely if they did not mount them softly and one by one; and the time pressed, for the cocks began to crow. The country people, too, who kept the market, were expected to arrive every moment. ••Aratos therefore hastened up himself, when only forty of his company were upon the wall ; and when a few more had joined him from below, he put himself at the head of his men and marched immediately to tie- tyrant's palace, where the main guard was kept, mid where the mere jsed 'he night under arms. Coming suddenly upon them, he took them prisoners without killing one. man, and then sent to his friends in the town to invite them to come and join him. Thej ran to him from all quarters ; and day now appearing, the theatre was tilled with owd of people who stood in suspense; for they had only heard a rumor and had no certainty of what was doing, till a herald came and proclaimed

« ' 1 it in these words Lratos, the son of K • i 1 1 i ; i s , calls the citizens to liberty.' ••Then, persuaded that the day they had so long expected was come, they rushed in multitudes to the palace of the tyrani and set fire to it.

The flame was so strong thai it was seen as far as Corinth, and the Cor- inthians, wondering what might he the cause, were on the point of going to render assistance. Nikokles escaped out of the city by subterranean

and the soldiers, having helped the Sikyonians to extinguish the fire, plundered his palace. \.,r did Aratos hinder them from taking this booty; but the rest of the wealth which the several tyrants had

: upon the citizens. There was not so much as one

man killed or wounded in thi i on either side ; fortune so conducting the enterprise as not to rally it with the blood of one citizen Aratos

recalbd eighty persons who had been banished by Nikoklt . and of those —

322 HISTORY OF GREECE. thai had l>ccn expelled by the former tyrants not less than five hundred. The latter had long been forced to wander from place to place, some of them full fifty years; consequently most of them returned in a destitute condition. They were now, indeed, restored to their ancient possessions, but their recovery of houses and lands which had found new masters laid

Aratos under great difficulties; . . . for they would not he satisfied with anything less than the restitution of their estates, and gave the present possessors so much trouble that the city was in danger of being ruined l>y sedition."

This story shows us one side of the political life of Greece. a band of exiles returning to seize upon their city. The occurrence was not infrequent, and was followed usually by spoliation, caused l>\ the recovery of the exiles' property; so that another set of proscribed persons went away, themselves to return, also by violence, on the first Favorable occasion. This time Aratos succeeded in obtaining from Ptolemy a gift of twenty-five talents, which he employed in indemnifying those who had suffered, thus preventing animosities and the outbreak of new disturbances (*J-">1 B.C.). On the part of Ptolemy this service was self-interested. The Egyptian saw with displeasure the influence of the king of Macedon in Greece; to interfere with his advance, and to keep him constantly occupied, he supported all whom he regarded as enemies of the Macedonians. Aratos had eagerly accepted the proffered support.

V the period under consideration it was impossible for a city long to remain isolated and independent. Aratos saw that Antig- onos made approaches to Sikyon as to a prey. This king had made himself master of Athens after a war. or rather a siege, of six years. bravely endured by the Athenian.- (263 it. a), and he also possessed Corinth; Sikyon therefore seemed to be his next point of attack.

To save it, Aratos saw no other means than to incorporate it into the Achaian League, feeble at that time certainly, but to be made of considerable importance by the acquisition of Sikyon. The territory of the city was adjacent to that of the AoVaians, so that nothing COUld be more natural than this alliance. It was made on

of perfect equality, although Sikyon was much more powerfll 1 than any city of the league; but in uniting with it for the sake of obtaining help, she was in a position to accept, and not to make. This league was. after the Olynthian confederation, 1 the second attempt seriously made in Greece to secure, by political union, the protection of several cities. The following is a summary of the constitution agreed upon, — so far. at least, as the very insufficient and often contradictory details furnished by ancient writers enable us to determine it. The supreme power was vested in the general assembly, to which all men over thirty years of age were admitted, with the right of speaking, and proposing any measure. This assembly decided on peace or war. made or rejected alliances.

_ dated the affairs of the confederation, appointed the higher magistrates, and fixed the amount of money to

DEMETER - be raised by taxation, also the number of the federal army when it was necessary to have one. The votes were given by cities, not by individuals, so that the assembly was a truly rep-

ntative one. in which it was not necessary for all the citizens

ach city to be present, since a few could save the vote of their 8 people from being lost. But these few persons, who had leisure and means to leave home and present them-

selves in the assembly, would naturally be those in easy circumstances: hence the conservative and moderate character of this democracy. The • uis-.< place of meeting was originally Belike; but

r the destruction of thai city the assembly mel at Aigion, in a onsecrated to Zeus, and near the temple of the Panachaian Polybios, however, shows us the assembly gathered also

' Kleitor, a< Sikyon, ai Corinth, and al Megalopolis; and to Philo- poimen is attributed the proposition, which seems to have been

thai it should meet in turn in every city of the con-

1 Sea v.. I. III. , (

' I'1 d, holding wbeat-ean, and with turret-crowned head; al her feet, a lion.

II millitn. ; breadth, I tllim. I ngraved itonc of the Cabinet de 618.) ion "f Livy (\wiii. Tl). principet Achaeorum, without having

llellwing thai there were deputiea or from each city.

r i (xxix. 9, 6) thai ever; oitizen night attend and rote; bul when onlj a few fr .m\ city were

•. point of fact, the repreientativi • ! thai

I head >! the Suo, front riew. Revet o: km- bull

• »iili i hit boroi to .i i i the right | above, enl iui II bin t h ol tree l

324 HISTORY OF GREECE. federation. There were two sessions annually, — in the spring, and in the autumn. On occasions of importance the Bupreme magistrate could convoke the assembly. It deliberated only upon questions proposed by a majority of the magistrates, and the members who attended seem to have received

compensation, like the tesserae which were given at Athens. 1 Each session lasted three days.

The principal officers of the confederacy were: a governing sen-

ate, concerning which very little is known, and whose existence even

has been doubted ; a council of

ten demiourgoi, — twelve in number before the destruction of He- like, which proves that they were, at least originally, representatives of the cities, since their number varied with the varying number of towns: and lastly, the strategos,

(lie supreme magistrate who before 2-">"> b.c. had a colleague);

this officer kept the seal of the confederacy, was in command of the military forces, called together and presided over the assembly. 2 B IS Rl I. Ill <>l Kl 1'ITOR. The other magistrates were the

hipparckos (commander of cavalry, ) the hypostrategos (possibly the same magistracy under two names), and the grammateus (public secret a

1 Polybios, xxli. 1". 3.

• Bas-relief of marble <>f Doliana, discovered at Kloitor; from the V eilungen S) t/Aen, vol. vi. pi. 5. Milchhofer I Ird $8 (1881) ] for this warrior the name of the historian Polybiosi the 9on of Lykortas; bul his reasons, though plausibli » sting, are nol convincing. We know thai after the taking of Cor- inth (146 b.c.) many grateful cities erected monuments to the historian, and on the friese of

i I., I made oul the fragment of .i metric inscription, the beginning

tli of cond line: mi-i xaXav Ipym tunim . . . Nou these words

it Olympia, engraved in honor of k certain Polybios, son of Lykortas. Tlial iliis

the histo dent from the fact thai thi inscription is dated in the 1

FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 325

The spirit which animated this league is shown by Polybios in the following passage : —

• In times past many had tried to persuade the Peloponnesians to

unite ; but as they acted much more in view of their separate interests than for the common liberty, division continued. Now, on the contrary, harmony is so fortunately established that among them there is not merely alliance and friendship, but the same laws, the same weights and meas- the same coinage, the same magistrates, senators, and judges. In a word, with the one exception that all the Peloponnesian peoples are not residents of the same city, there is perfect uniformity and equality among them.

•• In what manner did the Achaian name become dominant in the Pelo- ponnesos? It was not certainly from the extent of the country, the number of the cities, the wealth or the courage of the inhabitants, for the Achaians possess none of these advantages over other nations. Arkadia and Lakonia are more extensive and have a larger population, and their inhabitants are inferior to none in valor. Whence comes it then that at this day it is an honor for the Arkadians, for Lacedsemon, and for the whole Peloponnesos to have adopted the laws of the Achaians and to fear their name? To attribute this to chance would be absurd. We shall do better to inquire into the cause, since without a cause nothing is done, either good or ill. Now this cause, iii my opinion, is that there is no

irliere equality, liberty, in a word, a perfect democracy, is found more pure and unmixed than thai of the Achaians. Among the nations of the

Pelopont mposing this confederacy there arc some who, at first,

jented themselves; others, in greater Dumber, needed to have it shown

cuter it to them that it was for their interest to ; and it was necessary we violence to bring in others, who, immediately after, were verj clad to have been thus constrained, for the original members had no privileges

e those who were the last to come in. All was equal, for the Latter as for the former. Thus thi confederacy attained its ends by two power-

tiao era; bul struck by the identity of names and of il pigi in ind justb vinced thai ili" bai relief "f Kleitor i- nol of earlici date than 1 1 iond centurj b, 0., Milchhofer

thai wo lii'..' in 'In one of the monunicnU erected in 146 n. c. in

liMimr '.f the great hiitorian, and thai he i med i dui to the fact that he had

been hipparcho: Thu ingenioo bypothi contested I' i urged (Frie dcriel B (werke, pp. '• ."• '<) thai ii" inference can be drawn

from ili" limilarit) of name* or from the epigram il" nai Pnlybio* and I Icortn bein» idel] ilp- Pcloponneaoa, and thi hi to allude to the crvicei

rendei an often-repeated foi la which ma) appl) t iwj |"

Furthermore, the warrior of Kl< man Pol igi in 146

"t ,i i in conclu without in n of the warrior, which ^ thai

thi military attire uited lo tin oldier, wbl I under

(i.irl pla P 326 HISTORY OF GREECE. ful moans. — equality and mildness. It is to these two things that the Peloponnesians owe that perfect union which gives them the prosperity thai we now see them enjoying."

Thus Greece found at her latest moment that which she had never bad, — equality and union among the cities. Unhappily it (line too late. There was equality, because there was no longer a strong nation ; there was union, because everywhere there was weakness. A question, to which neither Polybios nor any ancient historian gives an answer, is concerning the relations existing between the confederacy and its members. The cities retained their municipal

1 regit.

2. 11-nmone. 9 Merai. L Phi

COINS OF THE CITIES OF THE ACHAIAN LEAGUE. 1

administration and a certain liberty of action so long as the gen-

eral interests of the league were not thereby interfered with. The ements of Polybios in regard to the uniformity of their interior regime have also been called in question. Each city still

bad its two factions, democratic and aristocratic; and its union with the Acbaian League must doubtless have been preceded or followed, without direct intervention of the confederates, by the triumph of one or other of these two parties. Thus in the days when Sparta and Alliens were rivals, a domestic revolution in a

e brought that State into alliance with one or the other city,

i i. it, ..i,i ,,i Pallas, front face, wearing a helmet with a triple aigrette (rptkofot). Ra verse: iiii \i IN (legend defaced). The infant Telephos kneeling, suckled by a hind. (Bronze.)

2. Head of Demeter, with -. 1, fi profile. Reverse: EPfjuomw], in mon- "i'li ided by :i wreath formed "f two wheat-ears. (Silver.) S. Head of Pallas, in the field, three inthian helmet, left profile Reverse : EPA far] in retrograde legend;

hemiobolion. (Silver.) i. Head of Artemis, Evphnrn, right profile, dia-

t,, tin- demed, and having the quiver on her. shoulder. Reverse: *ENEQN Horse I ling

i i ! (Bronze.) righl ; underneath, logram com] "f the letters APK. ;

FROM DEATH OF PYKRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 327 according to the party which was victorious. The character of the Achaian League and of its great men, all hostile to demagogy and to tyrants, — two dangerous forces, naturally allies of each other, — leads us to think that it was the aristocratic faction which more readily inclined towards the Achaians, while the other, on the contrary, sought assistance from the Aitolians. 1

COINS OK THE UToI.I \\'S.-

These cities formed a confederation in certain respects similar

to the Achaian League. There was a general assembly, to which

it is probable only men of mature age were admitted. This assem-

bly, the Panaitolikon, mel every year at Thermon in the autumn,

when it decided as to peace and war. and elected magistrates for the ensuing year. Besides this annual assembly there was a permanent council of apokletoi, or deputies, resembling that of the demiourgoi in Achaia, hut more numerous. The chief magistrate

1 1 At Opous, In '» r ii < ., tin- people '-all in the Aitoliana, ami the rich drive them away

(Livy, x\xii. 82). Al Is.-.,-, in Bithynia, the people nil,', and the city is under Aitolian influence (Polyb., n.

* l. Head of Pallae, with a Corinthian helmet, righl profile. Reverie: AITQAQN; the

.... Genial ..f Aitolia, wearing the /"" the chiton, an. I the chlamyi ami tndromidu (boots)

.,(' i ri._-lii lii- — I. on a pile shields, leant with the hand on lance, and holdi upon > » i -ft

a Victory, extending to him a wreath ; in the field, a m ram, (Gold.) '.-' Youthful bead

of Altolos, righl profile. B /MTOAON; peai bead and |aw-bone .,f the Kalydonian iK.ar; in the field, a bunch of grapei and the mint-mark El. (Bronze.) 8. I.aimllr.l head

of ri.-lii with <|ni vi-r initial- > Artemis, profile, the bow and on her ihouldoi ; behind, M, ol name. R MTQAQN; Aitolia personified, leated to the right, on heap

of bucklers, and leaning on long sceptre; before ber, trophj . In the field, the letter a.

r.) I. Youthful head of Aitolo is, righl profile Reverse: \ii"

ii i. head ; under a bunch of grapi (Bronw i Youthful bead of Aitolo woarinu

the pel Li profile. R MTQAQN; the wild boar of Kalydon, to the right; In

i- 1. the :ir he 1 (811 328 HISTORY. OF GREECE. was also the strategos, commander-in-chief of the military forces; and below him were the hipparchos, the grammateus, and other officers. The Aitolian League contained cities very remote from each other, and without doubt left them great liberty of action; but to what extent we cannot say. The expression avvTz\dv «is to XlrotKiKov show- only that their allies, like those of the Athe- nians two centuries earlier, had relinquished a part of their independence. Finally, all rights and duties were not perfectly defined, and anion- these cities there were still, as there had been among the cities formerly subject to Athens, many different conditions. In some there were an Aitolian garrison and governor. The Aitolians were, like the Achaians, a new people. — in this sense, at least, that they were of still unimpaired vitality. By their position near the western frontier of Greece, among the mountains and in the neighborhood of barbarous tribes, they had preserved the rude manners and the predatory habits which in the rest of Hellas had ceased centuries earlier. The former mistresses of Greece — Sparta, Athens, and Thebes — having fallen, and the Macedonian power being much reduced, the Aitolians now took the place left vacant. Wherever war broke out. like birds of prey drawn by the scent of blood they appeared, pillaging friends and enemies alike. And when they were called upon to renounce this savage custom. '•We would rather take Aitolia from Aitolia." they said, "than prevent our warriors from carrying off spoils." This was worse than the wrecker's trade; and they exercised it far away in the Peloponnesos, in Thessaly. and in Epeiros. In 218 B.C. their strate-

. Dorimachos, sacked the most renowned sanctuary of Greece after Delphi, the temple of Dodona, which never recovered from that disaster. An inscription mentions a prize-courl established among them.

The picture that Polybios draws of this people is not at all Battering; but the wise Polybios was an Achaian and of the aristocratic party, hence the mortal enemy of the Aitolians. who sought support from the democracy, and owed to it their fortune. We may therefore believe that, while saying nothing untrue of them, he lias made them out as bad as the facts would allow. They had one virtue, which in those days was uncommon in Greece, — they never refused to their country the services she asked; thej were ready FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO AKKLVAL OF ROMANS. 329

to tight with the invading Gauls, Macedonians, and Romans, and they were able to conquer. The Aitolian League, more strongly

organized than any other in Greece, subordinated the cities to the general assembly, and hence held the confederates more closely bound to one another. From this there resulted for the league much influence on foreign affairs, because its action was more vigorous and

its designs were better carried out. Its confederates were numer-

ous ; it had them in the Peloponnesos and as far as the coasts of Thrace and even of Asia Minor. — as Lysimachia, Chalkedun. and

UTOLIAN COAST, SEES PROM PATRAS.'

Chios. In Central Greece the league beld Thermopylae Lokris, Phokis, and the southern pari of Thessaly. But this power, instead of being serviceable to Greek liberty, turned against it: because it could ii"t be that the Aitolian League, with its principles of govern-

ment and its rule-, of action, should ever be the pivot of a general confederation. That which Sparta had once been for the Pelopon- Aitolia, on the other side, was for the whole of Greece; namely, a continual menace. To complete the resemblance, the

Skopaa — like Kleomenes, the reactionary king of new I, edaemon — desired to abolish debts and to make laws favorable to the poor. Prom fear of Sparta, Aral... gave up the Peloponm to Macedon; and when Philip declared himself the enemy of Rome, the Romans found in the Aitoliam mo [ u eful allies. Thej opened

1 Prom Stackclbi <- / < '. —

330 HISTORY OF GREECE.

bo him Centra] Greece, ami their numerous cavalry perhaps secured in Flamiuimis his victory at Kynoskephalai.1

Among the Achaians public morals had a better tone, and their chiefs — Aratos, Philopoimen, Lykortas, the father of Polybios — truly desired the welfare of Greece. In place of seeking this — as Athens, Sparta, and Macedon had done — in a sway enforced, by arm.-, the Achaian leaders hoped to find it in a confederation, whose principle should be that of the ancient Hellenic Amphiktyonies, the equality of all the States associated. The Achaian League, securing to each of it> members the same right-, respecting the individuality of each, vet calling upon all to act in common, seemed sure to make a Greece united, strong, and influential as she had never before been. We shall now see what was in reality its

historic i

II. — Success of the Achaians; Agis, Kim; of Sparta.

Before uniting with the Achaian Leag le, Sikyon bad been menaced by the Aitolians. Aratos, becoming in 246 b. c., at the age of twenty-six. strategOS of the confederation, turned its arms against his turbulent adversaries and went to aid Boiotia, which they were attacking. But he arrived too late; the Boiotians had just been defeated with great loss. "Crushed by this disaster," says Polybios, "they never again dared, after that time, to make any effort to recover their former power or to unite by public decree with the other Greeks in expeditions that were proposed to them. They thought only of eating and drinking, and were so devoted s to these pleasures that they became feeble and spiritless." This degradation of the Boiotians rave Central (Irene over to the Aitolians, and there was reason to fear that they would invade the Peloponnesos. From 244 B.C. Antigonos held the key to the peninsula, ami he was their ally. Aratos, a second time strategos

(243 B i.i. 3eized the Akrokorinthos by a sudden attack, resembling that which had made him master of Sikyon; he restored to

' not »>'!! adapted to but the Their country, rough ami mountainous, mt rearing horses ;

Fruit ful plains, which sloped downwards f" il»' sea, furnished pasturage for an excellent breed

.1. 7 ). FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 331 the Corinthians the keys of their city, which they had not had since the time of Philip, and caused Corinth to become a member of the league, and also Megara, Tro'izen, and Epidauros. To detach the Athenians from the king of Macedon, he sent them without ransom some of their fellow -citizens whom he had made prisoners; and. finally, he succeeded in dissipating the jealousy of

COINS OF SIKYO.V. 1 himself which Antigonos had instilled into the mind of the king

ud induced the Achaians to appoint Ptolemy Euergetes

_ neral-in-chief on sea and land. This king would thus be obliged to honor the title conferred upon him by furnishing some valuabl ance, while he was at the same time so remote that the protectorate would

in it do elemenl of danger. Aratos remained in fact the true chief of the league.

coin OF I i:iii/i:x.- "As the law did aol allow him to be elected

year successively, they appointed him to this office y other year; but by the influence which he exercised he was really always at the head of the government."

II continued his war againsl the demagogy and the tyrants. These men had excited bo great hatred that the wise and moder-

Polybio ••Their very name implies all the crimes of

which human nature i- capable." He even dared to say: -'The

killing of a tyrant is a title to glory." Argos bad one at this time, Aristippos, — a true type of jealous tyranny. This man was

1 I. i" tin- Pore-part of the Chimaira, crouching left & rei i SO initials of a n trate'iname; >\.- flying to the right. (Silvei ) :. Laurelled bead of Apollo, left profile.

< - il 1 >ovi pi i king al round, to the left.

i ii, mint-mark ; dove flying to the lefl (Silver.) i n dove flap to the left. Severn tural palm (Silver.) lemed bead of Apollo, left prol rPO^foviaw] ; trident ; in the field, at

;i the left, dolpl i

i m • (vil. 8) hi irprim thai Hlei

'|"C"I the lupremacj irilhoul to death an; citizen; "Fr nil tl.ai 332 lll>rui;y OF GREECE. surrounded by his satellites during the day, and at night retired into a high chamber, to which he gained access by a ladder drawn up alter him, and through a trap-door upon which he placed his bed. It is easy to understand how cruel a man must be who lives in tears and suspicions like these. Such was. however, the apathetic indifference of the Axgives that they did nothing to shake off the yoke. Aratos renewed against Aristippos the attempts lie had already made againsl Aristomachos, his predecessor.

1 VIEW OF I III IKROKORIK I HOS.

On one occasion, with a small hand of soldiers, he scaled the wall of Axgos, and with the least assistance from the inhabitants he would have gained the victory. But the people, "as, if he had not been Bghting For their liberty," says Plutarch, ••and as if they were only spectators al the Nemean Games, sat, verj impar- tial observers of the action, without making the least motion to

ist." This defeat decided Aratos i" Gghl outside the walls; hut in the "pen country be lost his confidence, and was repulsed in two battles. In a third engagement, however, he defeated and killed Aristippos. Unfortunately, however, the tyrant's death did

1 From ;> photograph. The virw i^ taken from tl"- south. FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 333 nor at once occasion the downfall of the tyranny; he had a suc- perhaps a relative, Aristomachos, the second of 3Sor3 who was that name. That which he attempted at Argos, Aratos proposed to execute everywhere ; and he was so far successful in his endeavors that one of the Greek tyrants, Lydiades, the ruler of .Megalopolis, preferred

to abdicate rather than live in these perpetual alarms. He sent for Aratos, laid down the power he had assumed, and caused the

city to join the Achaian League. The Achaians, as a recompense

for this magnanimity, elected him strategos ; but they suon had sion to repent of their action. Lydiades showed himself actu- ated by a restless ambition, and endeavored to become more prom- inent than Aratos. He incited the league to an unnecessary quarrel with Sparta. For six years they held the command alter-

nately; but at last the selfishness of the designs of Lydiades

became so manifesl thai Aratos regained the ascendency.

It was the pari of wisdom al this time to deal moderately

with Sparta. This was evident when the Aitolians, in 238 B.C.,

|.i — nted themselves at the isthmus of Corinth. Agis, with the Spartan troops, joined the Achaians and wished to offer battle;

opposing this, the Spartan king withdrew in displeasure, and left the p free to the Aitolians. Aratos, bowever, glo- riously repaired his Fault, soon after putting tin- Aitolians to Might and killing -even hundred of them.

igonos Gonatas died in 239 B.C., leaving the throne to his

Mm. Demetrios II. The new king, master of Attika and Phokis,

wished to possess also Boiotia, lying between the two He took

it from the Aitolians, thus throwing them into the part} of the

Achaians. This was the mosl brill ianl period of the league.

ig now the ally of Sparta and of Aitolia, and having lately

been joined bj Corinth and Megalopolis, .-he was secure from all

dm influences, and became tli ntre around which the enemies >! Macedon grouped themselves Her prosperity increased

• i. Notwithstanding the efforts of Demetrios, Aristomachos was

iiaded bj Aratos to resign the tyranny '>f Argos and unite the

to the Achaian League. II' d t" do this on condition

that fiftj talents should b n him to paj off his t ps ; and

the following year he w irded by being elected tratt 334 HISTORY OF GREECE.

Xeno. the tyrant of Hermione, and Kleonymos, tyrant of Phlious, did the same. The death of Demetrios II.. in 233 B.C., ia marked h\ Polybios as the moment when all the petty rulers in the l'elo- ponnesos, deprived of their protector, fell. Most of the Arkadian cities at that time entered the league: Athens, with the assistance of Aratos, expelled her Macedonian garrison, and Aigina also became a member of the confederation. The discords which agitated Macedon under the regency of Antigonos Doson,1 brother of Demetrios and guardian of his nephew Philip, whom he super-

seded, the. defections all along his frontiers, and his own enter-

pi'ises niiiside of Greece and as far even as Karia. allowed the Achaian influence to predominate, almost without counterpoise.

Tints about the year 229 b. c. the Achaians counted as allies or as members of their league 2 the following States: in Central Greece, Attika, Megara, and Aitolia; in the Peloponnesos, Sparta.

Corinth. Sikyon, Argos. and nearly all of Arkadia. This concen- tration of the strength of Greece, and this progress towards a voluntary union of most of the cities, were necessarj to save her independence, always threatened by Macedon; but how much more

so to meet the storm which was already rising in the west! In

that very same year, 229 B.C., the Romans, under frivolous pre-

texts, set foot in Illvria. If the Greeks had been aide to read the

future, what efforts would they not have made to maintain the harmonious relations which seemed to be now established! On the con-

trary, it was at this very moment that their final separation took

place.

1 'Avriyovos, sumamed btxrwv, because lie promised, bul did not always give. - These two very different conditions have been frequently confused with each other. Thus Athens, the Aitolians, and Sparta were allies, not members of the league. Hence the unjustifiable statements thai have been made as to the power of the league. Note. — On the opposite page are represented bas-reliefs ol white marble discovered i»

August, 1887, In M. Fougeres, in the excavations undertaken bj the French School of Athens

at Mantincia (fr the Bull. r/< Corr. helldn., vol. \ii.. 1888, pi. I -8). Pausanias relates thai

in the double temple •>! Mantineia, "f which one pari was consecrated to Asklepeios and the

" Leto, Apollo, ami Artemis, the Btatues were carved by Praxiteles; the pedestal, In- adds, was adorned will, a bas-relief representing "the Muses ami Marsyas playing the flute"

The text i MoOo-a, but doubtless should !>' Moi mi) \ ml it i- exactly ilu* bas-

relief which M. Fougeres has discovered. It verj probabh belongs to the fourth centur) b i .

nnd was perhaps carved from the designs of Praxiteles. I. Apollo, a Phrygian slave, and

I ed i" tlif right ; he holds liis lyn Iiis knees with liis right hand, satyr. The slave, his left hand on his hip, holds in the righl hand the knife

which i- to be used in il"' punishment ! the vanquished player Marsyas, whose excited

I, il,. repose "f Apollo, i* playing mi the flute 2 ami 3. Three Muses. sS

M \ N I IM I A.

—

FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 337

It would have been salutary for Greece if at this time life had ceased everywhere except in the league. Under this new political form the whole Hellenic nationality was now sheltered, with the

exception of Macedon. But the Aitolians still lived, and Sparta for a moment rallied. What was called the constitution of Lykourgos was now nothing but a memory. That artificial structure, which had as its basis the principle of an equality of fortunes, and hence the division of terri-

tory into a fixed number of lots, had fallen into ruins. The great a on the battle-field, and the law of the ephor Epitadeos, which permitted a man to dispose of his property b\ will, had produced a singular

-lit ; namely, that the women in the community and a very small number of

the citizens held all the property. In

the reign i IV. Lacedaemon had

but seven hundred citizens of full Spartan race, of whom less than

a hundred held any landed property; anil in the time of Aristotle two thirds of the territory were in the hands of women. 2

multitude, having no longer the necessary humus for fulfil- ling those obligations to which political rights were attached, could

take no pari in public affairs; hence tin- government was entirely

in tin- bands of ;i few rich men. This loss of rank had two disastrous

•hi- poor, always despised, were in the field extremely

tiers, and in the i-ity malcontents, always on the alert for an

opportunity to throw the State into confusion. Manners hail also

chat a matter of course. King Areoa and bis son Akrotatos introduced openly into Sparta the luxury of Eastern courts. Sparta

no Ion. - irta, bul a city like many others, luxurious, idle apt, — a city where were mingled extreme wealth and extreme

•rty. Plato asserts that, it, contained more gold and silver than

• all of Greece. Accordingly, all thin;.-;- could be bought,

public office, even the judgments of courts of law.

n >.f Kin-.' HonoonJoa, at Djrmchlon, in MKri.i i on ickllng hi r calf; bore, the j»wUmc< nf the wild boar of Kaljrdon. Ren haziakqz MONOYNIOY Two concentric qaam adorned wiili finii onrentional rcpn entatloni "f the garden! "f

t Alklnoot; at the left, a fpear-head ; at thi j •

• l'|«in the bad conititution of Bpai IL •', and Vol. Ill.uf thii w 338 HISTORY OF GREECE.

And yet she was distinguished by a certain heroic and warlike tradition, which more than once saved her. — from Demetrios, for example, and later from Pyrrhos, — and manifested itself to the world without in the expeditions of Kleonymos into Magna Grsecia in behalf of the Tarentines, of Areos into Krete, into Abulia, and against the Macedonians, and of Xanthippos into Africa for the assistance of Carthage. And this, strange to tell, at the very time when she allowed fifty thousand slaves to be carried oil' from her own territory by the Aitolians, — proving on the one side the existence of a military spirit formidable yet. at least in some of her generals, and on the other, the destruction of the national senti-

ment. Men were willing to enter a foreign service for the sake of gold, but they left their fatherland to perish.

Agis 1 V., of the Eurypontid line, becoming king in 234 B.C., at the age of twenty, believed it possible to regenerate Sparta by restoring the institutions and manners of earlier days. He began by proposing to the senate a new distribution of lands. This was

to begin with the most dangerous question of all ; for he thus

aimed at dispossessing some for the benefit of others. Most of the

rich, habituated to luxury and hostile tu all innovation, and espe-

cially their wives, alarmed at the mere recollection of the severe life which the primitive customs had imposed, formed a party hostile

to reform. At its head the other king of Sparta placed himself,

I nidas, a man who had passed a part of his life at Asiatic courts. and had taught his fellow-citizens many lessons in luxury. On the

side of Agis were the poor, the ambitious, and also a few young men who, with the generosity of their age, saw in these reforms the future welfare of the country, lie gained as partisans his mother. Agesistrate, and his grandmother, Archidameia, the two

richest women in Sparta. He himself, broughl up by them in luxury, possessed great landed estates and a treasure of SIX hundred talents. lie renounced his earlier habits, assumed those of the

ancient Spartan-, and declared that he would Lr ive all his wealth to the common fund. His mother and grandmother muted with

him in this spirit of sacrifice. The plan proposed by Agis was this: The abolition of all debts; the division of the whole territory of Lakonia into nineteen thousand

five hundred lots, of which fifteen thousand were for the Lakonians. ;

FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 339 who were all to bear arms, and forty-five hundred for the Spartans the formation of a corps of forty-five hundred citizens by tl

Agis rejoined that if the venerated law-giver had not abolished debts, on the other hand he had not permitted men to contract them.

-much as he had forbidden the use of money ; also that it came particularly ill from Leonidas to object to foreigners, having himself married an Asiatic. The senate, however, rejected the measure, though by but one vote. It was necessary to have recourse to other means. The three mo-t important persons of the party of Agis were his maternal unci''. Agcsilao* ; an aide orator, Lysandros, a descendant of the conqueror of Athens, whose character seems to have resembled that of his ancestor; and Mandrokleidas, a Spartan renowned for bis dexterity. It was agreed among them that

I. nidas must firsl be deposed. Agis had taken the precaution to admit Lysandros to the number of ephors for the year. A> epbor,

I. landros broughl up an ancienl law which made it a crime for a capital crime II rakleid to marry a I er, and even a to reside

ide >>t' Lakonia L midas had done. For this double wrong he •• jordingly deposed, and Kleombrotos, his son-in-law, a partisan of Agis, was made king.

The following year Vgi was no1 able to give Lysandros again the office of epbor, all the place, being filled by persons unfriendly to hi- plans, and Lysandros wa I by the new ephors of illegal

I m thi^ the king decided toad as in a time ol revolution; he reproached them for beyond their original pre-

-. which wen- only to interpose when the two kings could

lied tin-in from office, and appointed new , phors, among them A The young men of the city were aimed. the prisons opened, and A- found himself absolute ma ter of Spai houl He. bloodshed. This was the moment to put the 340 HISTORY OF GREECE.

reforms into practice; but unfortunately, among the three counsellors uf Agis there was one who labored only for his own interests. Agesilaos had large estates, and also large debts. He wished, certainly, to be rid of the latter, but he proposed to keep the former, and by specious arguments he induced Agis to begin with the abolition

RFPPI.IWT Willi 11 \^ 1\KI\ REFUGK UN \N WTAK.'

nl debts. All registers and securities, piled in a heap in the public

square, were burned in the presence of the crowd. Agesilaos in his joy declared that never Bre had burned so clear and bright before.

When the question <>f the division of the land came up, he found

edients Eor delaying its execution. The affair was at this stage,

when the Athenians, attacked by the Aitolians in 238 B. c, called

1 Marble statue in Rome, in the Palazzo Barberini (from the Monumenti deW Instil.,

vol. i\. pi. S4 i The young girl, throwing herself down on the altar, leans on her right hand

and holds in her left a branch of I Iter the manner of suppliants. This beautiful

undoubted!) it of ;i~ early date at the 6fth century n. o. FROM DEATH OF PYBRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 34] the Spartans to their aid. Agis hastened to the isthmus. While he gained the admiration of all by his courage, his single-minded- ness, and the discipline of his soldiers, Agesilaos brought the party into discredit by his insolent and scandalous tyranny. The poor, who had hoped so much from the reforms, felt that they had been deceived; the partisans of Leonidas resumed the ascendency; and when Agis returned, a revolution had restored his rival. Agis took refuge, with Kleombrotos, in a temple. The latter was saved by his wife, a daughter of Leonidas; but Agis, treacherously induced to leave his asylum, and dragged before an illegally constituted tribunal, was condemned to death, after declaring that he did not

• •t his generous attempt. Thrown into prison, he was hastily put to death, and his mother and grandmother shared his fate.

This act of cruelty was followed by a period of terror, during which, for tin- first time in her history, Sparta had but one king, Leonidas. Hut from his own family an enemy came forth. The

.-..id of -tned to enter his house with Agiatis, the widow of the unfortunate king, whom Leonidas bad spared on account of her

• wealth, and had forcibly married to his son Kleomcnes.

III. — Kleokenes ; Success of the Aitolians; Alliance of

\i llll ACHAIANS WITH l'tlll.ll' ok \l KDON ; D.VITLK OF

Skllasia (222 B.C.).

Ki. i "\ii \i.N was by temperament an enthusiast, and he was at the age when it is natural to pursue with ardor either evil, if a per-

e inclination leads thai way, or good, when a dear or respected band points it out. He listened eagerlj to the winds of Agiatis

he Bpoke to him of the de tnd of the virtues of ber

nd lb- kindled at her word . and wa filled with in nation when he -aw how and why the young lnartvr hid fallen. and marked the working 'if the oligarchical tyranny his lather's victory had introduced, with the corruption of the higher class, their effeminacy, their contempt "I the early institutions, their disregard of all virtue and patrioti m ^ Stoic philosopher, Spheros

nf Olbia, a disciple of that Kleanthes who wa the la I of the 342 HISTORY OF GREECE.

great men of Athens.' lived at this time in Sparta, where it seems that philosophy hail made its entrance with the new manners of tin' day. Kleomenes was one of his hearers, anil derived, no douht, from the austere lessons of the school of duty new encour- agement in tin' thoughts which now occupied his mind, and perhaps also that rashness, that violence in doing right, so to speak, and that disregard of existing conditions as to man and societ} which characterize the noble doctrine of Zeno. Stoicism miscon- ceives the human character, exaggerating certain virtues to the degree that they become faults. Kleomenes did not correctly under- Hand the age in which he lived, and his eagerness to do right

2 inspired the idea of guilty measures. which destroyed all. Becom-

ing king in 236 B. C, he resumed the projects nf Agis, but with the idea that

a reform so hostile to the existing interests of the more powerful class would

not succeed until it should be enforced by an army. obtain this army he ' To COIN OF OLBIA. needed a war. military success, glory. Agis strove to reform the State, that he might reconstruct the army and the power of Sparta. Kleomenes reversed this order: he proposed to increase the importance of the State that he might afterwards reconstruct its constitution. If we may compare Sparta with Rome, and a counterfeit hero with a truly great man, we should say that Agis employed the methods of the Gracchi and perished like them, while Kleomenes attempted that in which

Caesar succeeded, and himself very nearly achieved sticcess But the successful war of which Kleomenes had need could only be found in an attempt to restore to Sparta the supremacy : and this attempt must, n Is lead him to a conflict with the

Achaian League. a fatal Eor this rivalry was to destroy — necessity ; the last hope of Greece.

1 He was an Athenian by residence, if not by birth. In respect in Kleanthes, and liis

I! '.'7:t. noble hymn to Zeus ice History of nun . ii. Foi instance, the murder of the ephors ami of a claimant to the throne, Archidamos with which Polybios (v. :;7) reproaches him.

: tlerakles, kneeling to the right, wearing the lion's skin ami bending In- bow; before him, EMINAKO, the nun. of an unknown dynasty. Reverse: a wheel, surrounded by four dolphii ' re. (S FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 343

The Aitolians precipitated this conflict. Reassured in regard to Macedon by the disturbances there which had followed the death of Demetrios, they were now seized with jealousy at sight of the rapid advance of the Achaians. Three Arkadian cities, Tegea, Orchomenos. and Mantineia, formerly associated with the Achaian confederation, detached themselves from it to unite with Sparta.

Far from resenting this defection, the Aitolians encouraged it. They saw here the occasion of an inevitable conflict between

3 irta and the Achaians. Sparta, moreover, had causes of com- plaint which might be brought forward. Megalopolis, the fortress built by Epameinondas against Lakonia, had been admitted to the league, and we have seen that Lydiades had entered it with sentiments hostile to Laceda?mon. Although Aratos had prevented this hostility from taking effect. Sparta might feel herself

menaced ; moreover, it was believed, or

-• it was asserted, that Aratos pro- sed to attack Tegea and Orchomenos.

rt this apprehended danger, Kleomenes now began to build on tin- Megalopolitan territory a fort commanding one of the entrances into Lakonia.

-inl.lv of the Achaians a1 once broke with Sparta and with Aitolia. - It appeared noble to them," says Polybios, "to owe the d of their cities and of their country to themselves alone. and to implore aid of no one." Aristomachos, at that time strat- iok the field with twenty-one thousand men. and attacked

Arkadia, which the king, sent by the ephors, came to rid with five thousand troops (227 B.C.). Kleomenes showed himself an able and skilful general. The Achaians were igno- miniously defeated, and the following year be was victorious,

V il Lykaios, over Aratos, who fled, and near Megalopolis who was killed on the field. Be had taken can to bring with him from Sparta those who were most hostile to him; after having intentional!) wearied them out \,\ numerous

peUioil i hoi I I l».w in her the li fl hand, and pieki np in arrow willi the right ' hi i d l: i i ' KOMI loft, WON felling bi I iritfa an I" rrow ; ha child Ark:... *boi li i fill 144 HISTORY OF GRE]

marches, he granted them a period of repose for which they

had clamored. Then lie himself se1 out, as if on another enterprise, and with Ins mercenaries marched to Sparta, where his arrival was unexpected. He put to death the ephors except one. who took refuge in a sanctuary and was afterwards banished,

with eighty partisans of the oligarchy. He then tinned all prop-

erty into a common fund, beginning with his own and that of his father-in-law and of his friends. He completed the number of

1 VIEW OF ARKADIA : MOUNT KVLLENOS \M> l \M STYMPHALOS.

citizens by calling in the inhabitants of the adjacent country, of

whom he formed a corps of five thousand foot, armed with I

pikes carried in both hands, instead of javelins. He divided all the territory among them, even reserving hits for the exiles, whom be promised to recall as soon as circumstances should permit, thus muting justice and humanity with tic extreme energy of his

measures. lie revived the ancient laws in respecl to discipline, education, meals in common, crymnastic exercises, ami all the other customs, himself setting the example. Their primitive rights were ored to the kings, which had been taken from them by the

1 From i photograph —

FEOM DEATH OF PYEEHOS TO AEEIVAL OF ROMANS. 345 ephors, and to conform to the old custom, he caused a second king

to he appointed ; but instead of selecting him from the descendants of Prokles, he placed as his colleague his own brother, Eukleides 226 b.c). Kleomenes has been represented as extremely ambitious. Cer- tainly he was so; but he had that lofty ambition which desires power

less for the wealth or pleasures that it gives, than for the great

tiling that it enables a man to do. More than anything, he desired to regenerate the State. Considering only the interests Sparta, nothing more advantageous could have been attempted; unfortunately silver cora.1 that point of view was not broad enough.

rta, long a stranger to the general affairs of Hellas, did not understand that the Greek interest must henceforth, for the safety

of all, take the precedence of the Lacedaemonian interest. For the new time a new organization

was required : it was a patriotic duty to be- COme Achaian. With Maeedon always threaten-

ing, with Asia ruled by the dynasty of Seleukos, and [talj united under the Romans, there was no hope for Greece

but in union. Three powers wished to make themselves the ecn- ;nd which the country should unite: Aitolia, without any skill leader or founder; Sparta, claiming only subjects; the

Achaian L asking only for citizens. Doubtless the league offered the best opportunities for the solution of the problem.

it the duty of the league, if for the moment it was not the stronger, to submit to lose itself in the new Spartan State? This has been asserted; bul in disregard of the character now

ned by Sparta, — that of a revolutionary city, where all the ion- of the poor man against the rich bad been unchained and glutted: a contagious example, which was followed in bhe adjacenl cities. Throughout the Peloponnesos the poor Linked to

Kleomenes for the abolition of debts and tin- division of the land,

1 Head of Palhu, belmctod, lefl profile; behind, ;i row on it tern; In the Bold, a dolphin. I.' i 'ling, to the right j underneath, tho koppa. (Coin of Corinth.)

I n "f Phil Bull thri ith hi horn . to '!" I. ft, i:.

i 346 HISTORY OF GREECE.

that is to say, for a complete social overthrow. Aratos and the Achaians threw themselves with terror into the arms of Macedon, and asked help in extinguishing this volcano which threatened

to extend its ravages on .every side. It was not jealousy of Aratos

towards Kleomenes, but it was the terror of a peaceful society in presence of a radical revolution, which at Sparta was perhaps necessary and justifiable, 1 but was by no means so in cities constituted after other principles.

VIEW OF COKINTHIA."

Kleomenes hastened to exhibit the strength which Sparta had just recovered; he entered Arkadia, detached Mantineia from the league, defeated the Achaians at Hekatombeion, in Achaia itself

(224 B.C.), and the following year seized Argos and all of Argolis. At Corinth and Sikvon the poorer class raised a tumult. Aratos hastened thither; in Corinth he ordered many .'Mentions, and in Sikvon he narrowly escaped being killed. Corinth admitted Kleo- menes. who at once blockaded the citadel. Aratos. on his part.

called in Antigonos, and the king of Macedon was declared general-

1 . 1 1 « of Exception i< made, of course, in respect t" acts like - murder the ephors. 2 Prom Stackelberg, /." Grkce. The view is taken from Mount Kyllenoa in Arkadia, and ads to the Saronic (lnlf. )

FEOil DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 347 in-chief of the forces of the league b}- sea and land, with absolute citadel power ; he, however, declined to accept this office unless the of Corinth should be given up to him. — in this imitating Aisop's huntsman, who bridled the horse before mounting him. At the approach of Antigonos, Kleomenes took up his position on the isthmus. Between the Akrokorinthos and the sea he dug a moat to close the road to the Macedonians ; but in his rear the aristocratic party, whom he had not banished, raised an insurrection in Argos, and the loss of that city obliged him to abandon his

tions. Antigonos, finding the way clear, entered Corinth, where he placed a garrison, and thence advanced into Arkadia, where he

COINS OF Till: AKARNANIANS IN GENEBE. 1

. Orchomenos, and Mam imia. which the Achaians, under 2 the command of Aratos, sacked and completely destroyed (223 b. a). While Antigonos withdrew into Aigina, to winter there, Kleo- menes, without regard to the season, took the Held again. He surprised Megalopolis, bul obtained only tin' walls, owing to Philo-

men, whose name we here meet for the first time; by his desper- stance from street to street and house to house, thai general

ted tiiii<' for tin' women ami children and other non-combatants

I ne, retreating thither himself with the fighting- men of the city. Vainly did Kleomenes recall them to their bomes and to their alliance with himself; ami he took his revenge upon the wall- and houses of tin- (it;, by destroying them. The Achaians

1 i. <>f ri'.-lit Bearded bead the Achelob*, profile. Reverse : F. Initial of the name Fanap- viunf, legend, KAAAPOA; the whole in an i< tare. (Silver. [mhoof-Bltimer, /' (" p. liii. 2. Head Pallas, «iili a Corinthian helmet, left profile;

I, ill.- head "f the ri\<-r Achehxft; underneath, monetary mark, it Revi Pi

ft; undernrath, the monetary n Silver, rmhool Blumci Dii 1/

i,. M.) IT. i Hi'i bearded bead of the river Acbelotia, front face. Revi

ArHMON npb Kallii litei of Vrhcl , fronl face; the name 'Ay^uav

i. r /> r. Imluxif Rlunii 1/ |, i i.,.

Itc, 348 HISTORY OF GREECE. at this moment were in council at Aigion. Aratos appears; they question him ; lie will not answer, but weeps, and covers his with his Mamys ; they urge him. and at last he tells them that Megalopolis has been destroyed by Kleomenes. Thanks to Philopoi-

Scale

q f | J 4 iKifam.

-Ill \-l \ AM> Till V \1 I I 1 nl I III OINOUS.

men, the disaster was not so fatal as it had at first seemed. "'The

ity," it i- true, was destroyed, but its population were in arms, and eager for vengeance. They were fco lie satisfied with it. To carry on the war. Kleomenes was obliged to have recourse

to every possible means, lie enfranchised the Helots: he solicited —

FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 349

aid from Ptolemy, who, since Antigonos and the Achaian League had entered into friendly relations with each other, had become and he gave up his own family to the Egyptian favorable to Sparta ; king as hostages for succor which he did not obtain, or which was of little value. With his utmost efforts he was able to gather only about twenty thousand men for the

sive campaign which was about to open, while Anti- OCTODRACHM. 1

_ 10s bad more than thirty thousand, among whom, besides the phalanx of ten thousand Mace- donians, there were many allies and mercenaries from every land, Achaians, Megalopolitans, Boiotians, Epeirots, Akarnanians, Illyrians, and Gauls. This army advanced towards Mounts Evas and Olympos, in the northeast of Lakonia, on the banks of the river Oinos. There, between the two mountains, was a road which led, through the city of Sellasia, to Sparta. BRON/.I COIN.5 EUeomenes had fortified the passes with nd barricades of trees; and he had posted himself there with

his army. Eukleides, bis brother, took up a position on Mount

-. while be himself guarded the slopes of Olympos. His posi-

tion- were so formidable thai Antigonos hesitated some days before

• king him, but at last decided to do so. The battle was long and sanguinary. On both sides the generals weir able and the

soldiers full of courage ; twice the Macedonians gained signal

The troops 3en1 againsl Eukleides wen' repulsed in

disorder, when a charge led by the young Philopoimen, against

the order of bis superior officers, broke the Lacedaemonian ranks.

On Mount Olympos Kleomenes resisted all assaults until Antigonos doubled bis phalanx, which charged with their pikes lowered, and

1 Veiled bead of Berenike [T., wife >>f Ptolem I ighl profili Revet e: BE-

PI NIKH3 BA2IAIZ2H3; cornucopia filled with fruit*, and ornamented with two fillet .

* '. Coin of Philip IT! (it i Mead of Hello*, right profile, with a crown

i r i" •MMiuioY. a winged thunderbolt; In the field, three mint-

the wliolr in a wreath oi oak lea 350 HISTORY OF GREECE.

notlring could stand before them. This is the story of Polybios. Plutarch speaks of the treason of one of the Spartan officers. Many of the soldiers of ECleomenes met their death on this last battle-field mcienl Sparta. When the day was decisively lost, the king made his escape. Be reached Sparta accompanied by a few horsemen, and alighting, he refused to sit down or to quench his thirst. Leaning

insl a column, lie long stood motionless, with benl head, lost in -a>l reflections. At last he recovered himself; accompanied by his friends, he hastily made his way to Gython, whence he sailed Eor Egypt, in a vessel that had been prepared in advance. Ptolemy Euergetes readily yielded to the influence of this strong nature. He promised aid to the Spartan, and bestowed on him an annual pension. But to Euergetes succeeded his son Philopator, a worthless, disso- lute prince, who put to death his mother. Berenike,

and left the gov-

ernment of the

kingdom to women. Meantime

in < n-eece all was

bronze coin.1 greatly changed. After entering

Sparta, where he hastened to re-establish the ephors. to renew all the old abuses and all the causes of weakness and ruin. Antigonos had placed in Orchomenos and Corinth garrisons which held the Peloponnesos at his discretion; and he then returned into Macedon, called thither by an attack of the Illyrians. lie conquered these invaders, hut perished from a hemorrhage of the lungs, having too milch exerted his voice in battle-erics during the engagement. He

I'l't the throne to his nephew, Philip III., a youth of seventeen.- The field was therefore free, ami Kleomenes began to meditate a return to his country. He had preserved amidst all the corruption of Egypt

' Diademed head of Zeus Aramon, righl profile. Reverse: BASIAEOS OTOAEMAIOY ;

ling, three quarters in the left, on ;i thunderbolt. Egyptian coin of the rei

Ptolemy Philadelphos (?).

I his kin;: i* called Philip V. bj historians who give Axrhidaios the name of Philip III..

nli..,, win, reigned bul ;i Few months, thai of I'liilip IV. FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 351

the austere morals of a Spartan of the ancient days. This conduct, a living reproach to the king and his courtiers, had rendered him

odious ; it was easy to persuade the suspicious Philopator that the exile was planning an attack on Kyrene. Kleomenes was imprisoned, with thirteen of his friends, in a large solitary house, where he was guarded as the Turks guarded Charles XII. at Bender. The Spartan, who in more than one respect resembles the adventurous

vii i IV Ol in: 1 1 MTU. OF inn. u i i \.'

le, mad- hie escape .,. the kin- did Liter; ami going oul Into

of Alexandria, armed, ami accompanied by liis com-

panions, attempted to arouse the citizens by proclaiming liberty.

The effeminate townspeople applauded, bul made no effort. The Spartans killed the governor of tie' city ami another of the Egyp- tian courtiers, and were then surr< led by He- guards. V.i to he taken alive, they killed themselvi The body of Kleomenes

I < ill.- temple of tpollo Bpikourioi I in the

I VoL III. p. 113 ii •! .1 fril /: '"'I V"l- II i HISTORY OF GREE< E. was Bayed and crucified. Later, his remains received expiatory honors, and the Alexandrian- venerated him as a hero.

Thus perished the last of the Spartans, and with him fell his country and Greece. Sparta was indeed dead, the Achaian League

dying, and the Macedonians, established in the heart of the Peloponnesos, would shortly furnish the

Romans a pretext for interfering. The responsibility for these disastrous results

falls upon Kleomenes, who instead of going

forward, went back six centuries in his

policy. He attempted to put in practice

the superannuated system of Lykourgos at

a time when 1 ughl to have rescued Sparta from her oppressive oligarchy, her

culpable isolation, and her inveterate self-

ishness, to hail her into paths worthy of her great name. In making herself a member of the Achaian League, Sparta would

have carried with her the rest of the Pelo- ponnesos, which, thus fraternally united with Central Greece, would have formed T1RONZI 01 PATRAS.1

with it a fortress long to remain impi 3 nable. But neither Sparta nor Kleomenes was willing to sacrifice self-interest in this association, where the rights of all were equal. The league, threatened with overthrow, called in the Mace- donian-: and all fell hack into chaos. Antigoi we have seen, did not long survive his triumph, and Macedon, thrown back upon itself, did not seem formidable with its king, seventeen years of age. The situation, there! again became what it had been in 229 b, < .. and it seemed prob-

able that the Achaian- would continui lin ground. B I although they had nothing more to fear from Sparta, the Aitolians

-till remained jealous and inimical.

The two leagues watched each other with a hostile eye a<

it that separated them. The Aitolians. incorrigible plun-

r to have hostilities recommence; hut after the

G , . pi. Iwiii No V yo ending,

bt ildcr. FROM DEATH OF PYRRHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 3 53 battle of Sellasia. as by a sort of tacit agreement, a general truce had prevailed in Greece, and it was little to their liking. They possessed, as associated in their league, the city of Phi- galeia, situated in the mountains on the common frontier of Arka- dia and Messenia, two hours distant from the sea. Thither they violent j-^ Aia-x sen ^ a raPaci°us an<^ Mulls man, Dorimachos, under C> pretext of guarding this city, but really to keep watch COINS OF SIKTON. 1 upon the Peloponnesos. Aitolian corsairs infested the coast, and were not backward in landing to carry off spoils. The ephors of Messene complained to Dorimachos. who feigned ignorance of the pirates' plunderings and accepted part of their spoils. The ravages continued and the complaints were renewed. Dorimachos, called before magistrates at the Mes- SI1.VKR TETRADRACHM.'- sene. appeared there with anger and threats. He was received with firmness, and retired led with confusion. From that day he gave himself no rest

until h<- had induced the Aitolians to declare war upon the Mes- senians. They broke with these faithful allies on consideration of

tin- fact that Messenia, having escaped the disasters caused by

the late war.-, would now be a good field for plunder. Dorimachos and his partisan Skopas, says Potybios, made an irregular declaration of hostilities; without awaiting the action of the assembly or consulting the magistrates, they opened the campaign anil traversed, plundering as they went, the Achaian

ritory of Patrai, Phare, and Tritaia. These cities and the Mes-

1 i. I. ion. crouching and about to spring, t.> the left; In tin' (1.1.1, the letters s and h.

in '_'. - dove flying the left, in an olive-wreath. (8ilver.) Dove' bead, to 1 1 * left.

j. in ill.- Geld. (Silver.) '' Apollo, kneeling, to the right, holding the bow in liis

band, and laying the right on his qniver. R< ei i lyre and plectrum. (Silver.) letned head »f Philip III (or V.). righl profile. Reverse: BA2IAEQ2 *IAUniOY; itanding u> the left, armed with her shield, and launching the thunderbolt In

tli field, '

voi- iv. ;:

HISTORY OF GREEl E. senians made their complain*, before the general assembly. Aratos declared war, and met the Aitolians at Kaphyai, near Megalopolis, where the battle was losl through his fault. The victorious army advanced into Achaia as far as Pellene, and alter ravaging the territory of Sikyon, withdrew across the isthmus.

Success increased their confidence; they extended their ra\ more widely, ••and when they were reproached for it they did nol deign to defend themselves. They

scoffed at those \\ bo asked them the rea-

. son for what 1 1 1 \ had done or what they

proposed to do. . . . Ariston, their strate-

gos, remained quietly at home, feigning ignorance of all thai went on, and always

rting that there was no war. that it was a time of complete peace." The Achaians, sine,' the intervention of Antigonos, had unfortunately learned to rely more 11)1011 others than upon themselves. In the presence of a new danger they again cried out to Macedon lor help. They sent ambassadors to Philip, to tin Epeirots, SILVER coin. 2 to Boiotia, Phokis, and Akarnania. Tiny levied troops, to which the Messenians ami Spartans added their contingents, and tiny gave the command to Aratos. to whom they had restored their confidence after having coldly received him on his return from Kaphyai.

The Spartans at this time played a double game. While send- in- troops to the Achaians. the) also signed a secret treaty with the Aitolians. and prepared at Sparta, against Macedon. a movement which took place when Philip entered the Peloponnesos, and many of hi- partisans were -lain. Kill as the king drew near the city the ephors feigned a hypocritical devotion Philip preferred not to inquire closely into the matter: he came to Corinth, where he hail convoked an assembh of the members and allies ol the

1 Coin "I tin- Akarnanian League al Anaktorion ANAKTOPIQN bead of Pallas, left - lo the right profile, with the Corinthian helmet ; behind, a tripod. Roversi Pi flvin underneath, :m ivy-leal.

1 1 in of tin- Akarnanian 1 gu< al Thyrion. Head of Pallas, left profile, with the Corinthian helmet; behind, Demeter, holding two torches; in the field, a mint-mark. Reverse

(Imhoof-Blumer, ' 6 (Thyrion); Pcgasos flying to the left D \ FROM DEATH OF PYREHOS TO ARRIVAL OF ROMANS. 355

Achaian League, and in this assembly he assumed an attitude which recalled to men's minds the policy of Philip and of Alex- ander. Making himself the simple doer of the will of the confederation, he allowed the council to decree that there should be restored to all those whom the Aitolians had despoiled, their government, their lands, their cities, without garrison, or tribute, or other laws than those of their fathers; that the rights of the Amphiktyons should be enforced; and that there should be restored to them the temple of Delphi, which the Aitolians had attempted to seize. This decree was ratified in the assembly of Aigion. where Philip delivered a long harangue, which was very cordially received. •'•There were formed." says Polybios, '• great hopes from his mildness and humanity." This conduct was due to the influence — at that time very great — which Aratos exercised over him. Philip prepared actively for war. The Thessalians, Phokians, Boiotians, Akarnanians. Euboians. Messenians, and all the members of the league promised him assistance.

II also obtained aid from the Illy- rians, whom the Aitolians had not long before drawn into an expedition for pillage, without, afterwards giving them their share in the division of the .... SILVER COIN. 1 booty. On the side ol the Aitolians were the people of Elis and Ambrakia and the Spartans, who. at that moment bringing about a revolution they had long had in view, ed the chiefs of the .Macedonian faction and appointed two kings. The partisans of independence had up to this

time left the thrones vacant, because they still pre- rved the hope of seeing EUeomenes return. The

news of his death decided them to divide the royal authority between Agesipolis, a child of the family of the Eurys- thenidai, and Lykourgos, ••among whose ancestors there had never been a king; bu1 the position of successor of Herakles and king of Sparta cost him only as many talent- as there were ephors."

P0I3 bios.)

1 ColnofElis. Laurelled head of Zeus, right profile. Reverse: fA[\fiuv]. Eagle stand

the ri'.'lit. win. iringi displayed

I head of Zeus, to the lefI Reverse PIZA; thunderbolt. (Goldobolo ol Pisa, HISTORY OF GREECE.

•In the beginning of the summer (220 B.c), when Aratos took the command, there was war over all the world. Hannibal was marching against Saguntum; the Romans, under the leadership of L. Aemilius,

I into Qlyria againsl Demetrios of Pharos; Antiochos was plan- the ning conquest of Ccele-Syria; . . . Ptolemy was making preparations

Antiochos; Lykourgos, following in the footsteps of Kleomi

the Atheneion of the Megalopolitans ; the Achaians were collecting Foreign cavalry and infantry for the war which threatened them on all .sides: Philip marched out of Macedon, at the bead of ten thousand

hoplites and five thousand light-armed infantry; and lastly, at that time the Rhodians began war with Byzantion." (Polybios |

Philip waged with success this obscure war. which is quite without interest to us. Notwithstanding the repeated invasions of the Dardanians, which called him home, and the treason of his ministers, Apelles, L Ptolemaios, and Megaleas, who

conspired againsl his life because they had not been able to overthrow the credit of Aratos. he seized upon Thermos, the capital of the Aitolians, drove them out of Th< ssaly and Klis. raw Lakonia, and twice defeated Lykourgos.

The first Philip after Chaironeia the master of

and the most extensive hopes were dawning in the mind of this young conqueror. Since he held this country whence Alex- ander had flung himself upon the East, why might not he now

'.' forth from it to seek a like fortune in the West

1 Engraved stone of thi I No. 1,812. V olo, height

8 millini.. breadth 1 1 millim).

M'llINN 111 I ORI \ HUM *N III CHAPTER XXXVI.

CONDITION OP GREECE BEFORE THE ROMAN DOMINION.

I. — General Weakness.

WE know what elements of political and moral strength Greece still possessed before the chilling and heavy hand of Macedon had been laid upon her, but, also, how many causes of weakness these cities contained, more hostile among themselves than they were to the world outside. We shall now see to what condition .-he was reduced after a hundred and thirty years of this -way. resisted or endured quietly, at the moment when new conquerors approached

We have already >ot i n that she had exhausted herself in domestic strifes, as if determined to have no blood left in her veins when these vigorous enemies arrived. But we need to look more closely to assure ourselves that this time Greece could not

Burvive, and — a sadder thing still — did not deserve a longer stence.

During the seventy-five years which followed the death of Alex- ander, Greece had been a prej twenty times captured and recaptured, — apart of the spoils for which his successors fought among themselves. Then came a man who strove to restore this country to itself by driving out the tyrant-, and to unite it in a fraternal association which might save it.

But institutions are machinery made efficienl only by the have which sets them al work, and this force lies in public morals. In reaped to the Achaian League, we have Been the attractive picture drawn by Polybios of its government; bui the internal rivalries and general weakness were not taken into the account, ft was the —

BISTORY OF GREE( E work of one man. — feeble and perishable like everything in political institutions which depends solely on the genius of a legislator or a conqueror. Doubtless if the Spartans had sincerely united with tlif League; it the Aitolians had been less hostile; it Demetrios and Philip, instead of attacking the liberty ol the Greek cities, had won them over to the Macedonian cause; finally, if the whole bod} of Hellenic nations, bavin- Macedon for its head, and wielding with its thousand arms the sword i<\ Marathon and of Thermopylai, had stood ready to defend the sacred soil againsl everj invader, doubtless Rome would have had occasion to send more than two " legions to Kynoskephalai. ! 3ee," said a deputy from Naupaktos

1 • in the presence of the assembled 'necks. I see rising in the west a threatening cloud: let us hasten to terminate our puerile dif- ferences before it hursts over our heads." But union and harmony could m>t exist between the peaceful inclinations of the Achaians and the revolutionary spirit of Lacedsemon; between the merchants of Corinth and the Aitolian klephts; between all these republics on the one side and the ambitious kings of M; don on the other.

Would it have been possible for Philopoimen, with all his ability

and his commendable effort- to regenerate his ] pie, to destroy the ancient hatred o\ the Messenians toward- Sparta, and of Sparta towards Argos? Could he have made the Eleians forget their

lian origin, or the Arkadians their hereditary quarrels?

B ond this. even, in every city there were hostile factions, the more bitterly opposed to each other inasmuch as it was not power, but fortune, for which they strove. Everywhere there were the two parties, — thai of the rich and that of the poor: the former always ready to take arm- against the latter, and those who had nothing, to attack those who possessed much. Thence violent hatred-, by which the Roman Senate knew how to profit.

Continually threatened by a social revolution, the rich looked towards Rome for protection: and as soon a- the legions set

in Greece, there was a Roman party there.

To bring these State- into a fraternal union it would have been necessary to efface from their memory their entire history, and to

_ nerac} in morals, the destruction of patriotism. It would have been necessary, above all, to prevent contact with that

* In 317 B. i 1 CONDITION OF GREECE BEFORE ROMAN DOMINION. 359

Eastern world, so rich and so corrupt, which took from Greece the poets and artists she still had. for the schools of Alexandria and Per- the men of talent and courage that remained, for the courts gamon ; of Egypt and Syria. No Ptolemy or Seleukos had a minister, a general, a governor of a city or province, who was not a Greek. Hellas gave her best blood, and received vices in return. " Everywhere in this country," says Polybios. " great offices are cheaply bought. Intrust talent to those who have charge of the public funds a ; take ten securities, as many promises, and twice as many witnesses, — never shall you see your money again." : Elsewhere he mentions that Dikearchos. the worthy friend of Skopas. who, being sent by Philip to plunder the Cyclades, notwithstanding plighted faith, built wherever he landed two altars, — to Impiety and to Injustice. 2 This thirst for gold produced a depravity in morals which put an end to self-sacrifice for the public interest. A torpor invaded most of the cities. Athens, the alert and intelligent, once ready to take the initiative in the most glorious enterprises, now refuses 3 to associate her destiny with that of Greece; and by the sacrilegious honors which she pays to Demetrios, to Attalos, and to all those kings whom she calls "the saving divinities," proves that she i- indeed ripe for servitude. Aratos delivers her from the Macedo- nian garrison of the Peiraieus and restores to her Salamis, but without drawing her from her apathetic indifference. There is but one thing more thai she can do, and that is, to prohibit her citizen- by public decree from taking any share in the affairs of

Greece: like the Boiotians, who, not to be interrupted in their coarse pleasures, made patriotism a form of treason. " At Thebes," • P i] a man left his property, not to his children, but to

Id.- boon companions, with the condition that it be spent, in orgies; many men were thus obliged to have more banquets in a month than the month had days. For almost twenty-live years, the tri-

." 4 bunals remained closed. . . Even the severity of Polybios has

1 Polybio*, iv. 9, i. 17. The Greeka cannot believe that Flamininua is Willi irlbed to Philip. . . . nj« 8w/jo8oiciur (mirii\a((wnr)s Ka\ row fiTjiiva f*Tj?>tt> Zn>;trtw TT^lOTrfltf.

jrbioft, xviii. ''.', 'Atnfkia ,,n-l n

fi iiAAwk 'KAAijmituv TrfHi^fuK o46* mroias fUTil^m lis nivrat Tout Ja

imp^tvtfinp (BoMvroi) &0ri i:i>ithw\ btvbi ?ti roif "EXXijtn ptra. koivov 360 HISTORY OF GREECE. been outdone, and Boiotian stupiditj was made a proverb. Yet

Pindar and Epameinondas, Leuktra and Chaironeia, arc titles of honor to Boiotia; and the extremely graceful figurines found in

the metropolis of Tanagra reveal a feel-

ing for art thai is worthy of Greece.

Since the time of Philip I.. Corinth

had no longer lie mi her own. A garrison held her wad.-, another occupied the citadel, ami Aratos took and afterwards .-old the Akrokorinthos, the citizens not

interfering even in the sale. Their ar- senal- were empty ; hut statues ami ele-

gant vases ami marble palaces glittered on every side, ami the inhabitants boasted that their eiu was the mosl pleasure- loving in Greece. Their temple of Aph-

rodite was so rich that it maintained

more than a thousand courtesans. After having destroyed or subjugated the other

cities of Areolis, Areos herself became

a prey to tyrants. Throe times the Achaians effected an entrance into the

\. with the intention of delivering it.

From the tops of their houses the in- APHRODITE.1 habitants, careless spectators of a struggle in which their

if they were looking on ;it the Nemean Gam Sparta was in one perpetual revolution. Within a period of a few years, four time- the ephors had been massacred, the royal power rendered absolute, then abolished, then re-established, ami

ttt'ryfiarot (Polybios, \\. I. <. ami t;. ] ••,.). The stupidity (mmur^ijcrla.) ami the glutton

> tin- i- (Boum'a fc) became proverbial. < Uhenaios, x. 11, ami Pseudo-Dikear-

ork entitled Blot riji i \Xo8os, Didot, I ,/ragm.

I • allani ' lollection (No G49) ; from the

pi. xii. • A veiled Aphrodite, leaning her left arm on a cippus, surmounted

E is, nude, «iili lifted wings The goddess wear! • "ii her head; her

veil ; Is pul foremost. I , which serves her as a her l

d and lii- arm- .ii In- sides; the lofl hand seems to grasp

1 .ll.ini lit- too much repaired ilii- figure. CONDITION OF GEEECE BEFORE ROMAN DOMINION. 361 finally left in the hands of a tyrant, Machanidas, whom Philo- poimen finally overthrew. But Sparta, even in her abasement, was in still too proud of her old renown to consent to lose herself the Achaian League. To Machanidas succeeded Nabis, and the Spartans remained the allies of the Aitolians.

1 TKRi: l-COl I \ I ROM PHOKI8.

Of the lessei States there is little to say. Aigina lias disap-

from the stage of politics. Megara is an obscure member Boiotian or Achaian League; the Eleians, like Messene

i ' .- i r 1 a pari of Arkadia, depend upon the Aitolians; the weakness of Phokia -till attests, after tour generations, the terrible results 2 .,!' the anger of the gods; Euboia and Thessaly are powerless; and Ki iven up to all disorder and to all evil passions, ami to //• tiae in' ana "to li<

' Prom tin- Btlll.

. nil.;il, cir rather I. ivy. laid of Bolotia, Ruboia, and Theualy : lllit nullae iuai

* Philip fur n -liori time held the nominal rank ••! inpreme chiel dI Krete. "Krete," 1

HISTORY OF GREECE.

;i. however, with better morals and with patriotism, the would not have been able to save themselves: and though

• and union had reigned from Cane Tainaron to Mount Orbe- los, not the less would Rome, with a little more time and effort, have brought Greece to her t<

3AILING-VE88E1 OF THK TIMI "1 DEMOSTHENES. 1

Misled by the great authority of Montesquieu, men have de- ceive'] themselves as to the strength of Greece at this time; the fears of Rome have been taken seriously; in the politic action of the Senate has been seen the avowal and proof of the power of

ce, and lnr army has hem said to number a hundred thousand men. This is an optical illusion, caused by the famous names of her old history: from a distance, great ship- of war: near at hand. only logs floating on the water. Athens could not put a stop to the ravages of the pirates of Chalkis, nor to those of the garrison of Corinth. In the year 200 n. < a Eew bands of Akarnanians

'is the »nlv country in the world where '_':»i". <>f whatever nature it may !«-. i<

I legitimate. ... If we speak of individuals, then are fen men

. there is none where inure unjust designs are entertained"

1 I r - run 1 restoration by Oraser, . liu'- 31 . CONDITION OF GREECE BEFORE ROMAN DOMINION. 363 lay waste Attika with fire and sword, and two thousand Mace- donians hold the city besieged. When Philip devastates Lakonia, up to the very walls of Sparta, Lykourgos has but two thousand men with whom to oppose him. Philip himself takes the field in 219 B.C. with five thousand seven hundred soldiers, and a year

1 1 » IIAKIlol: OF I£ I • • S

later with seven thousand two hundred. The contingent of Argos

and Megalopolis is five thousand and fifty men; and the whole Achaian confederation could not muster during the war between

tin- two leagues, which was the mosl important at that period, 2 r three thousand five hundred men, mercenaries excepted. In

219 B.C. three cities separated IV the confederation, and for

their defence an army of three hundred and fifty soldiers was

enough. The Eleiana have never more than a few hundred men

under arm-: in the battle of Mount Apelauros there were twenty-

1 Thi rrowed from the work of Alb. Berg, Du Tn ' Rhodus, pi. 88, c pi te

n p. 10 of ilii- rolume. to the ba< kground i wen the eoasl of Asia Minor. called for by a bul 8,800 of these were tobe

P - ibid., x., fr. 8, the deplorable condition of the cavalry before the n form- of Philopoimen, 364 HISTORY OF GREEl E.

throe hundred, including the mercenaries. 1 At a later date Plutarch says: "A1 the presenl daj Greece cannot bring three thousand

8 hoplites into the field."

The navy had fallen even lower. The Athenians, who senl two

hundred vessels to Salamis, have now. as their whole fleet, only three' hundred galleys. Nabis possesses no more. 3 The Achaian

_ no. including Argolis, Corinth, Sikyon, and all the maritime cities "I' Aigialeia, could arm hut six triremes. — three to guard the

Gulf of Corinth, and three for tin.' Saronic Gulf. Livy tells us of

the contemptible fleet of Philopoimen, of which the flag-ship was a quadrireme thai for eight} years had been rotting in the harbor of Aigeion.* The Aitolians have not even one vessel.6 Rhodes, whose power appears great compared with so much pettiness, having

.1 serious quarrel with Byzantion, sends only three galleys into the

Bellesponl ; ami yet the parties in this war were two famous repub- three kings. — Attalos. Prousias. Achaios, — and many Gallic 6 and Thracian chiefs. Since the fall of the Athenian empire piracy had ravaged the .Ega'an Sea. and it will he remembered that the Dlyrian corsairs carried their devastations as far as the Cyckules.

This weakness was not accidental. It cannot be truly said that the military spirit was dead in Greece; but for two centuries her population had greatly diminished, and her best blood was poured

nut for causes in which she had no interest. The lure of honors

and wealth drew to the Eastern courts the bravest and ablest

(oeek-. and this profitable traffic caused the country to be deserted.

It wa- at, the moment when Areos, the kin- of Sparta, perished,

and when the last remnants of Hellenic liberty were destroyed by Antigonos, that Xanthippos led to the succor of Carthage the bravesl of the Spartans. Later, during the second war of the Wo- man- againsl Philip, Skopas soughl to enlist for Ptolemj six thou-

I all the young men would have followed him Aitolians ; and

•• Polybios, iv.. 68, I. 7 lh ,1, /, rln iirnriil., B,

* Livy, \wi. 22: . . . et erant Atticat tret apertae mint ml tuendos maritUntu agret com-

' f, Polybios, xxxv 20.

1 Polybios, i. 91, and Livy, xxxv. 26.

peditiom p -.iin-i Bpeiros, Ucarnania, and tbe Peloponnesos, the) used rait

tmk kf/inAXiJi'iuK wiini' ( Polj

' I'..

CONDITION OF GREECE BEFORE ROMAN DOMINION. 365

1 had it not been for the opposition of the strategos Damokreitos. In the time of Alexander, Darius had already fifty thousand Greek mercenaries, and we have seen that Greeks composed the entire army of the Ptolemies and Seleukids. Thus there went on between Greece and the Eastern world an exchange equally harmful to both

countries : the latter took men. and thus lost the confidence and

support obtained by employing national troops ; the former accepted

gold, and with that gold, which was ruinous to its own morals,

bought, in turn, soldiers for its own private quarrels. Condot- tierism, that deadly scourge of States, which was fatal to Carthage and to the Italian republics of the Middle Ages, had extended over the whole of Greece. Macedon even employed foreigners in her

military service ; at Sellasia, Antigonos had five or six thousand. In the Achaian armies they were always more than half of the

troops. The kings and the tyrants of Sparta had no other soldiers.2

Wealth obtained in evil ways goes habitually as it came. Asiatic and African gold did not remain in Greece, because there was no longer industry there. The cities were depopulated and destitute. 3 Of Megalopolis it was said. " The great city is a great desert."

Poverty was everywhere. Mantineia in its entire possessions was nol worth three hundred talents, and Polybios 4 estimates the taxable tal of the whole Peloponnesos as less than six thousand. Two centuries before this time, Attika was the richest State in Greece.

A late statement of its wealth represented this to be under five thousand seven hundred and fifty talents, — half of the reserve in gold which Perikles kept in the treasury of the Athenians before the war in which their prosperity was destroyed.6 And this same people, who once gave a thousand talents for one of their temples,

' Polybios, iv. 12. However, in 191 B.C. they joined the Roman fleel with thirty-two

Livy, xxwi. 15), and in 190 B. c. with thirty-five. But the Facl mentioned in the texi ihowi what contemptible war al thi time disturbed the Greek world. Livy, \x\i.

iL 18, for Kleomenei and Antigonos; iv. 18, tor the Achaians; v. 8, Philip; iv. 18, v. 8, for the Eleians; for Athens, Livy, xxxL 24, etc. Krete furnished iiii-m to .ill the world, even to the pirates (Strabo, x, 47?).

'• I( has !»' n shown thai the mm 'if 8,780 talents (riven bj Polybios at the estimate ..f ralne <>i all kinds ..t property owned in Attika applies only t" Ihe landed property wlii' li was the basis oi taxation. \t Athens thi tirntma, the ratable value of property, upon Mrhiili the tai (ttotfwpi) w;i» generally one tenth, corrc ponded to whal the H ans called /' aidoy, I I //,, „,, i. _'H). BISTORT OF (.Kl'.li i: l»in_' now condemned by arbitration to pay a certain fine could obtain but five hundred talents to release themselves. Hence armies and campaigns were un a small scale; there were trivial d md but little interest in them, while across the

Adriatic resounded the great tumult of the Punic wars. I king

bward .it this new nation which now entered upon the world's

stage, and seeing, in presence of the strictly

organized commonwealth, full of strong vir-

tues, brave and disciplined. Greece now so degraded that she has no longer poets or BRON/I COIN." • ,i ,, artists or citizens, that there is no serious interest in her rivalries, no concerted plan in her wars; seeing her so depopulated that she is perishing for lack of men.- — we cannot

i\ the feeling of grief that the ruin of a once famous people is near and inevitable. All inference- and all memories from past days fail to show Greece now strong and capable of devotion and heroism. It is a worn-oul people, given over to a disturbed and wandering mind. Fitting it was that Rome should seize the country before the Barbarians regained possession of it. before all its masterpieces foil under the axe of Philip, as those of Macedon and the Peloponnesos under the sacrilegious hand of the A.itolians.a

At least under the Roman dominion Greece was to find repose and peace. 4

Doubtless tlnre were still enlightened and patriotic Greeks, and when the question came to he clearly put between Greece and Rome, between liberty and servitude, there were emotion,-, and utterances

1 Coin of Mantineia. Helmeted head of Pallas, right profile. Reverse MAN ruw'wv].

Poseidon, nude, standing to the left, brandishing n trident.

rbios, xxxvii. 12: and he adds that men are no longer willing t" marry, and rear children. This i- one of the most curious fragments found by the Abbd Mai. a In rest t of the devastations of Philip in Attika, see Livy, xxxi. S tie even

>kc from their pedestals. At I tin- statnes to be l>r< n after thej had been thrown Thermos,

\i-..lii. he burned the temples and threw down two thons I statues (Polybios,

I!,. Utoliana on tlnir part burned the ancient sanctuan of Dodona {ibid., iv. 14), ami it Dion the temple and the tombs of the Icings of Macedon. They made war "-< at , Polybios men. the Spartans did the same Mega* 18); Philip, at Pergamon (xvi. I: xvii.). See also the address of Furi Naupaktos (Livy, xxxi. SI). It will also be remembered that tin 1 Phokians Delphi, and P bbed the Vsiatic temples (Polybios, xxxli

ii. B, where !»• depii R : irbor and refuge for the nations Dyre: Nunc tub tutela Romano ludinU CONDITION OF GREECE BEFORE ROMAN DOMINION. 367

worthy of a great people ; but they came too late to save her. The Achaian League could not now be of use, for the moment was passed, nor could any federative system, into which a resolute aggressor can easily introduce disturbance and anarchy ; the only hope remaining would lie in an impossible reform in Greek ideas and morals, and in a close union with Macedon, under a strong king.

II. — Macedon; its Forces dispersed; the Romans in Illyria.

Surrounded by the sea and by inaccessible mountains, inhabited by a warlike race, devoted to its kings, and still proud of the share they had given it in the world's history, Macedon was really a powerful State. As in the case of Carthage, Rome had to make three attacks in order to beat it down. If Philip had possessed

1. Thebes. 2. Mopsion. S Hypata.

COINS OK THKSSAI.IAN CITIES. 1

Macedon only, his conduct, like his interests, would have been simple; but he had also Tbessaly ami Euboia, Opous in Lokris, Elateia and tin- larger pari of Phokis, the Akrokorinthos, and Orchomenos in 9 Arkadia. 11'- li.nl garrisons in three of the Cyclases, — Andros,

Paros, and Kythnos, — also in Thasos, and in some of the cities of the Thracian and Asiatic coasts; lastly. ,i considerable part of Karia belonged to him,' — possessions remote and dispersed, multiplying

1 l. Veiled bead of Demeter, right profile, Reverse: ohbaiqN; Protesilaos armed and fighting to protect thi the Greek < pron it een behind him. (Triobolon.)

• l;. ,i a head of the Lapitfa Mopsos, three-quarters front, in the right. Reverse: MO-

YEIQN; '!"• Lapith Moptoi fighting with lii- club, a centaur about to hurl :i rock at him. Laurelled head of Zeus, right profile; behind him, the thunderbolt. Reverse:

- • yiia i \ : Pallas Nikephorot standing to the left, holding in the left band her hield and

Bronzi j 1 With Heraia,Allphera, and Trlphylia.

1 ii. I.i I n Stratonikeia in Karia ; Myrina, in Eolis ; Ulydos, on n, the Hellespont; I petia, 3< tot, in Thrace, Cf. Polybiosand L\vy,pa im, —;

- BISTORT OF GREECE.

points of hostile contact. His cities of Thrace, with Sestos and Abydos, the keys of the passage from Europe into Asia, made him dangerous to Attain- of Pergamon; his cities of Karia and the island of [asos, to the Rhodians; Euboia, to Athens; Thessaly and

P i, the Aitolians; his possessions in the Peloponnesos, to Sparta; and his strength excited the jealousy of the Egyptian

Pi lemies.

With a better plan in his designs and a wiser use of his strength, Philip mighl have been supreme in Greece, for he held all

1 Obolos of Trlkka. '2. ObolOS of LarlBSO. niiilrachiiia ol I

1 coma of i hess u i \n um-.

its most important positions, — he held its fetters, as Antipatros said, lint lie made war always as a guerilla chief rather than as a king, hastening in one campaign from Macedon to Kephallenia, and thence to Thermos, and from Aitolia to Sparta, never completely defeating any one enemy, and leaving everj enterprise unfinished. In these wars

he had never more than a few thou-

sand men : and Plutarch speaks of on\ i>1" THASOS.'' his difficulties in raising soldier-. He was not able to leave Macedon unprotected, for, every time that they knew him to he absent, the Thracians, Dardanians. and Illyr- ians fell upon his kingdom. To subdue these Barbarians, to crush the Aitolians. to drive out tyrant- from Sparta, and to propitiate the other States of Greece, such was his task. A Greek clearrj characterized the situation.

1 1. Horse leaping to the ri^lii . Reverse: [TP] KKAION; the nymph Trikka standing

tning upon a cippus, and r:ii

M to the right ; above, the letters <>z. unexplained Reverse VAPI[]

1 lirr mph Larissa standing to the right, irranging liair : before Ikt a hydria (incused square). 8. Horse stepping to the left; in the field i seed of hellebore.

n l.il ..i [ason, in an incused square.

\ - eeling on one knee (which is the conventional method of indicating rapid

M in the field a. Reverse: incused -'|n:ir«-. (Silver ) attributed to the middle of the fifteenth centui ;

CONDITION OF GREECE BEFORE ROMAN DOMINION. 369

" speaking in a great assembly : Philip ought no longer to feel obliged to keep up dissensions among us in order to make his own

authority secure ; he should be able to rely upon the affection of

' all Hellas, and watch over the country as if it were his own." The king himself felt the necessity of this policy. " Do not make alliance with any foreign nation," he said. " The Romans are foreigners, whom we must not suffer to intermeddle with our affairs they have neither your language, nor your manners, nor your laws. We, on the contrary. Macedonians. Aitulians. Achaians, are but one

1. Coin of Same. 2. Coin of Same.

3. Coin of Kranion. 4 Coin of Proni. 5. Coin of Pale.

COINS "I [OWNS 01 Mil ISLAND OK KKl'II ALLH.NIA. 2 people. If some transient disagreements separate us. we ought not

"ii that account to be the less united by a common and eternal hatred of Barbarians." 3

II thought wisely, but his conduct was wrong. If he did not

\ - i: i- certain that lie alienated his allies by excesses or by perfidy. "A king," he went so far as to say, "is bound neither by his word nor by moral law-." The least-experienced

ild Bee approaching -tin' storm thai the Aitulians called forth from the west." Philip saw it al.-o. but seemed so little to

1 Polybio

1. Laurelled bead of Kephalloa, right profile, Reverse: 2AMAION ; the dog Lailaps the right, irith lifted paw. (Silver.) 2. Laurelled head of Kephalloa, right profile. tli'- B 2AMAION i dog Lailapi springing "ii lii- prey, to the right (Silver.)

id, left profile, veiled and diademed. R am'a bead, to the left, in

.) 1. Head of Zeui Ainesios, left profile Reverie re in in- ntre a kernel of wheat (Bronze.) Headol Demetcr, left profile

r D fir]. (Silver.) * Llvjr, uud

' l'"l- ii ilii-. I'lit on very n id*. See, passim, bit reproachei i" Philip far ti ene aod Argot, and the oration ol Irutenca (Livy, xuii. 21).

'. M.I I '

370 HISTORY OF GREE( E.

understand the danger thai he made no preparation to ward it off.

r the firsl war. even, when be had felt how heavj was the hand of Rome, he allowed himself to be again caughl unprepared.

When the Senate senl to declare war upon him, he was in Asia

fighting with Attain.- and the Ethodians aboui a lew insignificant

places in Thrace and Karia. I lis replj to the deputy Aeiniliiis

shows his disposition to trifle in the midst of the most serious affairs. He pardoned the Roman his arroganl language, In' said. Ear

three reasons: first, because he was young and inexperienced; ad, because he was the handsomest man of his age; third.

a.-e he bore a Roman name. 1 Italy and Greece, those two halves of the ancient world, had long before this begun to have blended interests. Alexander the

Molossian, king of Epeiros, had essayed to do in Italy that which

his nephew, the son of Philip, accomplished in the East. He was killed in 326 B.C. by a Lucanian, and his projects perished with 8 him. The wonderful successes of the .Macedonians in Asia caused

some anxiety in Rome, if we may believe Livy, who asks himself what consul the Senate would have sent against Alexander. In the time of Pyrrhos, another Epeirot, the danger was greater, and 8 the Romans averted it by the victorj at Beneventum; in subsequent years thej completed the conquesl of Magna Graecia, which placed them between two sims. upon which they had to preserve

order. Ily the conquest of Corsica and

Sardinia, after the Firsl Tunic War. the BRONZE COIK-* western half of the Mediterranean became

Roman lake; and for the same motives of affording protection to the commerce of their new subjects, the} were led to send into the eastern Mediterranean their fleets and legions.

The coasl of lllyria. protected 1>\ innumerable islands, had long been inhabited bj dangerous bandits, who, according to the opportunity, ravaged now by land, now by sea. The Italians

1 1 i f r. II. •

i I .'.".-6.

• // rot i chapter wi. mi Veiled head oi the Senate OSovXij) personified, ri.'lit profile. ft

"••in VNTli luu'. left profile, holding a palm and .i crown. ( * of CONDITION OF GREECE BEFORE ROMAN DOMINION. o< 1 who sailed the Adriatic had cause to complain of these pirates, but they were much more harmful to Greece, which, like a body in dissolution, could be preyed upon by the meanest of enemies. The Illyrians felt themselves a match for the Aitolians and the

I. Coin of Korkvra Nigra. Coin of Herakleia. COINS OF THE II.LYRIAN ISLANDS.1

Epeirots. They had taken Phoinike. the richest city of Epeiros, had pillaged Elis and Messenia, and had made an alliance with the Akarnanians. These successes were not calculated to make these " sea-swallows " more cautious in respect to the trading-

2 < OINS OK ELIS. vessel- of Adria. Brundusium, and Tarentum, whose owners cried out bo Loudly that the Roman Senate, already not disposed to

it tin- pirates much license, sent envoys to the widow of their late king. Teuta ruled, in the name of hor son Pineus, over a part of Illyria. and she replied haughtily that it was not the custom of the lllyrian kim.r s to prohibil their subjects from making

for their own profit. On this the youngesl of the envoys, Coruncanius, replied: "Among us, o queen, the custom is

1 I. Laurelled bead of .\|m,I|o. right profile. Reverie: KOPKYPAION; ear of wheat.

; • . head of Herakles, right profile, wearing the lion'a skin. Reverse;

HPAKA[«wrAr] ; bow and club.

• I. Dia

B in an incused square, fAAEION ; a Vict ated, to

'.ii ,-i i. .ml. ,ii bei ;i of olive- | right band wreath

1) ' 'I illection of the monastery of St. Florian, Austria.) - HISTORY OF GREECE. never to leave unpunished injuries suffered by our fellow-citizens; and we shall so act in this case, if it please the gods, that you will proceed to reform the customs «>f the Qlyrian kings." Teuta

: was » she caused the young envoy to be assassinated on his way home. The piratical expeditions of the Illv-

vil \v in ii.iyima (EPIDAMXOS).1 rians became more numerous: Korkyra was taken, Epidamnos and

Apollonia were besieged, and an A.chaian fleet was defeated.

I: was a favorable opportunity for the Romans to show themselves in Greece. The Senate perceived the advantage that could l>e derived from these events, and took openly the attitude <>f protector of the Greeks part which it played to the end with

I OIS- ill Till I-I \M- 01 I" A

so much success. In order to give a great idea of the power of Rome, there were despatched against these inconsiderable enemies two hundred galleys, twenty thousand legionaries, and the two

suls, that i- to say, a much larger Eorce than had been sent

t Carth at the beginning (229 B. c). Korkyra was given

u]> by or, Demetrios ; the Illyrians besieged rssa, in the

i View of Epidamnos (Dyrrachion), from Heuzej and Daumet, Mission archeologique dt

l I! ifile. Reverse VS.'elm . he-goat, standing t" the right. Ki verse bunch "i grant Bi I ome.) a o " a - Ml US If i^?f#^ a

p -T- i. O X o

ft.

< B o o i.

< ^3** e er. T *.

CONDITION OF GREECE BEFORE ROMAN DOMINION. 375

island of the same name (Lissa) : they were driven out, and no one of the places which made an attempt to resist was able to withstand the Roman attack. Teuta, in alarm, granted all that Rome demanded. — a tribute, the cession of a part of Ilbyria, the promise not to send more than two vessels beyond the mouth of the Lissos, and the COIN OF KORKYRA. 1 heads of her principal counsellors, to appease by their Mood the angry manes of the young Coruncanius (228 B.C.).

The Greek cities subjugated by the Illyrians, Korkyra and Apollo- nia, were restored to independence. The consuls hastened to make known this treaty to the Greeks. reminding them that it was for their protection that the Romans had crossed the sea. The deputies presented them-

selves in all the cities, receiving the acclama-

1 2. tions of the multitude : COIXS "I Illl. ISLAND "I PHAROS.9 at Corinth they were admitted to tin' [sthmian Games, at Athens they received citizenship, and tiny were initiated into tin- Mysteries of Eleusis. Thus began the firsf. relatione between Rome and Greece.

1 Romans had given Demetrios the island of Pharos and districts of Illvria. Not feeling sufficiently recompensed, he united with tin- corsairs, and drew with him into revolt i la- Qlyrian king Pineus. Again

- - 1 t the • a consul into Illvria. Deme- trioa (I'd to the king of Macedon, and soon

COIN or APOLI.ONIA. : laded him to take arms against the Ro- mans, while Pineus once more accepted the conditions of the firsi 219 B.O.). Thus Rome possessed on the Greek mainland

i harbors and an extensive province, — an outpost protecting an.l threatening .Man-don.

1 ,,! ' '' ili<- ' ' loom, tn rigb i: erae i flower with eight petah expanded, and rand the field, beading. (811 ' " Zona, left • I profile, Rerei : it, to the left. (Silver.) 2. Laurelled left profile. Ravei ; e: Ar^e'oji'] kantharo , (Bronze.) -II. -I bead of Apollo, right profile B AHOAAONIATAN ; obeli I (oi per ); ill- whole orronnded bj ; laurel-wreath. (Bronze i CHAPTER XXXVII.

THE ROMANS IN GREECE; PROCLAMATION OF HELLENIC LIBERTY

(214-195 B.C.).

I. — First Macedonian- War.

TX 217 B.C. Philip visited Argos, and was witnessing the cele-

-*- bratioD of the Nemean Games, when a courier arrived from

Macedon bringing news that the Romans had lost a great battle at the lake (if Trasimene, and thai Hannibal was master of Northern Italy. The king showed this letter to no one but Demetrios of

Pharos, \\ ho urged him to at once into Qlyria, and theme pass over into Italy. Deme-

trios represented to the king that Greece, already submis-

sive, would continue to obey

him ; that the Aehaians had

entered willingly and even cor- .' ci pin in i m: i ii \ci

dially into his interests ; that the Aitolians, alarmed ;it the presence of war. would nol fail to imitate them: that, finally, if he wished to render himself master of the world. — a noble ambition, which he had every right to cherish, — it was now his opportunity to cross the Adriatic and crush the Romans, alreadj half destroyed by Hannibal. And the historian adds: "These words were very gratifying to a king young, brave, hitherto successful in his enterprises, and born of a

e which had always aspired to universal dominion" (Polybio

11- i pter, with a wreath of wheat-ears, lefl profile. Reverse horse'a head, to

tit. i. ;

THE ROMANS IX GREECE. ai i

The ambitious designs in which two brave men, Alexander the Molossian and Pyrrhos, had failed, were now set before the mind of the feeble successor to the throne of Macedon by his Dlyrian adviser. Neither the king nor his counsellor was alarmed at feeling the world shaken by the collision of Rome and Carthage. Deceived by their chimerical hopes, they did not read that in the

book of fate, which is written by courage and prudence, the Romans were already designated as the heirs of Alexander. To have his hands free at this conjuncture, Philip granted the peace which had

. solicited by the van-

quished Aitolians. If he had rationally regarded the situation he would have done

this, hut with the intention lefending the independence of Greece. However, TETRADKACHM OF PHII.I1' III. (OR V.) 1

in tin- assembh . when the

;y of peace was made, with the agreement that each should in what he already had. a voice was raised to give warning

the peril. "Lei Greece unite," said Agelaos of Naupaktos

••It- - Gi •• be mindful nt' the great armies which are now disputing the battle-fields of Italy. That strife will soon end: Rome

lage will 1"' victorious: whichever side is the conqueror will come to seek us at our hearthstones. Be attentive, Greeks, and thou above all. <) Philip the king! Le1 discords cease, ami

all labor henceforth 1 » prevent the danger!"

M a listened t" tin- orator, hut thej forgol what he had said: ambition, hatred, and jealousy remained in all hearts. Aitolia ami

could nut pardon the Achaian League for having had re- cotu foreigners, or Philip for having intervened, ami thai victoriously. Philip himself forgol the wise advice of A.gelaos to

the liberty of the Greeks and make himself loyally their

i. Hi- ministers, and particularly Demetrios of Pharos, •I him tu make conquest of the Peloponnesos.

' M bicltl in the uml r irhicli i- represented the head "f the hero Pei8eni>, in helmet, iu crcil an eagle'i beak . on the ihoulder Perseus carries R BA21 VE02

h | in the Geld, three mono -

. : HISTORY OF GREECE.

On one occasion, al Messene, he obtained permission to enter the citadel of Ethome with his guards, to offer a sacrifice there.

Demetrius and Aratos accompanied him. The victim being slain. called he them to look at the entrails, saying: -Do they not indi- cate that we ought to keep this fort?" "If you have the soul .1 a soothsayer," replied Demetrios, -you will restore it; but if of a king, with [thome and the Akrokorinthos, you will hold the two

.' VII H HI M"l N I II MuMI

horns of the bull." Aratos remained silenl : and being urged to give his opinion, ••Tin' strongest fort a king can have,"*he said,

" is confidence and affection." Philip hesitated, much embarrassed,

and finally -aid: "Let us go, then, as we came." The ascendency

<>f Aratos was -till verj great.

This, howeverj was the lasl success "f this prudent statesman,

who. insulted by the courtiers of Philip, losl his influence more and more. Spoiled by power, that dangerous master, Philip abandoned

'/ > :. 104. \t the left, at the foot of the mountain, is the THE ROMANS IN GREECE. 379 himself to all excesses. He offered an unpardonable insult to the younger Aratos, bringing disgrace into his house, and ended by regarding Aratos himself as an enemy of whom he would willingly be rid.

•• Not wishing to attempt anything against him in the way of open force, he, Philip, desired Phonon, one of his officers, to take him off in some secret manner : at the same time he recommended poison. That officer, having accordingly formed acquaintance with Aratos, gave him a dose, not of a sharp or violent kind, but such a one as causes lin-

I ill COLUMN "[ IPOLLON1 \-'

gering heats and a Blight cough, and gradually destroys life. Aratos

not ignoranl of the cause of his disorder, hut knowing that it availed nothing to discover it to the world, he bore it quietly and in si I'-i i it had been an ordinary illness, lint once when a friend came to visit him in his chamber, and expressed surprise at his con-

m, 'Such, Kephahni,' said the dying man. 'an' the fruits of royal

friendship"' < Plutarch).

II' died it Aigeion, after having been seventeen times strategos

(213 II body was interred at Sikyon, in the must con uoufl portion of tin- city. The place was called the Axateion, and lie; Centuries later, the worship of the dead hen, ui-

ed with solemn rites ,,,,,1 sacrifices.

1 II Fro Daumet, M 9"lut •'• Vtoetdoine, pi. 81 380 HISTORY OF GREECE.

Aratos had lived long enough to see the opening of the struggle between Philip and Rome. Some time after the peace concluded with the Aitolians, the king had equipped a hundred

vessels in the Adriatic to drive the Romans from Greek territory. The battle of Cannae (216 B.C.) increased his hopes. He sent

envoys to Hannibal, who concluded a treaty of alliance with the Carthaginian, by which Philip ed to furnish two hundred galleys and rav- the coasts of Italy. After the victory. Home Italy, and the spoil.- should belong to Hannibal and the Carthagi-

nians; they would then cross over into Greece, make war on all kings or peoples whom

Philip should designate, subject to him

the cities of the mainland, ami abandon to a • OIXS "1 I I lS. him the islands adjacent to Macedon. Philip executed very imperfectly his share of this imprudent treaty, which imposed on him all the present bur-

dens fur the hope of a very uncertain future. He did not equip the two hundred vessels promised, he gave the Ro-

mans time to arm a licet of a hundred

and twenty -alleys superior to his. and BROXZ1 COIN.* the Eollowing year, besieging Apollonia, he allowed himself to he surprised ami defeated off the mouth of

the A.otis h\ the praetor Levinus, who compelled him to burn his -II b.c). A single legion had sufficed to drive the king

from these eo.i -

After having closed to Mae, dun the route of the Adriatic.

tius occupied himself in creating difficulties for Philip in

a of Apollonia (Hljrria). \im \. a magistrate's name ; a heap of perfumes burning.

i i UIOAAONIATAN; a shepherd's crook. 2 I. Laurelled head "I Zeus, right profile, Reversi : F.\ [A«W] . Horse, i" the right,

tin, hing ground with hi- f, „,t ; underneath, \r. initials of ;i magistrate's name. (Silver.)

f\ a«/<.»,j {]e to the right, devouring a hare. Revi j thunderbolt. (Silver ) iii'\ CVNKAHTOCi laurelled head of tin- personified Senate, right profile. Rei

ricrrSor,..., ;> QN M ; eagle with wings displayed, standing on thunderbolt (Coin of THE ROMANS IX GKEECE. 381

Greece. The Aitolians accepted the Senate's alliance, with the promise that Rome would take only the spoils, leaving to them all the cities, with Akarnania and half of Epeiros. The Eleians followed, as usual, the example of the Aitolians. The Messenians and Pleuratos, king of Illyria, accepted the protection that was offered them. Sparta at last, through hatred of the Achaian

League, and Athens, jealous also of these little cities which were now making so much more stir in the world than herself, went over to the side of the foreigner (211 B.C.).

From that moment until the treaty of 205 B. c. there was nothing great in Greece. There was not even manifested the energy of the war between the two leagues, as if the shadow of

COINS in PHILIP III. (OR V.) 1

Rome already lay upon the land; Roman arms had weakened Philip, and Roman policy had sown further dissensions among the States of Greece. Until the time of Rome's final and more decisive intervention, each made war against every other, without results, but with much cruelty. Ant ikiirha. Dvme, Oreos, and Aigina were frightfully ravaged, and the inhabitants sold as slaves. While Philip gained some advantage over the Aitolians, on the other hand Attalos, king of Pergamon, took from him several cities.

In the Peloponnesos, Sparta, completing her revolutionary cycle, gave herself up to the tyrant Machanidas, who made a predatory warfare against the Achaians. The league had lasted only the period of a buman life, and already it was decrepil with age.

I. and effeminacy had crept into it,; the army was disorganized, the military service neglected, even in the cavalry. One man.

Philopoimen of Megalopoli .ml citizen and a skilful officer,

1 i. Diademed head of Philip, right profile. Rei BAZIASQZMAmnOY; aclub; the

kin. i imrov]; two I,. .,:ii lying down, in the right; in a wl i the field, Bronze ) HISTORY OF GREECE.

eeded, however, in restoring some vitality to this association, which, in losing the power to defend itself, seemed to have lost all the other elements of strength. Philopoimen revived the military spirit, made reforms as to the arms and the drill of the soldiers. and constructed for himself a small Achaian phalanx, copied from that of Ma.-, dmi. This reform gave him a victory over Machanidas, whom he slew with his own hand. The battle took place near Mantineia, and Polybios fought at his general's side Bui what profit was derived from this victory? Philopoimen immediately after went awa\ to fighl in Krete, leaving events to take their course, without his guidance, in hi> native country. After these protracted but unimportant wars, peace was mad.' in 205 B.C.; Philip at iir.-t signed a separate agreement with the Aitolians, and then treated with the Romans: the country of the Parthenians and many districts of Illyria were added to the Roman territory.

II. — Second Macedonian Was (200-197 b. c).

The Romans regarded this peace as merely a suspension of hostilities which gave them the opportunity to devote their whole attention to settling their great quarrel with Carthage. Philip did not understand that this was merely a respite granted him: instead of making read} for the renewal of tin- struggle with

Kome. he wasted his strength in a useless war against Attains and Rhodes. Ih' laid siege to Pereamon, but in vain, and was defeated at sea by the Rhodians; hut on the Thracian coasts he sei/eil many cities, and in Mysia six seaporl towns, among others Abydos. To protect himself in Thrace against an ally of Home.

gerously situated for Macedon, was wise; hut to endeavor t<> make conquests in A.sia Minor was both Useless and imprudent.

It was not for his interest to extend himself, that is, to render himself more vulnerable, hut to draw hi- line- closer. Also, why offend Kome by a feeble aid of four thousand men sent to Hanni- bal, just now making his escape from Italy'.' It was indeed too

I tttempt i

The Creek allies of Kome reported to the Senate this sending 1

THE ROMANS IX GREECE. 383

aid to the of Carthaginians ; at the same time the Aitolians and the Athenians accused Philip of ravaging their territory, and Atta- los and the Rhodians reproached him for his attempts upon Asia.

Philip evidently was ambitious, and he had little affection for

Rome. This might have been suspected for a long time, but it

had not suited the Senate to take notice of it until after the battle of Zama.

A declaration of war was made so the consuls said to the Romans, in order to anticipate the action of Philip himself, and not await this new adversary in Italy, as Pyrrhos and Han- nibal had there been awaited. There had been scarcely time to breathe since the Afri- can war and the sanguinary struggle of sixteen years.

This indefatigable people, 1 1 1 1 RADRACHM. notwithstanding their desire for repose, admitted the specious arguments of the consul Sulpicius. They had thai greal and rare courage which will not rest, so long there remain.- something to do. Philip had allied himself with Antiochos of Syria and Prousias of Bithynia to seize the Thracian and Asiatic possessions of the king of Egypt, Ptolemy Epiphanes whom Rhodes and Attalos defended. In Greece, Sparta, under Nabis, the hated

successor of Machanidas; Athens, just now interchanging rights of citizenship with Rhodes; the Aitolians, who ruled I »r » I : \< MM.- almost from one sea to the other,8 and le-ld the pass of Thermopylai, — were his declared enemies, ami

hi- i had left him only lukewarm friends. Sulpicius Galba,

= 1 — j t him. took only two legions; Carthage supplied the

1 ' tfocho III. of s.. r i;,. Diademed head of Antiochot III. righl profile,

-•" 'I i" ••„ tpollo, nudi . the left, il„- omphalos; he hold

• :i lii- rnw in In- righl liarnl, and Ihiw in lefl ; in iln- field, ;i monogram.

N" 1 1 1 1 i < I i 1 1 ( i .•I of a 1 : 1 kin'.- \l n a?), I'll profile. Revi

hi : in the bai kjtroiinil, a palm tree (< oin attributed i" M

• I. Pholcif irhii li were on Pbilip'i lido. ;;m HISTORY OF (.,l,i:r.i E

Roman with wheat, Masinissa sent him Numidians, Rhodes and At talos their vessels, and the Aitolians, after some hesitation, their cavalry, — the best in Greece. Nabis, without declaring ror Rome, already in open war with the Achaians.

As - as operations began, Philip, notwithstanding his ac-

tivity, found himself as it were enveloped in a aetwork of enemies. A lieutenant of Sulpicius, senl to the aid of Athens, burned Chalkis, the principal city of Euboia; the Aitolians, with the Athamanians, ravaged Thessaly; Pleuratos, king of Illy ria. and the Dardanians

came down upon Macedon; finally, another Roman officer pushed

a reconnoissance as Ear as into Dassaretia. On this side Sulpicius

1 COINS 01 I VRTHAGE.

made Ins attack. — that is to say. by way of Lychnidos and the road which later became the Via Egnatia, directing himself upon the strongly fortified position of Berakleia (near Monastir).

Philip arrived in time to protect the city, and closed againsl the Romans the defile through which thej could have conic down upon the fertile plains of Lynkestis. But in these mountains the Mace- donian phalanx was useless; and although Philip had gathered a force of twenty-six thousand men. be could not prevent the Romans from turning his position on the north and descending into the plain by wa\ of Pelagonia. Sulpicius thus found himself, after a few month-, in the heart of Macedon. Bu1 winter was approaching; without store- or fortifications, he could not spend the cold season in an enemy's country, and he therefore returned to Apollonia.

1 Head "f Demeter, -with :i wreath of wheat-ears, left profile Phoenician legend:

ru-in , : Carthage) Rovi 1 horse, to the left in the background, a

left, > palm) 1 retradrachm.) 2, Fore-part of a horse, galloping to the and crowned bj in of barley. R palm-tree; Pha;nician legend, ntW fflp

I 1 idrachm.) , '

THE ROMANS IN GREECE. 385

During the summer the combined fleet had driven from the Cyclades the garrisons of Philip; they had taken Orea, and pillaged the coasts of Macedon ("'.00 B. c). Some predatory expeditions into Attika, slight advantages gained over the Aitolians, who had attacked Thessaly, and the capture of Maroneia, a rich and powerful city of Thrace, were not enough to counterbalance for Philip the danger of having allowed the enemy to penetrate into the very heart of his kingdom.

Scale

li 2"Ktl.

MAI' iik THE LOWER MM-

The new consul, Villins, found the Roman army mutinous, and

.d the resl of the campaign in re-establishing discipline

9 B.C.). Il<: succeeded, it would seem, only in Bending awaj the mutineers, who, having Bel oul in this war with the ho] I" a rapid expedition and rich booty, bad obtained neither the one

the other. A.1 least, it is certain tli ccessor of \'illius had to bring with him nine thousand new troops. Encouraged by the Roman inaction, Philip took the offen ive, and established him-

1 ||. an '! de At p 80 - HISTORY OF GREECE. self mi the two banks of the Aoiis, near Antigoneia, in an almost impregnable position, covering Thessaly and Epeiros, whence also he could cut the Romans off from their communications with the sea, in case they should attempt to enter Macedon as Sulpicius had done. At Rome there was greal displeas-

ure at these delaj s, and T. Q. Flami- ninus was made consul,-— a man who had as yet been only quaestor, but whose reputation was greater than his actual services warranted. A

good general, a better state-man. in mind pliant and crafty, more Greek than Roman in character, Flaminrnus was the true originator of the Machia- vellian policy which gave Greece over, almost disarmed, to the Romans.

He did no better at first than his

predecessor. The fruitless attempt of Sulpicius had shown that Macedon was with difficulty reached across the T. QUHK2TIUS FI.amimm -.'

mountains in the northwest ; and an attack on the .south by the fleet had led only to useless pillage. It was proposed now to make a direct advance. But Philip had taken up his position in a gorge, hemmed in by two mountains whose barren and abrupt cliffs descended to the river, which occupied almost the whole width of the pass.3 During six weeks Flamininus remained before the camp, which it was impossible to attack. Every day skirmishes took place: ••hut when the Romans attempted to clinih the nioiiu.ain side, they were met with showers of arrows and darts from the Mace- donians here and thereon their flank. Accordingly, the skirmishes were very sharp for the lime that they lasted, and main were

' Marble bus) in the Cabinet dt France (No /"•). Cf. Bernoulli,

Tkonographu . \. 60.

• F.iv. This defile is now the Klissoura, at the junction "i" the Destnitsa and tli.' \ Voiis). "This deep and Bloomy -j'T^r is shut in b) the steep ridei of two

- which leave between their bases < space ""i over sixl) Fathoms broad, which " upiei i Pouquei ille, i 28 THE ROMANS IN GREECE. :;sy killed and wounded on both sides; but this was not enough to decide the result of a war." (Plutarch.) Discouragement was beginning to spread through the Roman camp, when Charops, an Epeirot chief whose country had been wasted by the Macedonian army, furnished the consul with the means of ending this dangerous inaction. He sent him a shepherd, who, pasturing his flock in the defile, had thus become familiar with all the mountain-paths, and now offered to lead the Romans in three days to a position whence tiny could look down upon the enemy's camp. After satisfying

1 1 1 1. ( uin OF GOMPHOI. •J. i OIN OF KAIiVSTOS. i nl\ ill ERE! RIA. himself that the shepherd came from Charops, Flamininus selected from his hest troops a corps of Lour thousand foot and three hundred horse, gave them orders to advance only* by night, the moon giving sufficient lighl at the time to guide them, and on their arrival at tin; place designated by the shepherd, to kindle a great fire, ami thus announce to the legions the success of their enterprise. The consul had made sure of the guide by two efficient, means, — a promise of large reward if he remained faithful, and an order to the soldiers to kill him if it should prove thai he had led them into an ambuscade. To attract the attention of the

Macedonians towards the banks of the river, attacks which seei I serious wen- kept up unremittingly during two days. On the third

. at a given -i. loud shout i- heard from the depths of the valley, and an answering crj from the heights above the royal camp. The Macedonians, attacked in front and threatened in the rear, are panic-stricken; they flee, and make no stop until they reach Thessaly, behind the mountain range "i Pindos.9

1 \ bi 1. N nipli- o thi right, hair floating and twisted Reverse : "' 1 in the no mi \ 1 / eated left on Mount Pindos; in the lefl hand In- holds

i a thunderbolt, (Drachma i ! Head of Poseidon, right profile, Re

KAPYTHON trident, with a dolphin around It, (Bronze.) 8. Head "i the nymph

i i i'i !•! ii'ii'js two bunchi ol ibove, wuuoi. ;i

ill remaini In Kpelro travi tied, however, into one of .

HISTORY OF GREECE.

At news of this victory, which gave Epeiros 1o Flamini'nus, the Aitolians Eel] upon Theasaly, and Amynandros, king of the Atha- manians, opened to the Romans the entrance into that province through the defile of Gomphi. Philip, not daring to risk another engagement,

fell back into the vallej of Tempe, after having pillaged the open country, burned tlic unwalled cities, ami driven the inhabi- BRONZE COIN. 1 tants into the mountains. This action was in striking contrast to that of the Romans, whom Flami- ninus required to observe the strictest discipline, and who had suffered from hunger rather

2 than earrv off provisions in Epeiros. Ac- cordingly, many places opened their gates, and

-II vi R COIS Flainininus had already arrived on the hanks of the Peneus, when the brave resistance of Atrax arrested his victorious march. Near there stood the important city of Larissa, which the Macedonians occupied in force. The consul retreated.

During this campaign the allied fleet had taken, in Euboia, the cities of Karystos and Eretria (198 B.C.). •whence the Romans carried off a number of statues, pictures of old painters, and masterpieces of every kind." The Macedonians found in these plie,.-; were obliged to give np their weapons and pay a ransom of three hundred sesterces per man.

Instead of losing the winter, as his predecessors had done. by returning in'" camp near Apollonia, Flamininus led his legions

kirrha. on tin' Gulf of Corinth, where vessels from Korkyra

(Corfu), his port of supplies, could bring him safely all the provisions of which he had need. lie found himself thus in the centre of Greece. While his troops went on taking the small cities of

Phokis and besieging tie' stronghold of Elateia, which they at last

! _'. ml- with which the popular imagination envelops historic facts (Pouqueville, Voyag*

!, note -').

I' l>i- i of Antikirrha. Bust of idon, right profile, with the tridenl on shoulder.

i >-^ ,n i ikvi'I un : Artemis the huntress going to the right, accompanied br her < 1

The I ne bj Praxiteles, in ;i temple of Antikirrha (Zeitachrijl fllr Nvmia-

KOP •.-• <' Diademed hi kd of Here, right profile. Reverse k. THE ROMANS IN GREECE. 389 took, his negotiations and his threats, the advice of the partisans of Rome, and new hostilities on the part of Nabis, compelled the Achaians to accept his alliance. 1 He had promised to restore to

Dl HI ill: ('!)''

tin-in Corinth; bu1 the Macedonian garrison repulsed all attacks, and even made capture of \ which was then given up to

I it al once proclaimed these I wo laws :

1 Philip hod, bo I lo the league, al the beginning of this campaign, Orcho

H and Triphylia, and to tin I Uiphera (Livy, xxxil, 5).

from A |", n, .MM I,. \| lleuzey, and ""»• in the Museum ol tbi

II, and the nami Den tvrho ix • n u ted for )

390 HISTORY OF GREECE.

the abolition of all debts, and the division of the territory. show- well the character of all the revolutions of thai time. Nabis having obtained from Philip all he could hope for; wenl over to the Roman party; and already the rest of the Peloponnesos had

joined it. Flamininus was anxious himself to terminate the war by a or, Letter still, by a victory. Philip having asked for a conference, the Roman granted it. and on both sides were taken the jealous precautions so much employed in

the Middle Ag - The king and the consul

met eaeli other near the coast in the Maliac

Gulf. The king arrived on board a war- 1 ( oi\ hi i Al:i~~ v. gallej escorted by five vessels, but refused to

land, and took pari in the discussion from the prow of his --alley.

'This is very inconvenient," Flamininus said to him; "if you will come on shore, we can converse

much more easily." lint the k refused to do this, and Flamininus rejoined. --Of whal are you afraid '.'" ••I am afraid of nothing but the immortal gods," Philip said, "but

I no in the VER COINV have confidence people who surround you." The time d in vain recriminations; on the following day the king consented to land, on condition that Flamininus would send away the allied princes, and came on shore, with two of his officers. The consul was attended only bj a tribune. It \\ ed there should truce of two months, during which the king and the allies should send deputies to the Senate. The Greek envoys set forth their grievances at great length; when the .Macedonians, in their turn, proposed to reply in a long harangue, they were interrupted

lie question whether their master would withdraw his garri-

from the Greek cities: the} replied that thej had no instruc-

1 Thessalian horseman, galloping in the left Reverse: the nymph Lnrissa, seated to

tin- right, ii|hiii ind arranging her bail bj . mirroi »liiili she holds in her band.

Ion.

and laurelled head of tin- African Hcrakle? (Mclkarth), left profile, «itl> a elub

R ili. mi walking to the right, guided bj his driver, who is wrapped

ittributed variously to Micip i. Mi inissa, or Jngurtha.) '

THE ROMANS IN GREECE. 391 tions to that effect, and thereupon they were dismissed. This was in accordance with the wishes of Flamininus. In Central Greece the Boiotians alone remained undecided. 1 Flamininus sought 'a conference with them outside the walls of

Thebes ; and when the strategos, Antiphilos. came to meet him.

i IPARISONI D M.I PHANT'8 111 k.D.

Burrounded by the principal Thebans, the consul, accompanied by

ilos, and almosl without guards, presented himself: he talked with the deputies one by one. Battering t.hem and occupying their

ution until be bad led them bacl to the city and througb the be market-place, while the townspeople followed eagerly, curii the consul and to bears Roman speaking the Greek lan_ i fluently. Bui two thousand legionaries were near; and while Flamininus thus held the multitude spell-bound, they occu-

I the walls, and Theb taken.

1 'I in"l f;iitlif'il to Philip miii! the battle of K no | kephtlai 1

i Bi olli'ctlon, from I 392 HISTORY OF GREECE.

In this somewhat unusual winter campaign Flamininus had conquered G and deprived Philip of all resources outside his own kingdom. It was possible now to make a direci attack upon him.

A: the return of sprin consul advanced as far as Pherai in Thessaly at the head of twenty-six thousand men, of whom six thousand were Greeks, and among these, five hundred Kretans. Philip, who during twenty years had been wasting his strength in useless enterprises, 1 GOl D I "IV could now bring together no more than twenty-five thousand men. enrolling even boys of sixteen;* of this number sixteen thousand composed the phalanx.

To the Senate's diplomacy rather than to it- arm- had been due the honors of the First M Ionian War. Now the legion, with its rapid movements and its missiles, the long lance and the heavy pUum, was to be matched againsl the phalanx of Alexander, which for nearly a century and a half had been reputed the mosl formidable engine of \l Rl war c\ er invented by man. The Romans were on the shores of the Paeasetic Gulf, within their reach of fleel ; Philip was at Larissa, his headquarters. The two armies advanced to meet each other, and for two days marched side by side, separated by a chain of hills, without either suspect- ing this dangerous neighborhood. The battle took place June, 197 B.C., near Skotoussa, in a plain having many small hillocks, called the Dogs' Heads. — Kynos- kephalai. The Aitolian cavalrj began the engagement, and Philip had neither time nor means to bring his phalanx into action. On this irregular ground it losl its strength in losing its unity; the

-hock of Masinissa's elephants, an attack skilfully made on its

. and the unequal pressure of the legionaries, broke it: eight

1 Coin of Philip III- (m V."). Head of the hero Perseus, ri.'lii profile, with a helmet (ringed, and surmounted by an eagle'a head; before him, the harpa. Reverse: BA21 •MMIIIIOY; I club.

• l.iv\ . \\\iii. l-:t.

» Head ol r. Quinctiui Flamininus, right profile. B l\ QVTNCT1 (77/ui Quute-

:> .1 il ut . standing i" the left, holding palm in the left hand and wreath in

righl hand. (Aureus struck al the time when Flamininus had jusl proclaimed the llberl ;

THE ROMANS IN GBEECE. 393 thousand Macedonians remained on the battle-field. The destruction of this phalanx, which the Greeks were accustomed to believe invincible, gave them an admiration for the courage and tactics

of the Romans which Polybios himself shares. Philip took refuge with the remnant of his army in the city of Gonnos. at the entrance of the gorges of Tempe, on the high- road from Thessaly into Macedon. He there protected his king-

dom : but not having strength to continue the struggle, he asked

to negotiate. Tbe Aitolians wished to push the war to its last extreme. Flamininus replied, boasting of the Roman humanity.

• Faithful to their custom of sparing the vanquished," he said, "they would not destroy a kingdom which protected Greece against the Thracians, the Qlyrians, and the Gauls," and whose existence —

but this lie did not say openly — was necessary to the Senate, to keep in check the turbulence of the Aitolians. Philip recalled his

is from the cities and islands of Greece and Asia which they still occupied, left the Thessalians free, and surrendered to the

baiboi — that is to say. to the Roman Gonnos. the very his kingdom. He gave

up his fleet, with the exception isports; disbanded his thousand men

mised not to keep a single 1 I I I RADRACHM. war-elephant paid five bundled ; and pledged himself to pay fifty as annual tribute for the and took an oath to make no war without the

insent.

: thus disarmed as a general, he was humiliated as

: In being compelled to receive, and to leave free and unpun- i-h'd. the Macedonians who had betrayed him. Flamininus even

mlated for the independence of the inhabitants of Orestis, a

lini district which had revolted during the war, and was

i the keys of the Macedonian kingdom on the side of

i III;, i 01 i Finally, Philip was required to give hostages, in e numbei the Romans insisted upon having his son Demetrios.

i bl profile i r.'. NTIOXOY;

ill'- lm left, on omphalo bo hold* a bow and ao arrow ; in the field, HIST0R1 OF GKEE( E.

At tli.' momenl when Macedon accepted the disastrous treaty, the king of Syria, Antiochos, at the instigation of Hannibal, was

making ready for war. " Flamininus," says Plutarcb, " in plac- ing peace between tbese two wars, ending one before the other

n. ruined at one blow the last hope of Philip and the first

oi Antii ichi »s."

mi-.. 1 8ITB OF fins \i i hi isii:\sii OF ill! VALLEY OF TEMPK.

The commissioners senl by the Senate to assist Flamininus in the negotiations with Philip wished to have Roman garrisons take the place of the Macedonian at Corinth. Chalkis, and Demetrios; bul this would have been to throw off the mask too quickly. The Greeks would have readily understood thai with "the chains of Greece" placed in Roman hands, all liberty would be but a vain slmw. Public opinion, so mobile in these States, was to be Feared. Already the Aitolians, most daring of all, were excit- ing it l>\ harangues and songs. They declared that their cavalry were the winners of the battle of Kynoskephalai, tiny accused the

Romans of undervaluing their service-, and they flouted the Gre< ks,

in Stackclberg, La G Go i ituated south of Olympos, on the lift bank

i I be cltj i omnuuided the entrance to the defile of Tempo, ami in a - cond

hich, cutting tin- spun i>f <>|\ni|„,s, conies onl :it llerakleion. THE ROMANS IX GREECE. 395 who believed themselves free because there bad been put upon their necks the fetters whicb they bad before worn on their ankles. Flamininus saw plainly that the best means of putting an end to these accusations, and conquering in advance Antiochos, who now- threatened to cross over into Europe, was to employ against him the weapon which had been so advantageously used against Philip; namely, the liberty of the Greeks.

III. — Proclamation of the Liberty of Greece.

During the celebration of the Isthmian Games, when all

ice had assembled, a herald imposed silence and made this proclamation: "The Roman Senate and Titus Quinctius. conqueror of king Philip, restore their franchises, their laws, and their immu- nity from garrisons and tributes to the Corinthians, the Phokians, the Lokrians. to the island of Euboia, and to the States of Thes- All the Greeks of Europe and Asia are free." Great joy burst forth at these words, and Flamininus was almosl smothered with garlands and flowers.1 " There then," they exclaim na-

upon earth which fights, at

own r i - k . for the liberty of BROXZE COIN.8

ms, which i the sea to

in end to tyranny, to establish the rule of equity, of justice,

and of law!' 'I i the liberator of Greece, as to a god, temples

I which Plutarch Found standing three centuries later. which bad their priests, their sacrifices, and their hymns. "Sing, tidens, the great Zeus, and Rome, and Titus, our deliverer!"

Thus this people, who could no longer do great things for lib-

till able u, love it ardently and to pay, with an apothe- deceitful Bemblance. When Flamininus embarked, the i.m- brought to him twelve hundred Roman prisoners of the

1 PI il irrh. i I 0.

>A CYNKAHTOC ; diademed head <>f the personified Senats, right profile. Reverse:

ling to the left, s cresconl on In ihoulder, holding a

I ) 396 HISTORY OF GREECE.

Punic wars who had been sold in Greece and whom they had now purchased, in order to set them free. Only the Greeks knew how thus to express gratitude. Rome accepted no share in the spoils of Macedon. Lokris and Phokis returned to the Aitolian League, and Corinth to the Achaian. To Pleuratos, the king of Illvria, were given Lychnidos and the country of the Parthenians adjacent to Macedon, and consequently giving access to it; to the Athamanian king, Amynan- dros, all the places that he had taken during

the war: to Eumenes the Pergameian, son of Attalos. island the of Aigina ; to Athens. Paros,

Delos, and [mbros; to Rhodes, the cities of

BRONZE COIN.1 - • » r i , i j...... , r , karia." I hasos was deelared tree. I lie lemons remained in C recce liecause Antioehos was approaching, it was said, and the Romans, after having delivered the country, now proposed to defend it.

Flamininus had still further views in respeel to Greece. Not- withstanding the gift of Corinth, the Achaians were incapable of resisting Nabis, the master of Gythion, Sparta, and Argos. This

3 Nabis was a most unscrupulous tyrant, whose cruelty is historic. Rome, however, had readilj received him into her alliance; she expelled him from it when she found herself no longer in need of him. In an assembly held at Corinth the proconsul represented to the allies the ancient and illustrious character of Argos. Was it right, he said, to leave one of the capitals of Greece in the hands of a tyrant? Whether Argos were Eree or in subjection mattered little to the Romans. Their glory in having enfranchised Greece allies would be a little tarnished thereby, no doubt ; but if the did not fear for themselves the contagion of servitude, the Romans would not interfere, and would coincide with the wishes of the majority. The Achaians applauded this hypocritical advice, and armed eleven thousand men. Others Hocked to their standard. and the allied force amounted, according to Livy, to fifty thou-

l men. This zeal caused anxiety to Flamininus; he wished to

if the Athamanes, Veiled head of Deione, right profile. Reverw VGAMANON;

itAoding (" the lefl ; she holds :l ^"-ar and an owl.

> Livy, wuciii

os, xiii. fr. 6—8; xvi THE ROMANS IN GREECE. 397 humble Nabis, but not to destroy him. His intentional delays, his demands for money and provisions, discouraged the allies ; they suffered him to negotiate with the tyrant, who gave up to him Argolis, Gythion. and the maritime cities (195 B.C.). Thus Nabis remained in the Peloponnesos against the Achaians, as Philip in the north against the Aitolian League. Rome could now recall her legions, for with her deceitful words, - ; the liberty of the States," .-lie had rendered union among them even more impossible, and hatreds mure violent. In every city, moreover, she had her partisans. 1 — as at Thebes, where the boiotarch Bra- chyllas had just been assassinated by them, — and these men. in their blindness, urged Greece towards servitude. It was now no longer necessary to hold her in chains, and Flamininus without fear withdrew his garrisons from Chalkis, Demetrias, and the Akrokorinthos. Before quitting Hellas he offered a wreath of gold to the god at Delphi, and consecrated in his temple silver shields, on which he had engraved Greek lines celebrating, not the victory at Kynoskephalai, but the restoration of liberty to the States of

This was the agreement : the Romans wished to appear

liberators, and tin- (In-cks willingly accepted this pretence. In reality, when Flamininus returned to receive his triumph at Rome, carried thither that important protectorate of Greece which all tin- successors of Alexander had vainly endeavored to secure 2

(194 b.(

1 It tai -.ii'l thai certain men were in tin- paj ol Rome, Cliarope in Epeiros, Dikearchos

I andDiophanesin Achaia, Deinokrates in Messenia. But I the virtue* and tin- patriotism of Aristainos, and Rome was nol wont to buj She exercised n corruption less base and more efficacious. In

• ii. linn- urn- always two parties, "I which she t""l* "in- under her

i it to power, habitually the rich olass, "which had mosl interest in

ill.! .'.i ! public tranquillity" (Livy, nxxiv. 49, ). This had been her policj in rerywhere

I l.niiiiiiiin-, however, ilia nut forget that the Senate and people

i' k gold. II'- poured into the treasury S,718 pounds of

i i r, and 1,61 gold philips (Plut., Flam , 1 I). ill>H»|;v OF GREE< I

IV. — Interval between the Second \m> Third Macedonian Wars (195-172 b.c.).

We have thus reached the lasl acl of the drama; and yet

at this verj time thai Greece, is dreaming of recovered liberty and youth. For a moment, indeed, she lias given way to a mad delight. Dying, she has welcomed life and believed in her own future. Ami indeed, as we have said, there was -till strength in Aitolia, and even in the Achaian League, nor had Macedon yel been dismembered. But now the tomb opens to receive these last hopes. Rome, the city of the sword, is to lay off the mask

.' c>l\- in llll AKARNANIANS, IN i.l \ I 1:1

of false gentleness that she had worn with Flaniininus. and to appear in all her severity in the person of the rude and ignorant Mummius. We have to narrate the history of three events. — the downfall of the Aitolians, of Macedon, and of the Achaian League. The

Aitolians perished 6rst ; the two others were destroyed almost together and bj the -ante Mow. When Flamininus had withdrawn his legions, the Aitolians allowed their dissatisfaction to break forth. Libert} had been

proclaimed Eor everj city; bul this was not for their interest. Thej had expected to receive the spoils of Macedon; bul there was given to them neither Thessaly, which thej desired, nor Akar-

1 l i" ri'.'lit AKAPNANQN. Apollo Kitharaidos, standing, the : in the field, t»" symbols or mil Reverse: NAYSIMAXOS; bearded bead of the Acheloos, right profile. (Silver

'/ imhoof-Blumer, Du I \aniens, p. 80.) .'. Beardless head of the Acheloos, right profile Reversi IKAPNANQN; V polio, nude, seated to the left on a throne, and holding his

- it.) THE ROMANS IX GREECE. 399 nania, nor Leukadia, nor the cities which the treaty of alliance had promised, but only two poor countries, Lokris and Phokis.

This was very little for the services rendered. This at least they said, boasting that they had opened Greece to the Romans, and everywhere been their guides. According to themselves, they alone had been the victors at Kynoskephalai ; alone they had saved the honor and the life of Flamininus. " While we were fighting," an

Aitolian said, •and shielding him with our bodies, I saw him all day long occupied with auspices, with vows, and with sacrifices, as if he had been a priest." Slighted as to their interests and

1. DIDRACHM.1 2. SILVER COIN. 1 humiliated in their pride by the haughty attitude of Flamininus, who replied coldly to their complaints, they resolved to punish so much ingratitude, and to bring into Greece an ally who would be more mindful of benefits received.

Thoas, their mosl influential man, was sent to the king of

Lntiochoa III., whose hatred of the Romans, stimulated by Hannibal, was well known, and advised him to make Greece the theatre of the war. The Aitolians, said the deputy, would give him all fh as allies. Thoas returned with an agent of Antiochos, who was lavish of promises, — the armies of Asia, the elephants of India, ami gold enougb to buy Home itself. Flami-

ninus firsl i ih'- Aitolians to he approached by Athenian

who advised the Panaitolikon t" remain faithful to the

Roman alliance. This advice was not well received; then fcTami-

1 I. Sl Aphrodite Aineiaai AdipoSm; Afawufr) standing, to the right ; she holds an

I and li'-r mounted by a i resccnl ; at sidi behind her, a her i

rmountcd bj i dove; the whole In a laurel wreath, Reverse: \iYk\\i"\ VV21

liip'i prow ornamented with a lion's bead; in the field, a m -

head (Didrachm.) -'. II' "I "t Pallas, right profile, with the Corinthian

in behind her, Apollo, nude, playing tin- lyre; in the field, AN ( Vnaktoi ) mono-

I: |*i ' n hi [hi innl.-nii-.iili, the monogram ol Vnaktorion. iOO HISTORY OF GREECE.

ninus caino in person, 1 >i 1 1 succeeded do better. Thbas and bis faction, in the verj presence of the proconsul, caused the assembly tn decree war against Rome; and when the Roman asked for a o>l>\ of this decree, the strategos Damokritos, with insane insolence, rejoined "thai he would shortly answer him from the Aitolian camp on the banks of the Tiber." did the Aitolians limit themselves to arrogant words.

They began hostilities with their usual alacrity, and made in one day. without a declaration of war. attacks upon Chalk is, Demetrias, and Sparta. They failed at Chalkis, hut thej captured iiia.-. ('ailed to Sparta by Nabis, they presented themselves as allies, then murdered

*'"' tyrantj ransacked his .1 /ct W\(PiM\ palace, seized his trea-

sures, and pillaged the

cit\ . The indignanl Spar "IN^ OK TIIK. LOKRI VNS. tans armed themselves against these plunderers, killed some, ami drove the res! away. Philopoimen skilfully availed himself of this occasion he ; hastened to Sparta with an army and induced the city t<> enter the

ue. •'•The Spartans, in their gratitude, -cut him a hundred ami twenty talent-, produced by the sale of the possessions of Nabis. lie advised them to keep their money to buy the silence of those who by their harangues in the council broughl disturbance and confusion into the city."

There was still hope in the arrival of Antiochos; hut both the king and the Aitolians were compelled to recognize their common

stfulness and their actual weakness. All the allies promised to Antiochos were reduced to the Maenetes, the Athamanians, and a few of the inhabitants of Elis and Boiotia. <>n hi- part, instead of myriads of men. he brought only ten thousand, for whose pay he was obliged in borrow money at heavy rate- of interest, and whom he required the Aitolians to feed. l'.\ a close alliance with the kin Mac dull, following 'he aihic of Ilannihal. he would have heen al'lc

1 I. Head ihone, crowned with wheat-oar9, right profile. Reverse: VOKPQN;

of Oilcus, nude, hcl ted, fighting »itli sword and shield, to the right ; before bint,

in the field, a monogram formed •< the letters ODOY. Silvei II d of Pallas,

1 inthian helmet, right profile. R VOKPQN; Uaa, nude, fighting, with sword

to tl i the field, ;i trident i lironzc.) THE ROMANS IN GREECE. 401

to spread throughout Greece a conflagration not easily to be extin-

guished ; instead of this he gave offence to Philip by insulting acts and unreasonable propositions. He spoke of rights derived from Seleukos, and supported the absurd claims of the son of Amynandros to the crown

of Macedon. In his precipi-

tate flight Philip had not been able to give funeral

rites to his men who had

fallen at Kynoskephalai. Antiochos collected their bones in a tomb which he

sed to be built by his army. This pious care was a bitter reproach to the Ma-

nian, who replied t

• - by sending to Rome

for permission to fight. 1 The

kirn: of Syria attempted

meanwhile to make the Achaians declare for him; and in a Panachaikon held

I lorinth, his ambassador, with Asiatic emphasis, made a long enumeration of the

who, from the . 1 .. e- rORSO "I \ VICTORY.

the I mln-. were taking arm.-, for lii- cause. "All this," Flamininus said, "reminds

me of the feasl of an innkeeper in Chalkis. In the midst of sum-

mer hi.- table was covered with the mosl varied meats and game

v. •ir. Philip tald, however, thai Intiochoi hud offered bim three thousand

i of :ill the Greek cities which had formerly belonged

Bui Antinchoi doubtlcaa made tl i ithei too won or t"" [ate; for

thai I! derived from all then wars is proved by liis

!'•. I' bio*, - fr. 7.

ifitl/irilitfi ' i» ai ' ' h, vol. i. (1877), pi [i

rl ii Laodikeia in Syria. i~ now In Vienna, in the collection of Admiral

imc work, vol II. (1878), p. 9, No. 9 of the I ital ie. The name given to

• ii li justified by attached to the bouldei I an interesting pture. 102 HISTORY OF GREECE.

y kind : but it was only one kind of moat skilfully prepared. If you look closely, under these various names of Medes, Kadousioi, and the rest, you will find nothing but Syrian-.'"

The activity of Flamininus de-

feated a conspiracy at Athens ; lait Chalkis, which he had no!

hail time to succor, opened its gates, and the whole of Euboia

went over to the eneny . Boiotia, where tumults were raised TETRADRACHM OP INTIOCHOS HI. 1 by certain men overwhelmed with

debt, Elis, and the Athamanians. always faithful to the Aitolians, followed this example.

Meantime Bannibal still gave the same advice to the kin-.

•" It is noi all these powerless States that you oughl to gain over. but Philip of Maeedon. If he refuses, crush him between your

8 c ..|\- in i in IKARNANIAS ii IGUE.

army and that wliieh Seleukos commands at Lysimachia. Sum-

mon your troops and your vessels from Asia, let half your fleet be posted off Korkyra, the other half in the Tyrrhenian Sea. and yourself march upon Italy." 1 Bui in this vast plan the Aitolians

and their petty interests disappeared ; the campaign was wasted

in capturing successively one eit\ after another in Thessaly : and during the winter Antiochos, notwithstanding his forty-eighl years.

forgot, in the celebration of a new marriage, that he had staked

1 Diademed bead of Intiochos QI., the Great, right profile, surrounded by ;i necklace. in two Reverse: BAZIAEQ2 VNTIOXOYj an elephant, to the right : the field, monograms. 1 1. Diademed 1 Has, right profile (archaic style), in an incased square, Rei

•ill of roMurropiW) J I' flying to the right (Silver.) 2. Bearded head of the

Acheloos, front faci It ITHMQN, ams istrate's name ; head of Kallirrhoc, front face,

'/.< er. I m) f-Blumer, Di'i n Akarnanietu, p. 14.) \ki I of the goddess

of tin' Akiim Games, diademed, right profile, wearing a gphendone. Reverse w \ rroptW)

,-,,. Z>i'< i the left (Silver. Imhoof-Blumer, VtUnxen Alcarna-

BO.) * Livy, xxxvi THE ROMANS IX GREECE. 403 his crown against the Romans on the issue of the war. The

Senate therefore had time to complete all preparations.

In the spring of the year 191 b. c. the consul Acilius Glabrio crossed the Adriatic and penetrated through Epeiros and Thessaly as far as Mount Oite, of which the extremity forms the defile of Thermopylai. Antiochos, who had just been repulsed in Akarnania by the feeblest of the Greek peoples, hoped to guard the pass with ten thousand men. Cato, the consular lieutenant, surprised two

1. Same.

2. Kraoion. Z. ECnniOD 4. Pronesos.

1 COINS OF I UK. ISLAND OF KEPHALLENIA. thousand Aitolians posted on the Kallidromos to defend the footpath of Ephialtes; at sight of the Roman cohorts coming over the mountain tin- kin--, who held Acilius in check in the defile, fled

i Elateia, then to Chalkis, and thence made his escape to Ephesos.

This battle of Thermopylai cost the consul a hundred and fifty men (July, L91 b. c). "Let Athens no longer boast of her

cried the Romans ; " in Antiochos we have defeated a ad Xerx To stimulate the zeal of Philip, the Senate had relinquished

lo li i in in advance all the places of which he could make himself

:. While Acilius, directing all his efforts against the Aito- lian i in the sieges of Berakleia and Naupaktos, Philip made rapid advances. He had already overrun four provinces, Aperantia and the country of the Dolopes, the Perrhaiboi and the Athamanians, bul Elamininus kept watch upon him; he hastened Naupaktos, pointed out to the consul the danger, and induced

• the Aitolians a truce, which disarmed the king of

1 l. I • -»- • Laurelled 1 of Kephalon, left profile Rcvei ZAMAIQN ; the dog Lailapa,

(Silver.) 2. KPANI[o>» -ii. un topping to the left. Revei in an incused

. u,w. (Silvi i i im'i head to the right Reverie KPA vi ram' foot.

i !:• bead of Kephalo*, left profile. •• FPQNNON ; a club. (Silver.) 404 HISTORY <»K <;i;EKCK.

Bfacedon. Shortly ln-fore this he bad arrested an expedition of the Achaians againsl Messene; and in allowing that city to enter the league, he had stipulated that she might have recourse, in all cases of disagreement, to the Senate or to the tribunal of the able man who remained the principal agent of Koine in Greece, — a partial tribunal always ready to receive complaints against the Achaians. Already Flamininus

had ceased to tiv.it tins people with any consideration. They bad taken the island of Kephallenia from the

Athamanians. "Like the tortoise in

its shell, you." he said. " will be in- vulnerable so long as you do not " come of ' and out the Peloponnesos ; he took Kephallenia from them.

At Ephesos, Antiochos felt himself

safe; but L. Scipio went thither in his pursuit, and by the victory of Magnesia drove him beyond the Tau- ros (190 B.C.). The following year Manlius Vulso, by his victories over • I, I \ 1 IAN\- the Galatians, put an end to the last

istance of Asia Minor. Thenceforth that country belonged to Rome, under the servile royalty of Eumenes the Pergamean. A truce had been granted to the Aitolians; hut when the Romans were rid of Antiochos, tiny resumed the war actively

n-t the league. Being conquered, the Aitolians senl to the consul to beg for peace, and consented t>> submit to the Roman clemency. These were the terms demanded by the Senate: but when the consul. Manius Acilius, explained to them that this meant to give up to Koine those who had urged the war. they remonstrated, and declared that this was contrary to the custom of the Greeks.

.v. \\\i\

tin' \ figurine i" I in the Nekropolis "f Myrrhina, and now in

1/ I I talogue C(. La \ ' Pottier and S. Reinarb,

Thi G ilatian i- identified n* inch by lii* nudity, lii^ long hair, and lii- long hield.

I •' Mote. — The view of Ephesos on the opposite page is borrowed from the work >l \

ti I itlh may be compared with the plan of Ephesos, Vol. II. o

" ;

THE ROMANS IX GREECE. 409

known to them the reasons for refusal ; then, would have the effect of entreaty tried, and supplication that they would not go beyond what had

been agreed upon ; if they then remained inflexible, he would have the gods appealed to as witnesses of the infraction of the treaty, and would

obev. . . . ' Is it best for us,' he was wont to say, 'to unite ourselves with all our forces to our masters, and endure without opposition the severest

rule, or rather to resist as far as we are able, and delay our servitude ?

. . . There will come, I know, a time for the Greeks when they must

? ' obey ; but is it better to hasten, or to retard it ' Are you so eager,' he

' said one day to Aristainos, ' to see the last day of Greece ?

These two statesmen, according to Polybios, were wise and upright but besides these two parties, separated only by a shade of difference, there was a third, which we shall soon find expressing itself in the words of Kallikrates, — one of those cowardly Greeks willing to endure all disgrace for the sake of Roman favor. To shut themselves up in the Peloponnesos, and live there as

free as it was possible, and to keep the Romans out, was the aim of Philopoimen. During the war of Antiochos it happened that Sparta, always ill-disposed towards the League, sought to separate from it. The Achaian praetor Diophanes marched upon the city and called his aid Flamininus. • Miserable man," Philo poimeu said to him, " beware of calling in the Romans among us!" And when Diophanes paid no heed to his remonstrances, he shut himself up in Sparta and defended the city even againsl the Achaians. Another time the requested the Achaians to restore the Spartan exiles to their hi Philopoimen opposed this, not because he was hostile to tin- cause ot" tin.- exiles, bul from an unwillingness to have them owe their return to the efforts of Rome. When Lacedsemon, preserving, from her ancient institutions, a k«t-n sentiment of nationality even in her decline, besought the her from the yoke of the Achaian alliance, Philopoimen manifested towards her a severity at which Plutarch

nam For tin- first time In- imputes to his hero injustice Philopoimen had put to death eighty, or according

1 aaki &AIMONION; roiled figure, perhap Demeter, Mated on a clppus, in an attitude

>l .1 .,) bronze "•in with ill I Lacedomon the i g ol onunodu i -111! HISTORY OF GREECE. to another historian three hundred and fifty, Spartans, he had destroyed the walls of the city, abolished its institutions, given a portion of its territory to Megalopolis, transported many of the citizens into A.chaia, and sold three thousand as slaves. He had determined to master this refractory city and stifle this voice whieh

Lifted itself up in the Peloponnesos and called in the Romans.

[f the nobility of Philopoimen's sentiments could be called in question, we might be tempted to see in this conducl the effect of a Megalopolitan's hatred of Sparta. We should attribute to a like motive a \ ery serious modification made by him in the constitution of the league ; namely, the law by which the assembly, instead of being held COIN OF BBLEUK09 iv i exclusively at Aigeion, should meet successively in all the cities of the confederation. Pbilopoi- men by this measure sought to give satisfaction to these cities, of whom some, like Sparta, were

not vet reconciled to the idea

of considering as their capital

and centre a small town, insig-

nificant and without ancient

fame. The measure was a

good one, and perhaps had it COIN "i EUMENES II heen adopted by Aratos. the unity of the Peloponnesos might have been realized.

It i- certain that the league, thanks to Philopoimen, resumed enough power and importance to have ambassadors sent to it from the Eastern kings, — from Seleukos Philopator, from Eumenes, from Ptolemy Epiphanes. Alliance with these kings was accepted, hut their gifts were refused. Eumenes, a perfidious ally, had sent a hundred and twenty talents to he placed at interest and pro-

1 Oiadei I head

Apollo, nude, seated <•• the left on the omphalos; in the right hand li" holds an arrow, and

liili the left upon n tow; in the exergue, :i monogram. (Tetradrachm.)

Icmed head "f Eumenei II (193 i 19 b >. right profile Reverse BASIAEQ3 RYMENOY; the Dioskonroi standing, leaning on their spears; in the exergue, a mint-mark;

hole in n wn cli oi laurel. (Tetradrach oined ;ii 8vro».) THE ROMANS IN GREECE. 411 duce an annual income which should defray the expenses of members of the Achaian council. Apollonidas of Sikyon reminded the assembly that the law prohibited Achaians from receiving presents from kings. Rome had seen with displeasure the energy displayed by Philo- poimen, and the Spartans had come to complain of the revolution

forcibly effected in their city : upon this the Senate sent envoys to deal with the matter. Appius Claudius appeared in the general assembly of the Achaians, accompanied by the Spartan who had complained at Rome, and whom the assembly had just condemned to death. Lykortas, the father of Polybios. at the time strategos, referred to the proclamation of Greek liberty made by Flamininus at the Isthmian Games, and had the courage to say, amid general applause, that /« if Rome in Italy put to death the Campanian senators, the \/ ^ y '*$g§^tfc#^y Achaian League might, in the CHIN OK PTOl.KMY V. Peloponnesos, claim a similar right towards traitors. To which Appius replied that lie urgently advised the Achaians to render the Senate favorable to themselves

while' they were >till masters of their own conduct, if they did not wisli to be soon compelled to aci without any choice of their own. At Messene, Philopoimen had protected the democratic party, which was favorable to the league. A- soon as the oligarchy became aware that the Senate weleomed eoniplaint.s against the

lians, they made- haste to send to Rome Deinokrates, their

leader. He returned from this mission in the company <>f Flami- ninus, who was sent to ask from Prousias the head of Hannibal.

Roman remained at Messene just long enough to produce a

The citj broke with the league and sent troops to Koronis. Philopoimen, Beventj years of age and Btrategos

nth time, was ill of a Eever al A il news of this

.lit for Megalopolis, where he arrived the same day, having

in that time. He summoned a corps of

i I" >'l ol i i hi profile. R go: ii i (i vi

MAIOl thunderbolt; in the field, tw Int-marli . ((lold.) H2 HISTORY OF GREE( E. cavalry, marched against the enemy, and compelled them to fall back; but, surrounded by superior numbers, was himself obliged

retreat and protect his own forces. In passing through a defile the cavalry left him behind in the midst of his enemies; his horse

stumbled, and threw him to the ground, where he lay uncon-

scious : thereupon the Messe- nians seized him, and when he recovered consciousness, over-

\\ helmed him with insults. He was brought into Messene loaded with chains like a criminal. and thrown into a subterranean prison. Many of the M(

nians interested themselves in

his fate. "We ought not to

•• they said. that it was he who restored our liberty by expelling the tyrant Nabis." iii>i:-i 9 ill \]>.< But some,to please Deinokrates, would have had him put to the torture. To do this, however, would have caused some delay, and Deinokrates. dreading the return of the Achaians, was anxious to make an end of the affair.

.-' . COIN 01 Ml -~l M '"IS "1 Ml "I \ I

Ls soon as the Messenians, therefore, at nightfall withdrew their homes, he had the prison opened, and sent the execution) r

1 Fragment in marble discovered .it Tarentum, and now in tli>- I'>iiii>li Museum (from the

:< Studies, pL xxiv.). < f., Vol. 111.]' 176, the horse's head from the eastern pediment of the Parthenon.

• AE5IA2 ; Zeus Homagyrios Btanding, holding in the right hand a Victory, and leaning with the left on a Bpear. Reverse: aXAION MESSANION Di P ichaia seated t<> the left, holding a wreath in the ri.'lii hand, and leaning with the left on .i spear. (Bronae.)

II id ..I Demeter, with a wreath of whi Reverse Zeus Ithomataa

ing, to the right ; in the rivrht hand !" holds the thunderbolt, and eagle; before him is a tripod. (Bronse.) THE ROMANS IN GREECE. 413 to carry poison to Philopoimen. The old man lay wrapped in his cloak. Seeing the light, and a man with a cup standing before him, he rose with difficulty, being very feeble, and took the poison from the executioner's hand, asking only if there were any news of his cavalry, and especially of Lykortas. The man replied that most of them had made their escape. Philopoimen thanked " him, and gently added : It is a satisfaction to me to know that our disaster was not more general." (Plutarch.)

VIEW IN Ml -MM \}

The news of his death spread consternation among the Achaians, and also a desire for vengeance. The assembly, meeting at Mega- lopolis, elected Lykortas strategos, and an army was sent againsl Messene, ravaging the country as they went. The alarmed city opened its gates ; Deinokrates at once took his own life; many of his partisans imitated his example; those who bad wished the illustri-

ous prisoner -to be tortured were made to suffer tortures themselves ;

Lykortas had some hanged, and others Bcourged to death.

"The body <>f Philopoimen was burned; and after collecting the ashes hi an urn. tin- armj departed from Messene in a kind of funeral train.

_•, '. I i 'in Sim killii i An J 14 HISTOBX OF GREECE united with a military and triumphal procession. The Aehaians marched garlanded with flowers, and weeping as thej went. Thej were followed by Messenian prisoners in chains. Polybios, the boii of Lvkortas, surrounded by the must important of the Aehaians. carried the urn, which was so covered with wreaths ami fillets that it could scared} be seen. The rear

brought up by a troop of cavalry, fully armed, and mounted on richly caparisoned horses. They manifested neither the signs of sadness appropriate to so great mourning, nor of joy proportioned to such a brilliant

\ ictory.

"The inhabitants ol the cities and villages through which thei route lay came out to meet the remains of the great man with the same eagerness which they had been accustomed to show when he was returning from his

fplpjCD^fr^JfMJ fr^JfrU m RU fMJ

1 VII loin HOI DING \ TORCH.

campaigns; and having touched his urn. they accompanied the procession on its way to Megalopolis. .Many old men. women, and children mingled in the crowd, uttered piercing which were heard in the city as they drew near, and the inhabitants answered hack with their lamentations: for they

felt that with this citizen was lost to them their pre-eminence among the Aehaians." ( Plutarch. )

But the loss of their pre-eminence was but a trifle over which to lament. The great loss was that which Greece suffered in being

deprived of the last support of her honor. "As, it is said, a mother loves best the son whom she has borne late in life, so Greece, bringing forth Philopoimen after all the other great men whom she had borne, loved him with an extraordinary affection, and named him the last of her children."

1 Painting on an Athenian lekythos, from O. Benndorf, Griechischt und Sicili

pi. \i\. Nil ;t. The Victory (NIKE) it walking to the right, ; torch in her hand. THE ROMANS IN GREECE. 415

After him the men who placed their hopes of fortune in the favor of Rome came into prominence, and treason spoke aloud. Kallikrates, being sent to Rome, said openly in the Senate, —

" Conscript Fathers, it is yourselves who are to blame if the Greeks are not more docile to your orders. In all the States there are two parties, — the one, which will disregard all laws, treaties, and considerations of what- f ever sor when it is a question of pleasing you ; the other, which maintains that la nd treaties should be observed. The opinion of this latter party is more -leasing to the people, and your partisans are despised and dis- regarded. But if the Roman Senate would give some sign of preference on

his point, then the leaders would all embrace that side, and fear would bring in the rest."

The Senate replied that it was to be desired that in every city the magistrates should resemble Kallikrates. This man, returning to his native land with letters from the Senate, was elected strategos (179 B.C.). Rome could, therefore, without anxiety leave to the lergue a few days more of its wretched existence, while she herself was occupied in giving the death-blow to the reviving power of Macedon.

1 Bronze discovered in 1862 on the Akropolis of Athens ; from the 'Ap^nioAoyiicq

'ET)nepis, 1862, p. 91. The bronze is 30 cent, in length, and 55 millim. in width.

1 I. IMP IV I HI I ORM "I \ BOAT. i

CHAPTEB .WW ill.

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR (171-168 B. 0.).

I. — Last Days of Philip; Perseus.

Till", defeat of Antiochos and the ruin of the Aitolians had

satisfied the humiliated pride of Philip : but it had also taken from him the only auxiliaries who could have saved him.

He now remained alone against Rome : and by her repeated insults he ought to have understood that his destruction was ved upon. As the reward for his alliance during the war with Antiochos, the Senate had abandoned to him whatever con-

quests he might be able to make ; but no sooner was the victory of Thermopylae gained than his advance was arrested. He was about to take Lamia in Thessaly, hut Aeilius ordered him to raise the siege: he had conquered Athamania. but time was left to the Aitolians to drive him thence. Too carefully watched in Greece, he turned towards Thrace, and there quietly made important conquests. The maritime cities of Ainos and Maroneia ived his garrisons; 1 but on that side Eumenes kept watch upon all his movements and reported them to Rome. As soon as it was known that the exile- from Maroneia and Ainos had been well received by the Senate. Tbessalians, Magnetes, Athamanians, and others presented themselves at Rome; 5 and the Senate sent over three commissioners, who, to show to all the Greeks the humiliation and weakness of Philip, compelled the Macedonian king to

1 The commissioner, Fairing Labeo, had taken care, Livy tells us (w\i\. •-'"). in iu

follow tin- 5, after Kynoskephalai, the limit between Macedon ami Thrace, to old royal road, which never came near tl ["his author, «li" often copies Polybios without ao

dging lii~ indebtedness, in some degree supplies man] of the m -~i n_: pages of the Greek

wi\. i. There was such crowd of these men that it took three d them. ;

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAK. 41; appear before them like an ordinary person accused of crime. 1 He had taken from them, the Thessalians said, five hundred young men of the noblest families, he had ruined the port of Thebes, in Phthiotis, for the advantage of Demetrias, and had laid ambushes for the deputies sent by them to Flami- ninus. " Like slaves suddenly enfranchised," replied the king, " these men use liberty in no other way than to insult their master ; and moreover," he added haughtily, "the sun has not COIN OF AIXOS. 2 3 yet set for the last time." It is need- less to say that the commissioners pronounced against him (185 B.C.). Livy and Polybios accuse him of a cruelty habitual to all these kings 4 and the former relates in proof a story which shows

how very hard the life of those times was. Philip had put to death one of the principal men in Thessaly and his two sons-in-law. Tbe widows bad each a boy. One of them refused to marry

COIN OF MAROXKIA.' again ; the other became tbe

( wife of Poris, the most influential citizen of Aineia in Chalkidike, and died, leaving several children by the second marriage. Upon this the sister, Theox- ene. in order to watch over her nephews, married Poris, and was a true mother to all his children. Some time after came an order from the king that the sons of the two men whom he had

l>ut to death should be sent to him. Death or infamy awaited them. Theoxene declared that she would kill them rather than

them up, and Poris formed the design of escaping t<> Athens

1 Tanquam reus (xxxix. 25). - Head "t Hermes, front face, wearing the petasos. Reverse: AINION; he-goat, to the

ri'„'lit ; before I, in, Corinthian helmet. (Tetradracl m.)

* Nnntlum omnium dierum totem oceiditie (Livy, xxxix. '2'').

4 Polybios, xxiv. <',. Naturally, I, iw has much i" laj at ' the profligacy and cruelty ol Philip.

* Head of Dtonysos, with a wreath of ivy, right profile. Reverse: maponitqn AiONYiny

h left, In- '«" 2QTIU'(>J f, to the the ohlamya on arm, holding peari tad a bunch of grapes; in the Geld, two monograms "f magi h •' Dames. (Silver.)

TOi . iv. — 27 ^ 1 1 HISTORY OF GREECE. with his family. They embarked by aighl ; but the wind was

trary, and when daylighl came, a vessel was seen to be in pursuit. Theoxene had brought with her weapons and poison.

'Death is our only resource," she said: "here arc two ways to die." Some of the boys took poison, others preferred the sword ; she flung them dying into the sea, and herself and her husband billowed them.1

Bowever accustomed men were to violent deaths, this tragic end of a whole family excited horror; and the pious historian believes that from that day the gods marked Philip fur their victim. Rome undertook the fulfilment of the divine sentence.

The intervention of the pub was not required, political necessity the being sufficient ; and king incurred his doom by many imprudent acts, which Rome could not but regard as provoca-

tions. It was well to open mines. to establish new taxes, to favor

commerce : it was not so to endeavor to increase the population of his

DODRACHM.' • • • kingdomi i iby Asiatici procedures,i which excited much hatred against him without bringing him many advantages. The maritime cities were not friendly to him. and he removed their inhabitants into Paionia, establishing Barbarians in their place. Under pretext of bringing succor to the Byzantines, he made an incursion into the interior of Thrace, defeated many petty kings, and brought hack from this country a numerous colony, whence he hoped to recruit his army. Prousias was at war with

the king of Pergamon, and he sent auxiliaries to him : at the same time, mindful of the schemes of Hannibal, he excited by secrel emissaries the Barbarians of the Danube to league themselves with him and march upon Italy. Their chief promised to give his sister in marriage to the king's son. To support these negotiations, and to

iblish more firmly his influence in Thrace, he founded the city of Philippopolis, on the bank of the Hebros, not far from Mount

Baimos. It was said that from the summit of this mountain the

1 t.ivv. xl. 4.

Hi .1 ( Philip Til for V.) "f Mocedon. Revi i BA2IAEOS 'MAinnov an. I thret

Inb; tin' whole surrounded by i wreath. (Silrei coin.) THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 41!»

Kuxine, the Adriatic, the Danube, and the Alps could be seen. Philip formed the idea of making the ascent, thence to select the Greece shortest route into Italy ; for, counting but little upon which he knew well, he desired to repeat Hannibal's attempt. He was obliged to spend three days in reaching the mountain top, hidden as it was by heavy clouds, and he built there an altar to Zeus and one to the Sun ; but he was able to see only the fertile plains of Mysia and Thrace. 1 When he descended the mountain, the report of

this strange expedition, this powerless threat, was already

on its way to Rome. Some time before this, Philip, to

lull the Senate's vigilance, had sent to Rome his son Demetrios. whose earlier residence there as hostage, and the consideration with which

he had been purposely t n >ated, had attached him to Roman Mil'Ni: max READING.3 interests. The Senate, with

its wicked craft, -owing hatred and discord in the royal house, replied thai the father should be pardoned for the sake of the son;

and Demetrios later paid with his life for these perfidious expres- as of regard.8

D ily, to nourish his resentment, Philip had the Roman treaty

read over to him. His emissaries to the Danubian tribes had

1 Livy, \1. 22. ek funeral ttelaol marble, now in the Vbbej of Grotta Ferrata, near Rome (from the

i" 'I '" . 1855, pi. 15) Tin- dead youth ieat< the right, and reads atb n>

tivi-ly the roll which he holds with both hands. Under lii- teal a dog la him'. The tela of

- i it. from the fourth centur) B.o.,and i- without doubl "f Attic origin.

* PeJybioa, xxiv. fr. I an. I 5. Demi Iven to in thai the Romani would

ptai liim on tli.- throne ol Macedon 420 HISTORY OF GRE] now returned. One of the bravesl and mosl numerous of these tribes, the Bastarnai, accepted his offers. He assured these Bar- barians of a safe passage through Thrace, where he had impressed the terror of his anus, and promised them provisions and pay,

and. finally, fruitful lands in the country of the Dardanians. This people being destroyed, he then proposed to hurl the Bastarnai upon Italy, while he himself

would arouse Greece and call all

the kings to liberty.

But the malevolent Eoresiehl

of the Senate was aboul to bear

its fruit . Demetrios, returning

into Maccdun. fi nnd there a pow-

erful faction desirous of peace at / ^ any price, who at once accepted ^^^H>^9 as their leader this friend of the \ >y Romans. The war-party had for chief ;m elder brother of Deme- \^ fijjjffir MJJ^ trios. Perseus, who. being the son tm y .^fi -rr^liBP^ of a low-born mother, feared that Philip would leave the crown to Demetrios. To destroy this rival. represented to their el - he him fa- Bl >r I'l RSI I ther as a traitor urged on by

Flamininus and by Ins own ambition, to seize the crown. The wretched Philip hesitated between his two son>. finally Perseus made it appear that his life had been in danger from his brother's machinations, and that Demetrios was about to escape to Pome. undoubtedly with the intention of returning accompanied by the

legions. Philip investigated the subject : the crime seemed clearly proved, and the young prince attempting to flee to Pome, the king resolved to put him to death secretly. lie was invited to a

1 s Marble in the British Museum (from the . pL be). The name

been, though not without some hesitation 1 tUv tlii* head, which may " be compared «itli tin- profile "ti a tetradrachm represented in the H u i 19. .

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 421 sacrificial banquet at Herakleia by the governor of Paionia, to whom the father had intrusted the commission, and poison was mingled with the consecrated food (182 B. a). It is said that later Philip became aware of his son's innocence, and that grief caused his death (179 b. a).

n. — Perseus (177-168 B.C.).

Having conquered Perseus, the Romans also saw fit to take away his legitimate renown. Their historians have used against him the right of war. vae victis, and modern authors have done the same. But does not Livy accuse Hannibal of incapacity ?

COINS OF PERSEUS. 1

At the same time he praises in Perseus his virtuous life, the royal majesty of his presence, his skill in the exercises and labors both 2 <>f peace and war. He vaguely accuses him of having killed his wife, and reproaches him with the murder of Demetrios. But according to Livy's own story Perseus had reason to think his life in danger. The historian represents him as a miser, valuing

his treasures more than his crown : but when the cities of Mac- don made him an offer of subsidies, he refused them; 3 when

1 1. Diademed head of Perseus, rigbl profile. Reverse: BA2IAEQ2 nEP2EQ2: the harpa of the hero Perseus; the whole enclosed in a wreath of oak-leaves. (Silver.) ->. Head <

• hi .i ploughshare; in the field, two mini marks, (Bronze.)

". iir. He here copies Polybioa fjevi. fir. 8), as in

i In- i In- ' all thai nays of Greece ami the Ka ; bul inve with his own brilliant Btyle the Greek author

* Legatioru umentwn pa ail helium

i , il thai the) owed the treat m | 122 HISTORY OF GREECE.

Kotys had served him six months with two thousand auxiliaries. he gave him for his cavalry a hundred talents more than he had promised. We shall see later whether his conduct towards Gen- thios and the Bastarnai was not justified. In his kingdom Perseus was able if gain the affection and the devoted adherence of his subjects; in foreign affairs he raised the consideration of Macedon rach a height that for ten years he kept the eyes of the world fixed upon him. 1 As to the assassinations attributed to him. either we have iusullicient proof, as in the affair of Rammius of Brun-

dusium, or else they belong to that policy of perfidy and violence, followed at this time by all kings, and by Home herself. Those who had caused the death of Hannibal, Philopoi- 1 1 1 rnoBOLON. men, and Brachyllas, had but a poor right to reproach Perseus with the attempted assassination of Eumenes. Even

his courage has been called in question ; but he was present in every battle, and was the leader in every expedition in Tin Dlyria, Epeiros, against the Dardanians and in Aitolia. At Pydna, having been wounded the preceding day, he flung himself without his cuirass into the midst of his shattered phalanx. Perseus, we may believe, was neither better nor worse than the principal men of his time.

Philip, it is said, had entertained the idea of leaving the throne to Antigonos, the nephew of his former guardian, and Perseus hastened i>< rid himself of so dangerous a rival. But he was careful not to break openly with tin - ; immediately upon his accession he renewed (lie treaty that had been made with his father, and for six years appeared to have no other solicitude than to turn away from himself the attention of Home. At the same time he felt that danger was always hanging over his head, and that the causes which had brought on the Second Macedonian War were preparing a third. The completion of the work begun in ce by Flamininus demanded the destruction of the Macedonian power. The Roman senators were not the men to ask themselves

ed to the exiles their property which had been confiscated, and even the income of it which had been received by the State in their absence (Polybios, xxvi, fr ."). is). Persei . . . celebrari nomen (xlii. M prow of a galley. Ionian shield. Reverse: MAKEAONQN ; Coin struck between

158 and 1 IS b. c, at the beginning ol the Roman dominion. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 423

if this would be an act of justice, it sufficed that it appeared to them useful ; and they had the art — often practised since their time — of making their victim the aggressor. Perseus had never conceived the mad design of playing the part of Hannibal, or attempting that of Antiochos. He had not even the resources possessed by Philip at the time of that king's earlier hostilities with Rome. He could therefore do nothing more than organize, silently ind in the shadow, the defence of his kin°-dom and this he did with ogreat energy.

His father had left him a well-filled treas-

ury ; this he further replenished, amassing sufficient wealth to be able to keep hi his SILVER COINS. 2 pay ten thousand mercenaries for ten years. In his arsenals he collected arms and stores to equip and feed three armies. 3 By his expeditions into Thrace, Philip had recruited his

troops and trained them for war ; Perseus now exercised them in crushing the Dolopes, who sought to place themselves under the protection of Rome, and he could count upon forty-five thousand good soldiers. Lastly, BRONZE COIN. 1 to gather all the Macedonians about himself, he opened the prisons, remitted debts due to the public treasury, and recalled the exiles ; edicts publicly set up at Delphi, in Delos, and in the temple of Athene Itonia, promising them safety of person and restoration of property. Philip had never been able to make the Greeks forget his cruelty.

I' -eus sent to all the cities envoys to desire that the past should now be forgotten and a sincere alliance be made. Securing their

1 Livy, xli. IS.

1 i. Laurelled head of Apollo, right profile; behind, a monogram composed of the letters

TY Reverse: 8EZZAATJN; Pallas [tonia fighting with the spear and shield ; in die field, the ••:. plating, perhaps, the city of the Magnetes. (Silver coin of the Thessalians, in genere.) I. Macedonian shield. Reverse: kii'^ukuuv]. Bead of Pallet [tonia, three

'.nt, wearing .i helmet with a triple aigrette. (Silver coin of Korone, where Pallas temple.)

• Livy. xlii. 12; Pint., I of King G'-ntliin4. Macedonian -liield. K [fia]XlAJS^mt] PEN6IOY; helmel wit), i heek pie. 424 HISTORY OF GREECE. good-will l>y his favors, he gave luck to the A.chaians and Athe- nians those of their slaves whom Philip had harbored in Macedon.

Thessaly was incapable of governing it-self, and in- took advantage of its dissensions, supporting the poor againsl the rich, and debtors against their creditors, and restored

Macedonian garrisons in the cities whence the Romans had driven them out. Epeiros had turned againsl Phi- lip with regret, and Perseus now was able to bring her hack secretly into alliance with himself. The Poiotians

had rejected the friendship of his father, hut they now publicly accepted his own by a treaty which was en-

graved in the temples at Thebes,

Delos, and Delphi. But for certain discreel and foreseeing person-. Acini.! would have done likewise. and the ,, , Aitolians appealed to him PERSl i 8.' » r when their country became disor- dered. Oenthios, a petty Illvrian king, alarmed by the presence and the threats of the Romans, promised aid in return for subsidies, and Kotys, king of the Thracian Odrysai, engaged to share all his dangers. The king of Syria gave Perseus his sister in marriage, and

.1 the the his Rhodian fleet carried bride across Samothrace with

1 Perseus is represented about to hurl lii- javelin. He is bearded, and 'wears the M donian kausia, on which i- represented an incident in the war of the Lapiths and Centaurs.

I<-i<_rlit Cameo on Oriental cornelian. I 7 cent. (Cabinet d< France, Catalogue, No. I 2 Tlir gains made by Philip and Perseus in Thrace had attached Eumenes t" the Roman side. However, he offered Perseus Ms neutrality al the price of talents, or lit* active aid

:ii 1500. •• After a noble and pious struggle "f avarice," Bays Polybios, " they separated, the " advantage being eqnal, like two brave athletes (xxix. 8, 5, ana 9), I'.ui this assertion of

Polybios is scarcely credible, Ikmiil' rather the repetition of a rumor than the statement of ;i THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 425 deputies from the cities of Asia. 1 At Carthage, the Senate received his envoys by night in the temple of Askiepios.2 Lastly, thirty thousand Bastarnai were on the march, and the news of their advance struck terror in Italy. Thus, what Hannibal had not done, Perseus seemed about to accomplish. Encouraged by the universal hatred which the ambition of Rome had aroused, he advanced more boldly. To show the Greeks the Macedonian standards, which they had not seen for twenty years, he penetrated with an army, under pretext of sacrifices to Apollo, as far as the temple of Delphi. In Thrace and Illyria the Sen- ate had allies. He plundered the Thra- cian akropolis. and put to death the Illyria n chief Arthetauros. Two Thebans sought to keep Boiotia faithful to Rome, but they were slain by unknown agents. Eunn alarmed by this revival of the Macedonian

3 power. went to denounce it at Rome. He made known in the Senate the preparations of Perseus, his intrigues to attacli to himself the popular party, to the detri- friends of his crimes, the Rome. ' ment of — I I'l.i- V>lil actual or supposed. " Seeing," he said,

•that you leave the field open in Greece, and that nothing wears out your patience, he regards it as certain that he can go into Italy without finding a single adversary upon the way." Eumenes ter- minates this incendiary address by the usual invocation to the

• Ir remains with you. Romans, to decide what your safety and your honor demand. To me it remains only to pray the gods and goddesses that they will inspire you with the desire to defend our interests and your own."

1 '-''>• I.iw, xliL However, the) had nut the i themselves; in 170 B.C.

I! <• t" deputies from many of them went to i A- the Fthodians, the Senate had declared them that the Lykiai iren thei t >- subjects, but as allies and friends (Polybios, XXXM 1 Li.

« I » j '• - roneia, and beyond 1 - strait, Lampsakos, belonged to us; thus

mind in Tin .u .- and in \ tM w (Livy, \liii. 8 ).

• M r (.1. bus! ::> The type is known to us by a

- l'ii-' which j i - —

426 HISTOBT OF GEEECE.

Perseus had sent his own envoys to follow Eumenes into [taly; fchej now asked to be allowed to answer, and did so with haughti- almost with menace. -The king," they said, "is very desirous to justify himself. He is ,111x1011- thai nothing hostile should be attributed to his words or acts;

hut if a pretext of war he persist- ently sou-ht. he will defend himself bravely. The favors of Ares are given to everj our. and the issue of war

is uncertain."

Eumenes, loaded with gifts, among which were the consular insignia. the curule chair and the ivory wand.

— ret in ned home by way of (ireece, and Perseus, certain that he would

Delphi to sacrifice to Apollo. posted assassins upon the road. To give access to this famous temple, the Romans would have constructed a broad highway; but the Greeks had

not taken the trouble to do this. e Kirrha the road grew very

p, and in one place, near a ruinous

building, it became only a footpath,

which a landslide had made even nar- rower. Four assassins were concealed behind the ruin awaiting the king, who came up attended by friends and

a guard. A.s they climbed the hill , by v|i|o] Y , the royal suite became scattered, and when tiny reached the dilapidated building, Eumenes, with the Aitolian chief Pantaleon, led the way. At this moment the men in ambush above the path began to roll down _ cks: one struck the king on the head, another on the shoulder. He fell senseless, and apparently

1 Marble statue discovered in 18? I now in Vienna; from Bcnndorf

hrake, \,.l. i pi. i> \ Victor) standing, leaning doubt-

tli the lifted left arm. upon .< spear; the right .ion hang down, and tin- hand held soma

i though tin- execution i- somewhat imperfect, (In- statue i- nol without charm, ami tlir arrangement • irments ii THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 427 dead: upon which his escort took flight, and the assassins did likewise, supposing there was no need of stopping to finish their victim. They rapidly climbed the and one being slope of Parnassos ; unable to keep up with the rest, the others killed him, that he might not fall alive into the hands of the king's guards, who.

TOMB FihHN in rill BOCK, AT nil ENTRANC1 01 DELPHI. 1

returning to the scene of the attack, bad discovered thai the assail- ant- were very few in Dumber, and bad followed in pursuit.

Meanwhile the Aitolian bad remained beside the king, shelter- ing him with bis own body; and when the guards returned, they lifted Eumenea from the ground and burr bim down the hill.

' 1/ From I ' iii. 1 1 1. Thi» tomh ed at the entrance of the holy in Delphi i

Still unconscious, he was put on board his vessel and carried to Corinth, and thence to Aigina, the galley being carried across the isthmus. The party landed in Aigina, and a profound silence was maintained as to whal had happened. It was evidenl by whose order the blow had been struck, and the king was still too near Macedon to make it safe for tidings to go out as to his actual condition. The news of his death was currenl at Pergamon, and already Attalos, his brother, had claimed the crown and the queen's hand.

A Roman commissioner, Valerius, was at the time in Greece.

He now made report to the Senate in respecl to this new offence, bringing with him two witnesses againsl the king of Macedon.

The first of these was the woman with whom Perseus usually Lodged when he visited Delphi, and who. on receiving a letter

from him, had placed it the service of his men the jl«8\ house near which the crime had been committed. The second, Etammius of Brun- dusium, who usually enter-

tained Romans of distinc-

tion travelling in Greece, II 11:1 hi: \ciim OF ri RSI i and also deputies of foreign nations, deposed that, being sent for by Perseus, there had been made him by the king the mosl splendid offers if he would agree to poison such Romans lodging in his house as the king should designate to him. Perseus, very roughly handled by Livy, has naturally found apologists who hesitate at nothing. It is impossible to admit that the assassination of Eumenes was an invention of the Romans or an affair of ordinary brigandage. To destroy the king of Perga- mon was greatly for the interest of Perseus, and moreover would lie the gratification of revenge, — two motives which in those days were sufficient. We musl therefore la\ to his charge the unsuccessful • attempt at Delphi, while admitting that Rammius, found in Greece

1 I tiademed head of Perseus, right profile : under the nei k, ZOl \ov. the Dame of the artist

\.-r. i:.v. -. BA2IAEQ2 mriiei: eagle standing t<> the right on a thunderbolt ; in "i Id i DOKram; the whole surrounded »itli :i wreath oak-leaves. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 429 on his return from a journey in Macedon, invented a fiction to account for his presence at Pella, to serve the projects of Rome and to advance his own fortunes ; for, according to Roman usages. this delatio was certain to be extremely well rewarded. 1

Was it now the time for Perseus boldly to take the offensive, and in the hope of rousing Greece to come forth from his

Macedonian mountains, which were like impregnable walls ? Doubt- less audacity would for a time have been successful, and his army would have been increased by a certain number of volun- teers. 2 But these kings and these peoples who had made him so many promises would not have dared to give him a single soldier. Antiochos. whose brother was detained a hostage at Rome, forgot

him in quarrels with Philometor concerning Ccele-Syria ; and Masinissa, who had just deprived Carthage of a fourth province, with seventy cities, bought the complaisant silence of Rome by important assistance. Eumenes had persuaded Ariarathes ; Rhodes dared not refuse vessels to the Senate ; Ptolemy even offered them. Perseus had nothing. Kotys. king of the Odiysai, was

indeed for him, but other Thracian chiefs were for Rome ; Gen- thios. a cruel and profligate king, wished to be paid in money for 3 the trifling assistance he would give, and the Bastarnai required for foot-soldiers five pieces of gold per man, ten for the cavalry, and a thousand for the leaders. These rapacious auxiliaries were like the Galatians of Asia Minor, from whom the Eastern kings

had had to suffer so much ; Perseus conceived a great distrust of them, and was not prompt in completing the negotiations. 4 Hence at the moment of the struggle he was alone

1 I. ivy, xlii. 15, 1 1. Perseus caused it to be declared to the Senate thai the accusation of

Kammiu- was altogether false. 5 In ... erat ad regem Macedonesque inclinala. Bui the aristocratic party, everywhere supported bj Rome, was also everywhere the stronger.

r Polybios, ,\xi\. 7. This petty kinu . whose strength has been singularly exaggi did not even Gghl to save his own territory, the conquest of which Anicius effected in a few

The contingent furnished by Kotys was a thousand horse and as man) foot.

* Plutarch, In I l.ivv. xliv. 26. 430 HISTORY OF GREECE.

II. \ r i i.i. i>n \ i . ). B of Pi | L68 b.

The Senate sent at firsl only a praetor with five thousand men.

Bui seven commissioners preceded the army ; they went throughoul

Greece, where their mere presence sufficed to destroy the effect of m.\ years of prudence and rniirc-.~-i.in~ on the part of the M donian king, — a proof, if am were needed, of the frailty of the support to which Perseus was supposed to have confided his for-

LARISS \.'

tunes. In Thessaly all cities nol occupied by the Macedonians gave hostages, whom the Romans placed in Larissa. In Aitolia, 3 where fierce dissensions were depriving the people of the little strength remaining to them, the commissioners caused one of their partisans to 1»' appointed strategos, and they deported into Italy all those who were designated to them as the enemies of Rome ; in Boiotia they broke up the league, and recovered to their

alliance all the cities ; in the Peloponnesos, the Achaians, for a time hesitating, promised to Bend a thousand men to defend

Chalkis ; and lastly, Akarnania, and even Epeiros, showed a cordi- ality which augured well. Prom his mountain-tops Perseus observed

1 I I ..in a sketch by Daomet, in the " liv. 432. The view it taken !

1 1 1 - bridge which unites the two bank." "t • Peni

Livy, xli. 2fi, who records tin' massacre of eight) of the principal citizens:

furor I I THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 431

these expeditions, these intrigues of the Roman ambassadors ; and he allowed Greece to be taken away from him without risking a conflict for her. as if she were not worth even the honor of a

battle. Instead of acting, he negotiated ; and after having provoked his implacable foe, he stopped, losing voluntarily the only chance he had, not of being victorious, but of falling srloriouslv, after for least, having, a time at SILVKR COIX. shaken the world. While the praetor with his small army was taking up his

position in Dassaretia, Perseus sent two embassies into Italy ; and he solicited a truce, which Marcius, the chief of the Roman depu- tation, hastened to grant him, so that the Senate might have time to complete

2 all needful preparations. At Rome his deputies were kept waiting five months for their answer, and as soon as the re- SILVER COIX.3 turn of spring made it possible to take the field, they received orders to quit Italy. Following them closely, the consul Licinius landed near Apollonia. He traversed unop- posed Epeiros, Athamania, and the defiles of Gomphoi : Perseus awaited him at the foot of Mount Ossa. at the entrance to the valley of Tempe, — the only route by which it was possible to go from Thrace into SILVER COIN.* Mae. •dun. This long and narrow gorg where the Peneioa forces its way between the spurs of Ossa and Olympos, was in antiquity a locality verj famous for its pic- turesque beauty and savage grandeur. On the edge of this poetic Sykourion, the soldiers of Perseus and those of Koine met

1 Coin of the Akarnanian League at Anaktorion. Laurelled bead of Ipollo, three-quar- B AN (Anaktorion) in a monogram; Pegasos flying to the left in l.iw, \lii. 17, how Marcius congratulates himsell on having deceived Perseus bj

i- truce, 'in having broken up the Boiotiai I be older Benatora blamed lie policy.

« IT id of Dodonian Zeus, 1 -ft profile, wearing a wreath

ehind, YY2HN, a n : underneath, in connect* GAP k\.i" ! inEIPQTAN ; an eagle standing, to the left,

i|i<- ill ; whole in a w

1 Coin of the T1 Hclmeted head of Pallas, ri'.'lit profile Eto bridled horse "topping to tin- righl lerneath, » INs i monogram. 132 HISTORY OF GREECE. for the firsl time. The advantage was nol with the Romans. Liciniua had the worst in a skirmish which would have become a general engagement if Perseus had advanced his phalanx. Recross- ing the Peneios during the night, the Roman left behind him more than twenty-four hundred killed or taken prisoners.

1 ervanl Greece applauded this first success. But Perseus stopped, and asked for peace, offering tribute and the relinquish-

Mnl \ I ii-- \ ment of his conquests. 8 The defeated consul would listen to no other terms than that Perseus should place himself and his kingdom at the discretion of the Senate. At the same time Licinius was arm-ant tune unable to justify his ; he was again defeated. near Phalanna. and went to winter in Boiotia, after taking a few

Thessalian cities. A naval victory gained off Onus, and victo: in Thrace over a lieutenant of Knmenes. ended this campaign favorably for Perseus. The odious conduct of the consul and of the praetor Lucretius, who pillaged the allies shamelessly, increased

1 I. ivy. \lii. fill. 3 From b il • U li bj Heuzey, in the Tour 'hi Monde, liv. 126. Mount Ossa i* tin' 1

"ii tlir ri^'lit nf tlir valley ol Tempe.

Livy, nlii. 56 1

THIED MACEDONIAN WAE. 433

the discontent; many districts of Epeiros declared openly for Per- seus; 1 Aitolia and Akarnania were in revolt. A new consul. A. Hostilius, as incapable as his predecessor, arrived. In crossing Epeiros he narrowly escaped being captured by a party of the enemy. The campaign corresponded with its

beginning : Hostilius was defeated, and wasted the year in seeking an entrance into Macedon. Evervwhere Perseus was established

3. 4 MACEDONIAN COINS, IN GENERE. 2

in impregnable positions. The two lieutenants who attacked by and on the coast of lllvria were no more successful: one did nothing beyond destroying Adjdera; the other, Cassius, posted

at Lychnidos, losl six thousand men in an ill-managed attack upon Uscana. As soon as he knew thai the Romans had retired into their quarters, Perseus hastened to punish the Dardanians, ten thousand of them, and he employed the winter in capturing many places in fllyria, where he made six

1 It 1 id, the whi it the Molossians Btopped Perseus on the banks

A'. ii- l"'i I of the in b.i . and levied six thousand Thesprotian and Athamanian auxiliaries Livy, xliii. 3, 21 . Mat the Epeirots, in 169 B.C., the provisions for the armi in M 2 1. Laurelled I V polio, right profile. Reversi MAKEAONQN; lyre; ;it the left, a bow; at thi ight, a monogram of the mint. (Bronze.) 2. Bead of Zeus, with a wreath of i o , right profile Reverse: m\ki winged thunderbolt; in the field, the monogram of tfc Head of Silenos, front face, wearing an

the Latin letter D ; the whole in an ivy-wreath.

1 (Bron» I profile. Revet i MAKEAONON; aclub; in the whole in I izc, i

I 434 HISTORY OF GREECE.

thousand Romans prisoners.1 Be hoped to close on this side

tlir approaches to Macedon, and possibly cause the defection of Gentbios. The Barbarian asked for money,

and Perseus refused. Epeiros appeared to be favorable, and hoping to influence Aitolia

also, he advanced as far as Stratos with ten thousand men. But the Etonians were : SILVER ( "1\ already in p — ssion of the city. This activity and these suo furnished inducement for

irresolute peoples to seize tl ccasion to join Perseus; but it was at this very moment thai a crowd of envoys presented themselves at Rome. Athens. Miletos, Athabanda, Ki renewed their promises of 3ervice or offered

gifts; Lampsakos solicited the title of ally.

The Carthaginians had offered 1,1 .000

GOLD I <>I\.' wheat as bushels of ; Masinissa promised much more, and besides, twelve hundred Numidians and twelve elephants, having already sent twenty-two elephants and two thousand auxiliaries. 1 Perseus still rem lined alone.

Mi nwliile. owing to the incapacity of the generals, the war

was becoming serious. Rome was growing uneasy: it was forbidden to senators to go more than a

mile away from t he city: sixty thou-

sand men were levied in Italy: and

the new consul, Marcius, took rein-

forcements with him to till the gaps

made in the army by the furloughs ( ARTH M.l\l \s i OIX." that the consuls and praetors had sold

to the troops. To destroy the effecl of the exactions of which the Greeks had been the victims, the consul caused himself to be

1 I. ivy, xliii. 3.

of the Epeirots, . Heads of Zeus and Dion , righl profile; behind,

.1 in. .in. -run. Reverse: AHEIPQTAN; thunderbolt; the whole in a wreath of oak-lc 8 Bearded bead "f one of the Kab I I i profile, with a conical cap surrounded by a laurel-wreath. (Stater of Lampsal

* Rhodes, Samos, Chalkedon, and Pontic I lerakleia, across the Euxine, had sen!

(Livj . xlii.

Beai llesj head of FTerakles, righl profile, wearing the lion's -kin. Revi head, to the left; behind, n palm-tree; in Phoenician legend, pjm c; - (am mahanel, the people and the camp?). Ti tradrachm. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 435 preceded by a decree of the Senate, which forbade furnishing anything to the army beyond that which had been agreed upon. The Kambounian Mountains and Olympos shut in Macedon on the south, — the >ide on which Marcius had decided to make the attack, — and it was a formidable barrier. Before attempting it, he questioned the natives of the country as to the roads, or rather the steep foot-paths, winch lead into Macedon. and he engaged

VIEW Of THE8SALT, on mi; FRONTIER OF EPEIROS. 1

guides for his army;, alter which be held a council of war. Some proposed to cross by way of Pythion, between Olympos and the Kambounian Mountain-, and others to go around these mountains, where Perseus had accumulated bis material for defence, and enter th" kingdom by Elimeia, a! the pass of the Forty Fords (Saranda- poros), guarded by the Vigla (the Sentinel). The road of Pythion led to the defile of Petra, closed U a fortress built on a Bharp point of toek. above which towers Olympos to a heighl of 9,754

I ill i I in mi a photo i t city of Kalabaka, situated al the fool of ipuri

,; of tin n the left bank ol command* one of the rout* i between The tl 436 HISTORY OF (.1,1

feet. It would have been imprudenl to bring the whole army through gorges so easilj defensible, and moreover so remote from the supplies stored in Thessaly. Leaving Oloosson, the way into

I'k'Ha was shorter by the Kanalia; but this was a pass with difficulty

i - TTi\- "W

(" li ill k i .1 i k c

Olvnlho\

V 4& >( S

•a.

,V * HQ j

> x f* o

/'A,., s

>' r o \ v J\[;ili*e h

MAP Ol I "" l R M M l DON^

to be reached 1>\ an army, and from which the descent was still more difficult: it. lay along four torrents which had channelled oul

in the eastern slope impassable ravines, and seen from below, the immense mountain seemed to be clef! by them from base to summit.

In respecl to the defile of Tempe, a traveller mighl easily pass through it. l>ut not a legion, if il were guarded by onlj a handful

;

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 439

of men ; and in a distance of five miles a beast of burden could

1 scarcely find room for itself and its load. These natural defences of the road by which the Romans would enter Macedon seemed to be almost an insuperable obstacle to their advance. Perseus, with a skill which has been undervalued, had placed ten thousand men on the Volustana, to command the two defiles of Sarandaporos and Petra. He had posted twelve thousand with Hippias, above the marsh Askouris, probably on Mount Sipoto, in order to guard on this side the foot-paths over the mountain. Furthermore, he had posted troops in the valley of Tempe, and had taken up his own position at Dion, behind these defences, to strengthen them wherever there should be any sign of feebleness and that he himself might be in no danger from crews of the Roman vessels landing in his rear, he covered the shore with his light cavalry.

Marcius for some time hesitated as to the point at which he

should break through this formidable line ; he at last decided on an enterprise which by its very boldness would give the greatest results in the event of success. He resolved to go around the great marsh A>kouris, taking with him his entire arm}' and a month's provisions, and to cross the plateau of Oktolophos, the Eight Summits, of which one, now called the Mount of Transfiguration, is nearly five thousand feet in height. •• Thence," says the historian, '-the whole country is visible, from Pliila to Dion, and all the coast of Pieria." 2 While the consul crossed the mountains, the praetor, with his fleet, was to threaten the coast and land at different points.

.Marcius men lie rapidly had thirty-seven thousand ; advanced a detachment against the division of Hippias to destroy it or hold it in check. A band of picked men. whom he sent forward around the marsh, opened to him on the smith the road to Rapsani, defended by the fortre I. thous ; another attacked on the west the

Macedonians upon tip- heights For two days there was lighting, while the king dared not qui! the coasl to take advantage "I'

1 Accordii ' with tin- army u deputy of 'In- Achaians, and Erom whom I rowed :i minute description nf tin- n

Heuzi irbo went over the route taken by Marcius, and found, a« he thought thi ite at the Roman camp on the plateau of Livadhi, confirm! the words of Livy. "From iliis

;ii • "we In-held our feel the whole i tl i the wide curve of the Balonic gulf, an I me shore the city, plainly visible, Iti walla the with ; then

> / > balkidike, and Mount Atho | Wonl Olympi p, i i

Hi HIST0B1 OF GREECE. the dangerous position in which the Romans were placed. They at last made their wa\ out by sheer audacity. While llippias, under the stress of this violent attack, was concentrating his forces for a desperate resistance, Marcius, concealing hi> movements by a cordon <>t troops, marched over rocks and through forests to the western slope of Olympos, and thence, with extreme danger and difficulty,1 came down into the plain- of Pieria. His communications were cut, bul he had forced the passage and been victorious over Nature.

I; was indeed over Nature that he had triumphed. The learned traveller who has followed step by step the track of the army of Marcius in these mountains says: —

"The Romans came down into Macedon over the precipices. 1 have seen nothing wilder or more magnificent than the slopes of the lower

it is Olympos over which thej made their waj ; an immense forest, covering with its shade a whole region of cliffs and ravines. In gorges, wooded to the bottom, clear and rapid streams rush noisily downward. The vigor and the variety of th ition arc incredible: trees of the plain, which it is surprising to sec at such a height, oaks, and especially great plane-

-. climb along the torrents u)> to the chestnuts, and almost to the firs.

It i- i understand how. while crossing these dense forests, a whole army could easily be unnoticed bj those who believed it had retreated in the opposite direction. . . . This is very probablj the forest of which Livy 1 speaks. From Skotina to the foot of the mountain 1 soughl to represent to myself the great pathway laid open bj the axe, and the disorder of this army rolling down into the plain, says Livy, rather than marching down. The cavalry, the baggage-trains, and the beasts of burden (which were a great embarrassment) were in advance with the elephants, — which their drivers with great difficulty induced to slide down inclined planes : and the legions brought up the rear. Prom Skotina we were at leasl tour hours in reaching the foot of the last slopes. Then', on the edge of the plain, are numerous hillocks, covered with olive-groves and the ruins of a small monastery. — the Panaghia. Eere the Roman consul encamped, after having employed three days in making the descent: the infantrj occupied the hillocks, and the cavalry were in front of them, on th Ige of the plain

1 In, narrabilu Inhnr. Heuzey believed the descent t" have been made in the direction of the present villages

ind Pandeleimone. The latter ia hung, as ii were, among tin- chestnut-trees above the T i Platamona, the ancient Herakleion of Pieria, 8 Heuze) . I u THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 441

A strong rear-guard left on the heights had concealed from the detachment of Hippias this daring movement. Thus in ten days after he had taken command of the army Marcius had determined on his plan, collected his provisions, had fought twice on the moun- it is splendid page tain, and forced an entrance into Macedon ; a in military history. During these operations Perseus was at Dion with one half of sight of the legions, 1 he abandoned the his army ; alarmed at the strong position that he was occupying, and fell back upon Pydna, committing the unpardonable fault of calling in the detach- ments that guarded the defiles. Marcius at once seized them, and made himself BRONZE COIN. secure. His communications being thus re- established, the consul advanced upon Dion; but the lack of provisions and the approach of winter stopped him: he ceased hostili-

. and boldly established his quarters in Pieria. Macedon had at last been entered. N to be disturbed in the position he had taken, and at the same time to keep open his communications with Tbessaly, whence he expected supplies, Marcius caused his lieutenants to capture

the little forts that

guarded the defile of

1 2. Tempe, among others

COINS "I I 1MIA IN THE88AXY.' Phila, where Perseus bad collected a large amount of wheat. Finding himself too much ed at Dion, where the plain of Pieria begins to broaden, the nian kin.^ concentrated his forces behind the Hnipeus, which

1 I.i-. terror be r to Pella and one to Thessalonika

id throw in the sea. I li~ situation was not bo desperate as

I. Id that, later, ashamed >>f l>i alarm, he caused the persons to disappear in wl order, we ma} cla with the rest thai the Roman pu(

i rueltjr, avarice, ana cowardice.

Woman's head, lefI profile. Reverse: DYANAION; an owl, to the left,

• 1. Ifi-ail of the nymph Lamia, right profile, wiili ber hair on her shoulders. Reverse:

Ful Hcral I " a rock to the left ; li<- liol.ls lii- bow and quiver.

ii rmpfa Lamia, righl profile, her hair covered bj a tphendone. '•' M >' de, kneeling to the ri^hi ami drawing bit bowj on the

* - . and qoivei 1 1 » ' I 1 -J HISTORY OF GREECE.

in t he winter offered an excellenl line of defence. "This torrent," says Livy, "descends from a gorge in Olympos. A scanty stream

in summer, the winter rains make it an impetuous torrent. It

rushes over the huge rocks, and in the ravine into which it plunges,

ENVIRONS OF PY D nX1< from Heuzey .on of Macrdon plan Dj

, -v*

k '• ^\

_ / Tumu '£ Turn ut us Me6aIo '- {Sepulchralu/ch' Cham

jv. Kourmo

. .Woods J.aiul' Thickets -'[,'

Ml T .-«. ~-J - ^ Scale • I ...

MM' ">K THE KNVIRON8 OK PYDNA,

carries the soil away with it and digs out a deep 1»<1 having

high and precipitous banks." The inhabitants call it "the Abyss"

(Vythos), and it well deserves thai name. News of these successes had just reached Rome, when Rhodian envoys, appearing in the Senate declared that, ruined by this war. they were anxious to have it ended, and thai if Rome or Perseus

refused to cease Bghting, they should decide what measures to

adopt towards whichever of the two adversaries opposed pei

Tie- only reply made by the Senate was to order a decree to THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 443 be read setting free their subjects, the Lykians and Karians.

Eumenes also, whose pride had been offended, had just left the

Roman camp, and Prousias interposed as mediator. It was time to make an end of Macedon. The comitia raised to the consular office Paulus Aemilius, a man of antique virtue, a scholar, moreover, as all the patricians now were, and a friend of Greek art and civilization. Notwithstanding his sixty years, he displayed the activity of a young and prudent officer. He began by ordering an inspection of the fleet, the army, the position of the enemy and of the legions, the condition of the magazines, and the disposition of the allies. Genthios, deceived by a promise of three hundred talents, had finally sided with Macedon ; Eumenes had opened secret negotia-

tions with Perseus : the Rhodians had almost openly espoused his

anil tht.' Macedonian fleet was supreme in the iEgaean Sea and among the Cyclades. But Perseus had just lost the support of nty thousand Gauls, whom he had called from the banks of the Danube. He refused them the promised pay at a moment when he would have done well to double it to obtain their assistance, however dangerous that assistance might become after a joint victory. in accordance with this information. Paulus Aemilius made his plan. With the army of Marcius lie would attack Macedon in front, driving back the king as he advanced. Octavius with his fleet would form the righl wing, and after having swept the

1 .- Sea, would threaten the coasts and cause anxiety to the M 'Ionian rear. Anicius with two legions in Illyria would form tli.- left wing; In' would crush Genthios, and fall hack upon Mace- don by way of Dassaretia. Eighty thousand men at least were

to h ajed ' and aboul ; Licinius, the other consul, held an army ready on the coast of the Adriatic, with which in case of rould hasten to the aid of his colleague.

In the camp Paulus Aemilius occupied himself in restoring to

2 ipline its ancient, vigor. Tic soldiers were not, allowed .in idle, and all military exercises were brought into repute neral even deprived the sentinel- of their shields.

In- might increase their vigilance. It had been the custom

' Thirty-seven thousand in the Roman army, and forty-three thousand Macedonians or

Pol) ud Plutarch (in .Em, l., 18) fay one hundred thousand. 414 HISTORY <>F GREECE.

to give the watchword aloud, and it was sometimes overheard by

the enemy ; he ordered it to be given by the centurions to one another in a low tone. The advanced guards hud been left to

all lie becoiih' weary, being under anus dav ; now changed them at sunrise and at noon, that there might be fresli guards always

at tin- outposts. Perseus was encamped behind the Enipeus in the strong position that we have described. By a feigned attack, which was kept up for two davs. the consul sought to retain him there while Scipio Nasica, with a picked corps, returned into the defile of

I1HON/I ' '>|\ BRONZE COIN.* DENARIUS.*

Tempe. and. making a circuit, around the mountain, arrived by the route of Pythion at the defile of Petra. The king had suspected this movement, and twelve thousand Macedonians barred the way. They were poor troops, the better soldiers having been retained in the phalanx facing Paulus Aemilius, — they were even not skil-

ful in taking good positions, and Nasica easily defeated them; he pursued the fugitives, captured the fortress of Petra, which they made

no attempt to defend, and came down into the plain of Katerini; whereupon Perseus, seeing himself between two foes, broke up his camp on the Enipeus. and retired to Pydna. northward of Katerini. A plain admirably suited to the phalanx extended in front of

the city. Perseus, who could not without disgrace and danger re-

treat farther, resolved to give battle here. In the night preceding the action, an eclipse of the moon alarmed the Macedonians; by order of Paulus Aemilius. the tribune Sulpicius Gallus explained to the legionaries the cause of this phenomenon (22 June, 68 b.c.).*

d of Genthios, king of IUyTia (177-168 B i ). dead of Genthios, wearing the fauna,

ri^ht profile. Reverie: BA2IAE03 rENBIOY ; a galley.

B : id of Heraklcs, righl profile, wearing the lion's akin. Rever* uii"[cT»o>t)

in monogra nan stepping to the right j in the field, two mint-marks. (Bronze.)

• Personal Paulus Aemil >f a denarius of the Aemilian family.

* This eclipse » ning before, but explained <>n the

' '' following da I astronomer tlipparchoe, a contemporary of Paului Aemilius, could have predicted it. bnl not Gallus. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 445

the con- A few days earlier the army had suffered from thirst ; sul, observing the direction of the mountain ranges, had ordered the digging of wells, and water had been found in abundance. These circumstances led the soldiers to believe that their leader was inspired by the gods, and they called out loudly to be led to battle. But hemmed in as he was by tbe sea, by an army of forty-three thousand men, and by mountains wbich, in case of defeat, it would be impossible to cross. Paulus Aemilius would not incur the risk ; and it was only after he bad made his camp a fortress that he decided to fight. 1 The Macedonians attacked witli fury. The plain

glittered with weapons ; even the consul could not see without a certain alarm those ser- ried and impenetrable ranks, that moving wall bristling with pikes. He concealed his fears, and to inspire confidence in the troops allowed it to be noticed that he put on mini? Pnrt ortlu? tumulus, showing pljm nrsuoUTruiicaii neither helmet nor cuirass. construction.

The phalanx at first overthrew M v \i\\ rOMB IN PTDNA (RESTORATION AND PLAN). 1 all that opposed it : hut success leading th< Macedonians on Ear beyond the place that Perseus had selected for them, the unevenness of the ground and some irregularity in marching mad.- gaps in the ranks, into which the Romans flung themselvi . From this moment it was as at Kynoskephalai, — the

1 According t<< Heuzey, Scipio Nation, descending tin- valley of the M:n roneri, joined, the day before the battle, the consul, who came b) the road from Spighi. Paulus Aemilius had

- 1 • - - 1 In- in 1 camp the higher part of the plain, between the Mavroneri and the Pelikas.

On the latt.-r river the engagement began, and the fugitives from the first line retreated t"

Mount Olokroi : bat the battle nrepl northward and ended mar A mm. (<>/• eit., p, 163 ei tea.)

under a tumulus. On page 280 i« represented the present condition of tin- facade

1 of tbe tomb of Konrino Bee also the map on p. 1 ! 446 HISTORY OF GREECE.

its phalanx, shaken, disunited, lost strength ; instead of a combined attack there were a thousand petty encounters. The entire phalanx,

twenty thousand men, were lefl upon the field, and the rivulet which traversed the plain ran red with blood for twenty-four hours. The Romans acknowledged the loss of no more

than a hundred men, — but this is scarcely credible, — and they made eleven thousand prisoners. Pydna was sacked, and

at tlic presenl daj even its ruins have dis-

appeared : bul as is fitting in such a place, tombs mark the site of the once flourishing ud the memory of the day when

Macedon fell, lingers vaguely in a legend,

graceful and yet terrible, which is related Paleo-Kitros. In the region which certainly was the scene of the principal en-

gagement, lilies of a peculiar kind grow

profusely ; the inhabitants call the place

Louloudia, "the valley of flowers;" and

they believe that these flowers sprang first

from the human blood shed there in the eat battle.

Perseus fled to Pi lla. This capital, situ-

ated on a heighl whose approaches are

i Jfc. prntecieil in summer as well as in win-

r by impracticable marshes, was easily defensible; but the king had no army,

and the inhabitants yielded to the gene- uragement. He was advised to withdraw into the mountainous provin< IFOLLO.1 on the Thracian frontier, and to attempl a

guerilla warfare: he made inquii to the disposition of the

ltai. and urged the citizens of A.mphipolis to defend their 8 town, that he might keep for himself a seaport. l'>ut everywhere he met with refusals and reproaches, and he received

1 Marble statue "f tbe former) hoiseul-Gouffiei collection; now In the British Museum (from the Jovn pi- iv ->- i Thi related bj Livy (xliv. 16), arc Inconsistent with the storj of the king's nr after tin- battle. THJLK.D MACEDONIAN WAR. 447 information that one city after another had opened its gates without waiting to be attacked. Thus left alone, and without resources, he asked for peace, and while awaiting the consul's reply took refuse with his family and his treasures in the sacred island of Samothrace.

In his letter, Perseus had used the title of king, and Paulus

Aemilius returned it unread ; a second, in which the royal title was not employed, obtained for its sole reply that he must surrender himself and his treasures. Upon this, Perseus endeavored to escape to Kotys in Thrace. But the fleet of the praetor Octa- vius guarded the island closely, and a Kretan who had promised to take the kino; in his vessel sailed without him as soon as he had received the money promised for this service. Finally, a traitor gave up to the praetor the younger children of Perseus, and he himself, with his eldest son, surrendered to the consul. Paulus Aemilius. touched by the king's misfortunes, received him kindly, 1 welcomed him to his own table, and urged him to hope much from the clemency of the Roman people (168 B. c).

d before the battle of Pydna, Anicius had besieged Gen- thioa in Skodra, his capital, and had forced the king to surrender, thirty day- sufficing for this conquest, which had not cost even a skirmish. While awaiting the arrival of the Senate's commissioners,

Paulus Aemilius made a journey through Greece to visit its places of interest. He went to Delphi, where he caused his own

ie to be erected on the pedestal destined for that of Perseus; he visited the cave of Trophonios, Chalkis, and the Euripos, with peculiar tidal Aulis, the rendezvous of Agamem- phenomena ; non's thousand vessels; Athens, where he sacrificed to Athene,

• Delphi to Apollo; Corinth, still rich with all its treasures;

Sikyon, Argos, Epidauros with its temple of Asklepios ; Mega- lopolis, the city of Epameinondas ; Sparta and Olympia, — everywhere calling out glorious memories and rendering homage to this Greece now so abased. \t Olympia he seemed to himself in the presence of Jupiter, as he looked at the great statue of Pheidias, and he sacrificed with as much pomp as he would

' ('• • hi M under io little Retrain) thai "n nrn- occaelon be irai able to re

•I.. Roman camp withoul lie absence being noticed (I. ivy, xlv. l's). 148 HISTORY OF GREECE.

have done in the Capitol at Rome. It was his desire to be victorious over the Greeks in ma also. "He who ran

'" i a kittle, lie said, -should be able to arrange a banquet or a festival." He prepared at Amphipolis Greek and Roman games, which he announced to the countries ami kings of Asia, and to which he invited the most important men in Greece. There

were gathered at this Esti- va] skilful actors and athletes and famous horses from

all parts of the < I reek world.

Outside the lists were dis-

played the statues and pictures, tapestries, vases of gold, silver, bronze, and ivory, and

all the curiosities and works

of art found in the palace

of Perseus. The lances of the Macedonians were heaped

together in a huge pile, \\ hich

Paulus Aeinilius ' set on lire.

terminating the festival by

the gloomy splendor of a conflagration. This holocaust

made known to ( rreece and

to the world the destruction

ZEl -.' of the Macedonian empire. as the burning of the palace in Persepolia by Alexander, a century and a half earlier, had announced the destruction of the empire of Cyrus.

i Bronze discovered near Janina, in Epeiros, and now in the Museum of Tchinli kin-k. :ii Constantinople (from the Butt, de Con. Iu/I,'n., vol. i\.. 1885, pi. xiv.). The _''>.! leaned with

'i hand on the sceptre, and doubtless held in the ri'.'lit either the eagle or the thunderbolt.

illignon, who lir-t published a representation of (hi* statuette, believes it of nol later date

• i centun B -j. -^ ^ ;

FVtanee. Hehaion Pexopion rHIUPPEION OlivierKauistephanos Ct(E*M DftS SUCCESSIONS rt -» "Vvr, nr. tehsasse bvs i*N%, T-mrtr L - \ V.W D'ztKSlmz OvETT ElTO^E PV SvD Temple de Zevs Olympien

Nobtherk the Processions Terrack-Wai i Gate Western Wall Southern Gate TEnn*cE Wali, on the South Olive-tree Kallistei-hanos Route or Trrrach-Wall on the Son Prytaneion Temple of Olympian Zlus

THE ALTIS OF OLYMPIA

[Restoration by V. Laloux] Heraion Entrance pob Processions into the Agora IttJI'TF or THE PbOCBSUI iEHPACt-W*LL ON THE SOUTH Altar of Zeus Metroon Terrace-Wall on the South KMPi.K op Olympian Zeus Terrace or the Treasuries

ALUS OF OLYMPIA

STORATION B> V. LalOUX) TH1KD MACEDONIAN WAR. 449

Meanwhile the commissioners of the Senate had arrived. Paulua Aemilius conferred with them upon the fate of Macedon, and having

READ of \ vinomors ATHL1 PI '

moned to A.mphipolis, to appear before Ins tribunal in the

;ui mini' ii e crowd, ten of the principal men from each

ntothek in Munich (No. 80S of the Detcription, by II. Brann) ; from

. . piiblithed bj Br i and Bruckmann, m

450 HISTORY OF GREECE.

city, he declared to them the pleasure of the Roman people. He

spoke in Latin, because it was fitting thai the conqueror should

use his own language in addressing t lie conquered; but the praetor

ivius repeated the words in Greek. The Macedonians were to

be free, and to preserve their cities and animal magistrates, their territories and their laws, and would be required to pay to Rome only half the tribute they had been accustomed to pay their own

kings; hut Macedon, reduced to a Roman province and governed by a proconsul, was to he divided into four districts, the inhabitants of each being forbidden to contract marriage or to have any traffic with those of the other districts. Only the districts adjacent to the

B rbarians were allowed to have an armed force. The inhabitants of the third districi were to supply salt to the Dardanians at a fixed price. 1 The friends and courtiers of the king, his military and naval officers of high rank, his governors of fortresses and cities. — in short, all who held office from him, — with their children, were to accompany the consul into Italy; and all these persons he designated by name. He then gave the Macedonians a code of

laws appropriate to their new situation, and in each district intrusted the local administration to a senate, — that is to 9ay, to a few men selected from among the friends of Rome, "lest the people should cause the regulated liberty which they owed to the Roman- degenerate into license;" 2 after which he departed for Epeiros, while Anicius made the same arrangements in Illyria. where the number of districts was three, instead of four.

Macedon was too rich to be given up to the pillage of the soldiers, — only a few cities being thus abandoned to them, where, after the battle of Pydna, there had been hesitation as to opening

livraison ii.. No. 8. The breast is modern, bu( the head is certainly antique, and of a verj

•_'ixmI epoch. The lips are gilded; the eyes were doubtless silver. 1 Man) cities which bad favored the Romans were exempted from tribute (Livy, xlv. .

- Livy, xh 18: Vi improbum vulgvs a Senatu R juando Kberlalem salvbri

,i.l tiei ntiam petlUenlem trdl

New. — On -rli*- opposite page is represented a marble statue, discovered in 18f

Bpidauros, and no* in the National Yrchaeological Museum of Athens (No. 181 of the Cola-

/•'. Vordrt hislorunu, pvl > dt II. Brunn /mr Bruchnann, Munich,

> type, livraison iii . No. 14. This is remarkable replica of an original now lost, and the thatoi the Vphrodite known as the Venus Oenitrix. Cf. Frohner, Notic* dt In Sctdphirt

•i.iunl :l>l //•, No ' il

Al'lllmlil II. hi i rn. u UOS.

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 453

the gates. The consul had sought, moreover, to separate the cause of the king from that of the people ; it was desired to seem hostile to Perseus only, and to take no spoils but from him, — thus to render insecure in advance all thrones not yet destroyed. Macedon and

Illyria were spared, therefore ; but the soldiers murmured, and Epeiros was given up to them. The policy of large bodies of men

is often pitiless, because among those who take joint action no individual is personally responsible. The Epeirots had broken faith, and the Senate, to make a COIN OP AMPHIPOLIS.1 salutary impression upon its allies, proposed to treat them like deserters who had forfeited their lives the punishment was limited, however, to selling them as slaves. But what severity this was towards an entire

people! Paulus Aemilius wept, it is said, when he read the decree. Cohorts, sent into the sev- 2 enty cities of Epeiros, had orders on the same

day. at the same hour, to give them up to pil- BRONZE COIN." lage and destroy their walls. The booty was large that each font-soldier, after having laid aside for the treasury the gold and silver, received two hundred denarii, and each trooper four hundred. A hundred and fifty thousand Epeirots were sold as sla.

Paulus Aemilius then returned to Rome, sailing up the Tiber in the galley of Perseus, which was covered with the bra/en shields of the phalanx. The triumphal procession lasted three days, so vast

Mount of the spoils. On the first day the statues and pictures, on two hundred and fifty carts, were carried through the

iiid. ;i long train of wagons loaded with weapons, and three thousand men carrying seven hundred and fifty vases,

1 Laurelled hcail of Janui bifroni (imitated from the coina of the Soman republic).

• iwip i I'lii.iui -. m iiiio \i i ON : probably drawing the bow, and galloping away from

(Brona )

r \ln ole countr) of the Molouiam (Polybioa, xw. ''). Livy, in representing

I en them l"i iomc other Epeirol tribe.

*.f the Kpeiroto, in generi Diademed head ol Vrtemia, right profile; under the

un "f tin- mint. Revoi • ATUUPOTAN; a peai bead; the whole in a laurel '

; ! >l HISTORY OF GREECE.

of which each contained three talents in coined silver, and other

- and cupa remarkable for their size <>r their beauty of design. On the third day the soldiers carried coined gold in seventy-seven three talents in each; four hundred gold wreaths, sent by

the cities of Greece and Asia: a vase of ten talents weight, of

I and gem- ; and the ancestral gold cups of the Macedonian kings: lastly, the king's chariot, on which lay his arms and his diadem. Then followed a multitude of captives, among them the children of Kotys and of Perseus, instructed by their tutors to hold nut supplicating hand- to the crowd as they moved along; lastly walked Perseus, clad in mourning attire, and like one by the greatness of his mis-

fortune- berefl of reason. He had implored Pau- lus Aemilius to spare him

i. this humiliation. " It is

BRONZE I "IX-. a thing which always

has been, and still is in his own power," the Roman answered

harshly. Thrown into a dungeon in the city of Alba, Perseus had

in to know what this Roman clemency was which Paulus Aemi- lius had spoken of so proudly: and the year after the triumph,

the king either starved himself to death or perished in conse-

quence of the slow tortures which his jailers inflicted upon him.

Hi- eldest son. 1'hilip. died before him: the second, to earn his living, followed the trade of a turner, and later, this heir of Alexander obtained the occupation of a recorder.

Genthios, after having appeared in the triumph of the praetor Anicius, was imprisoned at [guvium, among the Umbrian mountains.

1 ii more sad was the destiny of the famous people who had conquered Greece and Asia. Never again did Macedon rise to the rank of a nation: and in the twenty centuries that have elapsed since that time history has never again mentioned her name.

1 1. I; I Macedonian coins. Macedonian -lurid; in the centre, in high relief, a bead of flerakles, three quarters to the left, wearing the lion's skin. Reverse BA mXtoi donian heln Ionian shield; in tin- on's head grimacing. Reverse:

.. 'l>«' -\ M . donian helmet ; f" left, cadu THIKD MACEDONIAN WAR. 455

III. — EXD OF THE ACHAJAN LEAGUE ; MaCEDON AND GREECE REDUCED TO ROMAN PROVINCES.

The Roman people had as yet taken nothing except the forty- five millions poured into the treasury by Paulus Aemilius and the tributes imposed upon Macedon, which enabled the Senate to remit henceforth the tributum, or war-tax. — the only one at that time paid by the citizens;

but it had no need as yet to unite new

territories to its empire for the purpose

of extending its sway. Macedon had been DRACHMA. 1 seen to be the last bulwark of the world's

liberty, and now that it had fallen, all rushed to meet their approaching servitude, and foremost the kings. The Rhodians, who had wished to impose their mediation between Rome and Perseus, were now afraid of war, although they had put to death the avowed partisans of Per- seus and had sent rich presents to Rome. The Senate despatched no army against them, but Lykia and Karia were definitively taken from them, and they were called allies, — whence the descent was easy to becoming subjects. They nevertheless erected in their principal temple a BROXZB COIN. 2 colossal Btatue to the Roman People;'' at a later period Smyrna built a temple to the city of Pome. In the island

of I \ was razed to the ground for having furnished

pro- to the fleel of Perseus. In Asia all the cities hastened to put to deatfa those who bad been partisans of the Macedonian king.

of Rhode*. Head ••< the Sun, three qoarten to the right, crowned with rays.

MTXTOMAXOl, . m name; a full-blown rose; at the right, the letter r; the «*i mded by ^ beading. (if Smyrna, with the effig) '•! Julia Domna 8EAC POMHC

< MYPNAIIIN rNIOKO POH . The goddc Rome, eatcd to the right <»n n throne; she is

li :i pear with bet fl hand ; in the right she holds little Victory extending a wreath to her. Her shield re ' again ' thi thn •I It ;

156 HISTORY OF GREECE.

In Greece there remained no free State except the Achaian

_;ic — it also destined soon to perish. Philopoimen had not been able seriously to believe in its permanency. " 1 know," he often said, "that a time will come when

1 ball all lie tin' subjects of Rome, but I

will delay it as long as I can. Aristainos,

mi the contrary, would anticipate it: for

In' mi's the inevitable necessity, and lie pre- : ' r Hi AN 1 [88 \. COIS . fers to submil now rather than at some future time." This policy of Aristainos. which Polybioa calls wise,'1

Kallikrates followed, hut solely in the interest of his own ambition, and with a disgusting cynicism of servility. 1 This took place several years before the Third Macedonian War.

eus restored some hope to those who still were lovers "!'

Greek independence, ami the Achaians attempted at first to observe a strict neutrality. When, however, Marcius had forced tli.' defiles of Olympos, Polybios hastened to offer him the assis- 5 tance of an Achaian army. The oiler came too late; the Romans preferred to conquer alone, that tiny might not he embarrassed by gratitude. Tolyhios himself, as has been said, was of the number of the thousand Achaians sent to live in Italy, and he would have had assigned him a residence in some obscure town. far from his 1 ks and tin- great affairs he loved so well to study, had not the t\\" sons of Paulus Aemilius made themselves responsible for him to the praetor.

During the seventeen years that this exile lasted, in respect to which the Senate would never render am explanation. Kalli-

1 l.iw also represents Lykortas as >:i\ inir to Appius, "I know thai we are here a- slaves " raring in excuse ourselves t" our masters (\\\i\. S7 ).

I', mill-- diademed head (Arion or Sappho T), right profile. Reverse: \NTl2[i'l bearded head of the Tyrrhenian Dionysos, wearing a high tiara, right profile. In the field, nn indistinct monogram. 8 Book w\. 8. Polybios and hi- father, Lykortas, were, however, the leaders of the partj opposed to the Romans During the war against Perseus they narrowlj escaped being 1 by the Roman commissioners, and after the battle of Pydna, Polybios was sent into

• I: ' feeble and bo divided, for two centuries covered »itli Mooil ami

ition and deprived of true liberty, Polybios resigned himself to having the c itrj calm under thai Roman -«:i\ which left t" the cities bo much liberty in their own

u ust, indeed, feel a certain confidence in the good sense ami the impartiality of

t' Philopoimen.

• . |. 1 16

' r i. 10 THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 457 krates remained at the head of the Achaian government. His administration was much more advantageous to Rome than that of a proconsul would have been. To leave to conquered countries

IHAIxiI'MI NO 01 HYRNA.'

e under Roman influence their national chiefs, to govern

through native rulers as the English do in India, was one of the

;•< i mi 1 1 im. ) discovered Smyrna (from the Journal of

I- in'... Ling to compare thli tatuctte with the Diadoumenos of

I m . 1 n (Vol. [I. p. 157) ; ti> I ili. I Diadoiimeno*, 1 • now in th( British Muaeum. t.YS HISTORY OF GREE( K wisest methods employed l>\ Roman statesmanship. Content with this semblance of freedom, with these municipal liberties that har- monize so well with political despotism, the people fell, without noise or disturbance, into a subjecl condition, and the Senate found them docile when the occasion came for the curl) or the spur. Thus, unconsciousl} to herself, Greece was ready to become, like so many of the Italian cities, a possession of Rome, when, at tlie death of Kallikrates, Polybios, supported by Scipio Aemilianus, solicited the return of the Achaian exiles, of whom there were only three hundred left. The Senate hesitated. Cato was indignant thai there should be so much deliberation about such a trifle; contempt made him humane.

"The question is only," he said, ••whether a few decrepit

Greeks shall be buried 1>\ their own gravediggers or by ours." They were allowed to return

>.' home i 150 b. c. In the case TF.TK.MH: \' MM of sonic of these exiles, however, age had neither chilled their ardor nor appeased their resentment. Diaios. Kxitolaos, and Damokreitos returned to their native land with rancor in their hearts, and by their imprudent daring precipitated her destruction.

Circumstances appeared favorable, it is true. An adventurer. Andriskos by name, giving himself out to be an illegitimate son

.; Perseus, laid claim to his father's kingdom (152 b. c). Repulsed by the Macedonians in a firsl attempt, he bad taken refuge with Demetrios, the king of Syria who bad given him up to the Romans. They, contrary to their custom, had kept him insecurely: he had escaped, recruited an armj in Thrace, and now. claiming

i |v om the Senate the restoration "f the honors ami office*

tbei had enjoyed before their ' rhom he Bounded on tlii> subject, replied "II

r ilybios, ili.it you arc nol like Odysseus; having made your escape from the care

lyphemos, i'"i tlmik ol returning to l""k for your hat and bell left behind" (1'lui.,

- - Diademed 1" etrios I . It ighi profile; Innrel-wrcatli. Reveree: BAZIAEQ2 AHMHTPIOY 2QTHPOS; Fortune, seated i" the left, <>n a throne; she holds I wand and a cornucopia filled with fruits; in the field, the monogram of tl»' mint at AnUoch

i date year 161 <>f the , ol n in the exergue; the AJtP ( the ( w i and thai Seleukid era) THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 459

to be that Philip, the adopted son of Perseus, who perished in cap- tivity at Alba, he instigated a revolt in Macedon and occupied a part of Thessaly. Scipio Nasica drove him thence (149 B.C.); but he returned, defeated and killed the praetor Juventius, and made alliance with the Cai'thaginians, who were just entering on their third war with Rome. The affair began to take a serious aspect.

Rome was fighting at the moment in Spain and in Africa ; there was reason to fear the movement might spread throughout Greece and into Asia. A consular army was given to the praetor Metel- lus, who gained a new victory at Pydna and carried Andriskos a prisoner to Rome (148 B.C.). A year had sufficed to put an end to this war, not really a very

serious one, which, however, some years later (142 b. c), a second

COINS OK MACEDON, IN GENERB.1 impostor vainly tried to renew. The Senate, believing these States, conquered fifty years before, and since then held in a network of intrigues, to be at last ripe for servitude, now reduced Macedon to

a province i L46 u. C.).

'I'll'- new province extended from Thrace to the Adriatic, where th<- two flourishing cities of Apollonia and Dyrrachium served it seaports and connecting links with Italy. Its tax remained, as before, a hundred talents, — halt' as much as the Macedonian kings had received, — and this was levied by the country itself. The cities preserved their municipal liberties, and instead of the civil and the foreign wars that bad SO long desolated it. there was now to be, during the next four centuries, a peace and prosperity disturbed only,

;it rare intervals, by the exactions of 3ome Roman proconsul.

1 i. Head of the youthful Pan, right profile; be i- horned and has the crook on hia shoul

I' iwr. i

ttiaia; the whole In a wreath of oak-leavea (Bronzi i ! Beardlei head of Berakles,

!'_' the lion'i -Kin, it.'Ii' profile. Revei i MAKEAONQN; horseman stepping to the

•" i til) I HISTORY OF GREECE.

The army of Metellus Macedonicus was still encamped on the scene of its victories, when one of the Aohaian exiles who had returned into the Peloponnesos, Diaios, was elected strategoa During his magistracy the endless quarrel between Sparta and the league, for a time pacified, broke oul anew, owing to the

n . f Zikvnth"- r.iin nf Srtni''

3 I'.ni of Krani 11 ., K-j.li .ilpnU). 1 •'in of Kntnioi KcpballcDia).

COINS "I nil l~i \M- ok nil CORINTHIAN i.ri.K. 1

Becrel intrigues of Rome. Sparta again made an attempt to withdraw from the alliance. Immediately the A.chaians took up anus: but Roman commissioners arrived, bringing a senatus-consultum which detached from the league Sparta. Arg and Orchomenos, — the Brst two as of Dorian race,

the all. third as Trojan ; consequently, foreign to the other members of the confederation. On hear-

this decree, Diaios roused tin.' population of Corinth: the Spartans found in the

• if their humiliation; they induced Chalkis and the Boiotians to ahare in their resentment : ami when Metellus came down from

i i. Hi d of Aphrodite, left profile Ri I' galloping t" the left. - '. Head of Pallas, front face, wearing a helmet with a triple aigrette. Rcvi ZAMAION; ram, to the right (Silver.) 8. Head ol onl face. Reverse KPA-

[ri'ur], among t! nited at their base. I'll'' : [nify tritartemorion. (Silrer.) an t, Helmel i" il"' right. I K. in incu Bronse.) The islands of

Zakynthoi and Rephallenia command the • iulf of < 'orinth.

I;. in with the i View of the AJtrokorin-

soonted by the temple of the armed \phrodlte; it th the hill, the grotto ol the nymph Pelrene. In the field, a) the left, an oUti I I: CL1 COR c'-lrmia —

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 461

Macedon with his legions the confederates advanced to meet him at Scarpheia in Lokris (14G B.C.). Tliis army was cut to pieces; but by calling out every man, even the slaves, and taking the money ul the rich and the women's jewels, Diaios collected a force of fourteen thousand men, and completed his preparations for defence : posted at the entrance of the isthmus of Corinth, he awaited the new consul, Mummius. On the adjacent heights the women and children had

- ' _-- * I & ---*-> TEMPLE OF &

i Ml

, , OLYMPIAN ZEUS

•i •f'iiini \ ; i'.-'mi?^** vV^b_ 1 R"»»?s?"* J T~-'-'\

: ,to '. *"- • - |™--g/ r —-4- ___*-.. T/tTTT/J ; -—^ '"' U-L*^—" L- r_— — T \ v* .3. /

RESTORED PLAH "I Till: ALTIS (OLYMPIA).

I iii crowdg bo see their husbands and fathers conquer or die.

They died; Corinth, abandoned by Athens, was taken without resistance; and to terrify the Greeks by a savage execution, the consul caused the men to be put to the sword, the women and children jold into slavery, and be thru gave the city up to pillage and the

1 flames. Thebes, Chalkis, and the territory of the three cities were united to the public domain of the Roman people. The Aohaian

and the Boiotian I were dissolved; all the cities which bad

1 I. Cf. Btrabo, viii 881 ; ivy. Epi 162 HISTORY OF GREECE. taken part in the struggle were dismantled, disarmed, and subjected ti> tribute; and the Senate then established an oligarchical government, whicb could be more easily controlled than a popular assembly.1

BUST OF A i;c>\i\\ (SECOND CENTUBT H. i .)'

The sacred domains, Delphi and Olympia, in Elis, retained their privileges; but the credit of these gods, who were una Me to save their people, was diminished, and oon grew in their courts.

I' i yii. 16. Athens and a few other citiei were not subjected to tribute.

.rl.lv \H. 1 1 M in the Glyptothek of Munich i 2 of Brnnn'i Description | ; from the mr„i,t ,/. I,, Sculpture grecqut ri romaint .... published bj Brunn and nmckmann, Hi

ss i. No. 10. The name of Antiochos Soter, pro] sd by Wblter* ( Irekttoi. Zeitung, i pp. 157 tt ""/) cannot be accepted. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 463

Yet another people struck from the list of nations ! Thus the Greeks, by the hand of Rome, ended their national existence, and had not even the right to accuse fortune of causing their downfall. It is a hard thing to say. and especially hard for us Frenchmen, but those who are in the wrong (not to say that the victors are always in the right) are most frequently those who are conquered. If we recall the picture which has been drawn of Greece before the Romans set foot there. we shall see that this people with their own hands dug their grave. He who cannot govern himself must be governed, — he who has no foresight, be exposed to all

accidents : such is the universal law. Anarchy justly made slaves of those whom, in their better days, patriotism and discipline had made strong and famous. In fact this degenerate people did not deserve to have Rome employ so much prudence in bringing them insensibly under

her Bway. A- if the Senate had . J IIKKK. 1 always in mind the old deeds of

Greece, and feared thai if matters were in the least precipitated, some noble desperation mighl renew the laurels of Marathon and

Plataia, a half-century had been spenl in making ready to act and

k imperatively. At the close of the war with the Dlyriana it h.nl been explained to tin- Greeks that the legions had crossed the Adriatic for no other purpose than to deliver them from these pirates;

1 Figurine "i terra eotta (Uncovered in the neeropol'u of Myrina, ami now in the Louvre fNo 196 at tli' ' i: from La Myrina, pari ii pi. xxviii. No 2, Cf, ibid., rh< liadem, and the right arm evidently reited on a sceptre.

• III. >,;. i win. Ii the moat celebrated in that o(

' the Barh rmi Juno T

164 HISTORY OF GREECE. later, in the struggle with Macedon, the Senate had professed to fight tor the sake of Greek independence. Alter the battle of Kynoskephalai, Flamininus had quietly transformed this friendship

«'! tl arlier days into a protectorate; and it was only after all the

AV5 P K IO-| AA r m IO.GLV E VS- AC £ | HA I A C A f V 0B N To •• mi ETQ RQAA A M'R E D I Ed m I mM P'H ANS-Q&tH-A&r F 'sr-BENE-CESTA^OD 'M-BECL€)"VGWFRAT

- — ?D£D

1 i i I INSCRIPTION OS I III I Bill I I 1:1 I I' 1.1 Ml MM r- TO HERCULES VICTOR. strength of Macedon, of Asia, and of Africa had been destroyed that Mummius made the protectorate a domination. Even then 2 Greece was not formally reduced to a province. Her greal name

1 Fac-simile of the inscription on the temple of the Victorious Hercules, from Ritschl,

•.. ... lalinitalu monumenta epigraphica, tab Ii. A (Cf.Ci I i. 541; Wilmanns,

Exempla interipi. Latin., vol. i. No. 27 a). [I reads thus: —

1 . Ml MMH - I 1 cos.

I ii - v. ii vi i v I, i , i i vi -i-ii n> 1MPERIOQUI v vri " ' ' REDIEI1 I l:n Mm v\». COR INTO DELRTO i ROMAN

ill II v~i I 1:1 - DEMI OE8TA8 Q 9 IN BKLI.O \ "\ I R \ 1

ii vm vi 1. 1 m i i -i..N v iikrculis \ ii ronis

IMP! i: v TOR I'l I'll v i.

I ' |i ; ,i, thai then trere proconsuli the battle nf \iiinm. (>ut

- 'I,. R Wacodon ' THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR 465 still impressed men's minds Moreover, the more, famous cities, nota- bly Athens and Sparta, had remained neutral in the war upon which

the Achaians had entered ; and even 'manv of the league had been lukewarm in the strife. " If we had not been quickly ruined," they said, '-we could not have been saved." 1 They indicated by this that a stubborn resistance would have rendered the Romans implacable, while an easy victory had disarmed their anger. Indeed, after the first executions, the authors of the war, with their accomplices, having been punished in a manner to take away all desire of renewing it. the Greeks were treated like a conquered people whose good-wT ill Rome desired to obtain. They did indeed lose their liberty, but they preserved its semblance, — retaining their own laws, magistrates, elections, and even their leagues, which a few years later the Senate permitted them to re-form. There was no Roman garrison in any city, no proconsul in the land. Only, in remote Macedon. a Roman governor listened to every sound, watched every movement, ready to descend upon Hellas with his cohorts, and to renew by some rigorous measure the terror that the destruction of Corinth had caused. The only right which Rome took from the Greeks was that of devastating their own country by a perpetual succession of internecine wars. Metellus had carried off from Pella twenty-live bronze statues which had been made by Lysippos at Alexander's order, to com- memorate the Macedonian guards who perished at the battle of the

likos. These the consul placed in from of two temples which he built to Jupiter and .Inno. — the first marble edifices ever erected in Rome. After the construction of these temples there remained from the consul's share of the booty enough for him to build also a magnificent portico.

amius was a Roman of the old school; he had preserved all the early rusticity, and took no plea-lire iii the refinements

Greece. In obedience to custom far mure than from any taste for work- of art. he removed from Corinth, before the pillage and 1 the lire, the statues, vases, pictures, and carvings; and all thai

1 PeJybioi, xl 5 The bronze of ('••> inth wan farootm, t>ni we have rm apeci ni of it. On 'I ther hand,

of Corinthian painted i if, which were renowned throughout ih<- whole Greek world It I- pomible tli.it Mummiui carried tome of thi . for t !•->

I in IlaK .

voi iv. :io L6ti HISTORY OF GREECE. he could not sell to the king of Pergamon 1 he sent to Rome, where these spoils of war served to decorate the temples and public squares. For himself he kepi nothing, and remained poor,

< that -_r i so the State was obliged to \ ' a dowry to his daughters.

He had no idea whatever that he had committed a crime in destroying the mosl beautiful city of Greece after a rapture made without risk, and hence without -lory, lie supposed himself

to have accomplished a memorable exploit, and in his consular inscription, which has

1 n discovered, arc to be read these words. in which he indicates the chief honor of his consulship: ddeto Corintho. This bar-

barian was quite righl in erecting, after

his victory, a temple to the god of brute strength, — Hercules Victor. A- to the originators of the A.chaiau war.

one. Kritolaos, had disappeared at Skar-

pheia ; the other, Diaios, sought, by his own hand, the death which he did not find

upon the battle-field. From the isthmus

he fled to Megalopolis, where he put to

death his wife and children, sel fire to

his house, and himself took poison. In

>} instigating an entirely hopeless stru these men had occasioned main woes to

their country : bul thej fell \\ ith and [or

her. Devotion makes imprudence pardonable, and we are better satisfie'd thai Greece should end thus on

Id of battle, than in the lethargic sleep of so many others of the victims of Rome. For nation- as for individuals, it is well to know how to die nobly. The A.chaians, left alone amid

i This kin i\ hundred thousand sesterces for a painting b) Vristeidesof Thebes,

vm, .:--l : Pliny, Hit t/., xx?

n thi Museum of the Vrcl Society ol Athens, from J. Martha,

'*'•, I No. 498, p,

fi lofl he \u ephebos, standing, with hair puffed out around the : on the hand nth- with blue border is h i his arms rhis type ol fune-

moal frequently found in Oj ntian I i Martha, op

P.Gil I, Dt I ;

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 467 the general destruction of the Greek States, owed this final sacrifice to the ancient glory of Hellas.

Politically, Greece is now dead. In the Agora there will be no more stormy debates or sentences of exile against those

; in Peiraieus no more galleys defeated crowded with troops ; in the Parthenon no more songs of victory ; in the Kerameikos no more eulogies over the dead : Rome requires peace. And yet a remnant of Greek genius still lives. While it is true that the impulse given by the great men of preceding ages has become feeble and almost ceased, yet everywhere rhetoricians are discussing, grammarians are making subtle distinctions, philosophers are disputing, and it is to Athens that the most illustrious Romans come to complete or to correct their education : one of them, a friend of Cicero, thence takes the name of

Atticus. Pergamon founds a new school of sculpture ; Rhodes

claims to teach the secrets of eloquence ; Alexandria is a work- shop where poetry is made; and the cities of the Asiatic coast

are filled with artisans . who. for so much ready money, make copies of all the consecrated masterpieces to decorate the villas of the proconsuls. By the science, the art. and the philosophy of the earlier time Greece is about to conquer the West, on which in the days of her power her genius left absolutely no impress and it is there that she reigns forever.

Graeda captaferum victorem cepit.

Hut tliis second life of Greece, this action upon Rome, belong to tin- history of the new capital of the world. There it has already be.-n related, and to those pages the reader is referred. 1

/.''/«<•, •• History ../ chapter ww . Hellenism ;u Hume." ('II \rn:i; XXXIX.

SICILY.

I. — End of the Independence of the Italiot Greeks; the Elder Diontsios.

HELLENISM, carried by Alexander to Babylon, by the Seleukid kin-~ to Syria, by the Ptolemies into their new capital. quickly smothered the ancient civilizations of the valleys of the Euphrates and Nile. Thanks to this Greek influence, however,

A- : .Minor and Egypt wire soon covered with new cities, or those of ancient date were exhumed from their ruins, sonic of them taking their place among the most celebrated in the world, — as

Smyrna, Ephesos. Bliletos, Seleukia, Antioch, Pergamon, and Alex- andria. The Greeks

here continued, in art

and science, as disciples of the old mas-

ters, the work of the

mother-country ; but COIN- OF Kllll NT. 1 they did not create a new Hellas. Commerce, industry, luxury, and especially effeminacy and pleasure, prevailed in these cities; but during two or three hundred years nothing strong or renowned came from them, 5 pi in geography, mathematics, and astronomy; and all this

1 I. Laurelled hi id ol Vpollo, right profile Reverse KV ; bridled horse, galloping to tie rijht ; in the field, a star and a crab. (Bronze.) 2. Diademed bead of Artemis, righl pro file, »iili the quiver on her Bhoulder. Legend: AAMQ (first letters of ;i magistrate's name)

: t<> I -In' kvi'\ rata*]. Reverse: > Victory flying to tbe right ; holds a wreath in the left hand,

ii»' I lieu floating from right. (Bron

eat irork "n geography, Archimedes, Apollonios "i Perga, and Euclid,

! I text-book in geometrj i ttosthenes, who measured tbe

lios, » 1"' understood i'~ revolution around the sun; Hipparchos, the greatest ol SICILY. 469 prosperity, of which Rome later became the heir, was not worth

1 to the world a few days of Athenian life in the time of Perikles.

Nor is anything more to be said of the Greeks of Kyrene, of Marseilles (Massalia), of the Pontic shore of the Bosporos, whose life lay outside the great Hellenic current ; although at Kyrene may yet be seen remains of Hellenic architecture, and the treasures, vases, and jewels discovered in the ancient kingdom of the Bos- poros 2 show that in these remote regions Greek life shone with

COINS OF MARSEILLES.8 great brilliancy. Neither do the Greeks of Italy require any special attention. We have seen that many colonies from Chalkis, Megara, and even Sparta 4 established themselves here; but their obscure history is closely blended with that of the native inhabitants, and their fall under the hand of Rome was coincident with that of the

>* populations of this region. The expedition of Alexander

the Molossian into Lucania (326 b. c), and that of Pyrrhos, who failed to gain in Italy his battle of Arbela. have been briefly noted. 5 rcely had the defeated king quitted Tarentum when the Romans

red it (272 B.C.); Brundusium was occupied; Cumse had long

been under the power of Rome ; and Rhegion had received a garrison of legionaries. All Magna Graecia, therefore, together with

ilxiw'. p, 210.

• Jewell .in- represented in this work, Vol. II. pp. 128. 177, 589, and in

. ii. iii. ! im, i 1 668, 20, 18, h . 28, vii. 241. The vase of gilded Bilver which

of this volume (Section II.) »m^ found in the tomb of a Scythian kin^.

' 1 fix- li"i AAKYAQN : youthful head, forehead I, of the Genius of the Lakydon (the

< -^. leu) Ri wheel with four - 1 • .k • (Silver.) -'. Laurelled head of o, left profile ; behind, an amphi I MA2ZAAIHTQN a bull, threatening with

in the field, an amphora. (Bronze.) "•. Busl of Artemis, right pro- nd carrjrin houlder the bow and quiver. Revel MA2ZAAIHTQN

ihe field, two mint-mark*. (Silver )

work, Vol. II. 294 pp. 140 188, and !96; and In the H \ oj Rome, vol.

i. i hapter icvi. 4 7ii HISTORY OF <;i;i! the rest of peninsular Italy, was at the feel of the Senate. From Brundusium the Romans kept watch upon Greece, whither the piracies of the Illyrians soon were to call their consuls; and from Rhegiou they beheld, across the strait of Messina, the fruitful island (Sikelia) whose possession would give them the control of the Mediterranean.

But there lay Syracuse (Syrakousai), a powerful city; and we must not pass unnoticed the savage grandeur and the gloomy figures of the elder and the younger Dionysios and of Agathokles. These tyrants mani-

fested all the energy

of tlif Hellenic race, i OIKS i 'I — in this case, however, for evil. A brief summary of their history will he given, although it can scarcely !» regarded as connected with that of Greece Proper.

The disastrous issue of the Athenian expedition into Sicily had set the seal to the power of Syracuse.'-' This victory had still another effect : as at Athen- after the battle of Salaniis. the people now desired a more democratic form of government. A constitution of a democratic nature was prepared by Diokles; hut we have no exact

3 information concerning it. The fact that this constitution substi- tuted for election designation by lot to civil offices, shows its popular character. According to Diodoros, Diokles was much occupied with civic laws, and was able skilfully to proportion the penalty to the crime. His death, if we knew no more of him than that, would entitle him to lasting honors. In order to place the popular assemblies beyond all danger of military violence, he forbade the citizens,

1 l. Head of bearded Pan, left profile; he ia I d wean a wreath of ivj leave*

r i 1 i i itli Reverse I'AN'frntnn-nKiT&iK] : -_r 1 ) to the left, « lifted paw, holding a javelin in his mouth;

lii- onder feet, an ear of wheat, emblem of the commerce of Pantikapaion : in the field, a mono-

-trail'- name. (Gold.) -' Head "f Pan, to the left, three quarter! front, having little horns and hoi Ri HAN; bull's head to the left. (Silver.) < ntikapaion, capital of the kingdom of the Bosporus. loroi nnd Justin are the principal authorities here. Diodoros, having had the oppor-

. 1 1 tunity to examine, not onlj 1 - works of Ephoros and Timaios, t.nt tli >f Philistos, th< friend

of 1 i — Dioi for 1 period more confidence than we iisuall) can give him,

- thai it «.i- democratic in character! A flijuot • . SICILY. 471 under pain of death, to attend them wearing arms. On one occasion, having just returned from some campaign, he heard a tumult in the assembly and hastened thither to appease it, unmindful of the fact that he was still wearing his sword. His enemies upon this reproached him with violating his own law. "Not so," he rejoined,

: •• I enforce it " and he plunged the weapon into his heart. The Syracusans built a temple in his honor, and most of the Sicilian cities adopted his laws. In another part of his work, however, Diodoros 1 attributes this act to Charondas, which leads us to suppose that it is not authentic as to either. The triumph of the popular party was complete in 407 B. C, when the leader of the opposite faction. Hermokrates, who had been exiled on account of the disaster of Kyzikos, perished in one of his attempts to return to his native land. 2 But from the rule of dema- gogues was soon to follow its too frequent

i, • • ' COIN OF TARENTUM.' result, — tyranny. — occasion arising trom the dangers into which a new and frightful war plunged Syracuse.

Sicily was like a ship equally laden at prow and stern. On

stern shore Syracuse was extremely important, and Carthage

had set foot on th st. Commerce gave the two cities

they extended their sway into the in- rival interests ; and when

ii\ they came into violenl collision. The ureal battle of Himera,

4 in 480 b. < \. will be remembered, when Carthage soughl to do in

Sicily what Xerxes had attempted in Greece. Rendered cautious

- [amis by the naval power of Athens, the Car-

gjinians had made no attempt for seventy years to increase their

in Sicily. The disaster of Nikias restored their confi-

dence, and iii HO u c. they responded to the appeal of Segesta. the Athenians had nol been of service to this

''< pie, and '\ feared the vengeance of Syracuse and of

tended northward to that of S Bannibal, the grand-

19.

* Won end TAPA. On the reverse, a

f (i "i lold tatoi Tarentum ; the Greet i nme ol

if the rarer e. >

< v n 17: UlsioKV OF GREECE.

son of that Hamilcar who had been conquered and killed by Gelon

at Hiinera. lauded iii the i.-land with a lew mercenaries. In order

to take away from the Syracusans all pretexl for displeasure, lie in l>\ proposing that the} should arbitrate between Segesta and

Selinous; hut he at the same time took possession of the former city, and the following year surrounded the latter with an army numbering, according to some authorities, not less than two hundred thousand men. Notwithstanding a desperate resistance, the besi< :

1 BHOXZE COIN. COIN 01 SI OES I \.-

were able to break down the walls, and a detachment of Iberians effected an entrance; all the inhabitants were slain, and Hannibal then razed the city to the ground. The war thus at once assumed the character of atrocity which marked its whole course. Having struck this blow on the south. Hannibal now proceeded to strike another on the north, that he mighl extend the Carthaginian sway equally on both shores of the island. He besieged Himera ami took it. notwithstanding the brave defence of tin' inhabitants, n

I whom were able to make their escape before the final assault. He found, however, three thousand men within the walls, whom he rescued from the hand- of the soldiers, hut only that he might lead them to the place where his grandfather, Hamilcar. had been killed, and there butcher them after frififhtfulo tortures. In the

1 Coin of .Vitamin. Head "f Sicily (Sikelia), lift profile, with a myrtle-wreath on the hair. Reverse: a lyre. This coin, "f uncertain origin, was perhaps struck upon a coin of Syracuse (' of the British Museum, Sicuy, p ii BrEZTAION; head of Segesta, diademed, right profile. Reverse: BrESTAUA; a dog, to the right; behind, three wheat-ears. (Silver.) The name is always written In tin A and other contemporary Greek writers "Egesta;" .ma ii has been frequently asserted that it

hanged by tin- Romans to Segesta, t">' the purpose of avoiding the ill-omen "i il"' word

i in Latin. See Smith's / nan Geography, p. in- Ed

Noti The view represented on the opposite page i- from a photograph taken from iln higher pari of tin' city of Messina, ami includes the liarlmr. the -trait, ami the opp

ii Italy. .1*

< z

SICILY. 475 city he left not one stone upon another, and the ruins made by him may still be seen (-109 B.C.).

Encouraged by these successes, Carthage resolved to give still greater proportions to the struggle; but she was not able again to gather a strong army until she had levied mercenaries in Spain, in the Balearic Islands, in Mauretania and Numidia, in Campania,

RUINS OF THE THRATUF. OK BEGE8TA.1

and. in short, wherever this traffic in courage was carried on. Hannibal and Himilcon were placid at their head. On the other side, Syracuse soughl aid from the Greeks of Italy and of the

Peloponnesos, and strove to bring the Sicilians to share in her

Tin- fall of Selinous bad exposed V.grigentum to attack. The haginians, with a hundred and twenty thousand men, advanced

1 From a photograph. The theatre is of the Greek epoch. Ii face* toward! the north. an. I thl 111 liw r,f id. 171.<' HISTORY OF <.I,T.j:< E. up..n this citv.' one of the richest in the Greek world, bul also one

the in"-! effeminate, tta vineyards and olive-groves furnished material for an extensive commerce ; its manufacture of vases rivalled that of Athens; and it- two hundred thousand inhabitants, its public buildings, its temple of Olympian Zeus, the largest in Sicily, its artificial lake, l."J47 feet in circumference (where docks swans were kept), and the garments of gold and silver worn by the principal citizens, attested its wealth. But in ancient times

COIN'S OF CARTHAG effeminacy followed close upon wealth. In Agrigentum habits of military discipline — the only protection of these cities so constantly endangered — were now lost. The city was therefore obliged to mercenaries, and the Spartan Dexippos, with the Campa- nians who had served Carthage in the preceding war. took service with it. The siege had numerous vicissitudes. Hannibal had demolished the tombs to procure materials for immense mounds, and the pestilence which broke out in his army, to which he himself fell a victim. ed in expression of divine displeasure. Himilcon, his successor,

1 to tl»- It i- imp 5 accuracy of tliis statement "r of those that follow. It

I historian! I msly the number of men composing the ancient

1»' ever tiering li"» i' would possible t" f 1 such nun ' 1. Head r, with a wreath "f wheal cars, right profile; she wears i broad neck-

lolphins; behind, the symbol of the Punic triad. R I horse, in

if a palm-t I in the field a star. Silver. -• Head of D

•I. of wheat-ears, left profilt R the right; above, the

in the field, the 1 in letter a

' nil Nmi 1 om phot e Must of Girgcnti.

I. Front. II irrounded bj I id lii- bunting-dogs, i- imlitTor-

: 1 1. I: kmong her women, ia dj i

III I

SICILY. 479

sacrificed a boy to Kronos. by way of expiation, and threw into the sea several animals as an offering to Poseidon. Notwithstanding <-J O this, a corps of forty thousand Iberians and Campanians were defeated completely by the Syracusan Daplineios. The Agrigentines

'•' - Jl i-:f _ ^W^M Scale iKU

PLAN "I AGRIG1

were already anticipating a successful issue to the struggle, and although they were beginning to Buffer from want, looked forward

to the arrival of a large convoy of wheat. Bui the convoy Eel] into

the enemy's hands, and al the same time Himilcon induced their

to abandon them There was nothing left for the inhab- 480 HISTORY OF GREECE.

itants but to awail death in their city, or to escape as tlie people of Himera had done. They fled to Gela by night; Agrigentuni was

left sacked, and of so much wealth nothing was but ruins (406 B. i This event struck terror in Syracuse. An assembly was called together, hut nu one dared to offer a suggestion. Then appeared

Dionysios, a man of obscure origin, the son of an ass-driver, and

himself a clerk in a public office.

I te had joined the party of llenno- krates. who. having been banished

from Syracuse, had repeatedly at-

tempted tu return in arms, and he SILVER < I had attracted attention by numerous displays of courage. His resolution and his daring had made him influential, and when he si 1 up and accused of treason the

rals who had been sent to the aid of Agrigen- tum, his word.- caused such an excitement that the mag - punished him for disturbing the public peace. Hi- friend, the rich Philistos, al once paid the fine, and declared that if Dionysios should be again lined he would again pay for him. Dionysios .-' BRONZE i "IN therefore continued his harangue, and the ] pie,

iiwith proceeding to a new election, placed him in the number of the generals.

Thus he becomes colleague of the men to whom he has imputed the crime of accepting bribes from the Carthaginians.

Being senl to succor Gela, he finds the rich in hostility to the people, upon which he accuses them in the assembly, causes them t<> be condemned and despoiled of their property, and distrib- utes it among hi- soldiers. Having thus made himself popular in the army, he returns to Syracuse, lie addresses the peopl they come out « »f the theatre. • Your most dangerous eneni

to them, "are not. the Carthaginians, they are your magis- who amuse you with costly festivals while your soldiers

:" tin- river Gel Mid diademed ; around, Ihrei fishes.

.1 biga, tin horses stepping to the right ; nbove, n laurel-wreath,

of which the fact Is represented. Vol. Til SYPA

left. SICILY. 481 are in want of everything." And recurring to his accusation of " his colleagues, he continues : Take back the command that you intrusted to me ; it is useless for me to go and expose my life in the presence of the enemy when others sell the city, and I incur the danger even of being regarded as an accomplice in their treason." The people responded promptly to his appeal, his colleagues were immediately deposed, and he himself appointed sole general with full powers. Later he imitated the artifice of Peisistratos, feigning to believe his life in danger, and caused himself to be attended by a guard of six hundred men, which he soon increased to a thousand, selected from the poorest and most desperate of the populace, to whom he gave splendid clothing and the wildest hopes for the future. This took place at Leontini, a city ^j'.' where the exiles had taken n-fuge, and to which he had .MAP (>K ORTYGIA. conducted the troops. He then returned to Syracuse and established himself in the island of

Ortygia, where all the arsenals were, — a position also commanding the great harbor. The blind multitude had given themselves a

it "I* men. little tyranl ; bu1 was a crowd poor who cared for public liberties, and bad no thought of the fatal consequences of the iiny they had established.

Meanwhile Gela, besieged, called for aid; this was still another

p in the Carthaginian advance along the southern shore of the island. Dionysios hastened thither, alter having induced the people to condemn u, death Daphneios and Demarchos, the two leaders of the aristocracy. Being defeated in an ment, he relin-

quished the attempt to defend Gela, and abandoned it to the HISTORY OF GEE]

thaginians, after having withdrawn all the population. Kamarina, in its turn, yielded. The enenrj was now within fifty miles of S\ racuse, and the city was crowded with terrified fugitives who clamored loudly against Dionysios. The Syracusan cavalry mutinied, and preceding him into the city, pillaged his house, causing the death of his wife bj their rough treatment. The tyrant, however, followed them closely, and revenged himself b} a general massacre of his adversaries. Meanwhile, a pestilence having caused greal mortality in the invading army, the Carthaginians were willing to listen to propositions ot peace. A treaty confirmed them in the possession of

i "I\- ol h \M \l:l\ \.' tli- territory of Selinous, A.snrieentum, and Himera. The inhabitants of Gela ami Kamarina were permitted to return to their dismantled cities, on condition of paying a tribute to the Cartha- ginians; ami Dionysios, who from the beginning of the siege of (I'll had probably had an understanding with them, was re nized as tyrant of Syracuse (405 B.p.), Lysandros at the same date captured the Athenian fleet at Aigospotamoi, — a victory which was followed by the establishment of Lacedaemonian governors in all the cities. Athens ah" was soon to fill into his power. At. that evil date liberty had ceased in the Hellenic world.

To consolidate his power, l>\ increasing the number of those dependent upon him. Dionysios made a new division of lands; the mosl valuable territory was given t" his friends and officers, and the remainder divided in equal shares among all the other inhabitants, Blaves and foreigners included lie fortified

1 I. Yotitl of Hcrakli llio lion's skin, left profile; before him, a

VMAPINA Palls > the right; a Victon impl

.'. Head of the livr llipparin, fronl Icr the nock, rv\i.

i KAMAPINA; the nymph Kamarins

- \

SICILY. 483 the island of Ortygia, which was joined to the city by a mole, but which he now separated from it by a wall. This was his citadel ; he removed from it all the former inhabitants, and filled

1 their place with his mercenaries. It was a wise precaution, although he had, so to speak, given a new population to Syra- cuse-. A silent displeasure brooded in many hearts, excited by the execution or the banishment of numerous citizens, and, for those who were left in the city, the insupportable burden of taxes, which amounted to twenty per cent annually upon all kinds of property.2 Accordingly, during an expedition undertaken by Dio- nysios against the Sikeloi of the ^=^^

..-- interior, a revolt broke out, and he "~'^r|i&i £\ /fyk n\ was obliged to hasten to his ref- 'J s'mmBf^jh 3_jf^MmsMjJ' uge in Ortygia, whose fortifications, V^H^HSBiy IvEi^jgii t J fiercely attacked, appeared at one ^S5§p|^^ nJh^IIS^ time insufficient to protect him. COTS OF AITOTE.8 Fearing that he might be captured. he discussed with his friends the question of death or flight. " It is better either to conquer or to die here," one of them said to him; - your royal mantle must be your shroud." He feigned a willing- ness to negotiate; and when he had escaped with five vessels, his assailants, like any popular army which believes its work completed, dispersed. But Dionysios had secured the aid of twelve hundred Campanians left by the Carthaginians in their new territory. These mercenaries, with some other troops, fell upon Syracuse, now reposing in complete security. A sortie of the garrison of ended by dispersing the revolters, of whom seven thousand took refuge in Aitne, and Dionysios remained master of the city (403 B.C.). An alliance with Sparta, and the sending of

1.. : o to him from tlxat city as counsellor, consolidated his power. He had the wisdom not to sully it this time by acts of

1 of S n only the The tame measure wat taken bj Marccllus when he was master \

lowed to live in Ortygia (( m, v. 32, 34, 88, 98). In all details

ning Dionysios our authority ii Diodi

.., I , . Lit Aristotle says, Po 0, 4.

' ! :i ATTNAION; bead of Bilenos, with :i wreath a I profile; beneath, scarabasus / d on a richly carved throne; be imple pcplos, bat the righl hand lifted, probably holding • ind in the lefl d thunderbolt; before lilin. .in eagle ii perched <i> of ; pine-tree (Tctradrachm "i the Lucien de Hii ch eolfei • '

HIST0R1 OF GREECE.

veng Bui a few days later, when the inhabitants were tered through the fields harvesting, he caused all the bouses to be visited, and weapons removed wherever found. A second wall rendered the island of Ortygia impregnable, and numerous

RUINS OP Tin' TIM I'M "i IRTEMIS, IN I 1 1 1 I-i \\i. OF ORTYGIA.'

illed in from all quarters, increased at the same

time the strength of Dionysi linsl the Syracusans, and uf

jainsl its enemies. Finally, minute precautions rend< liim safe from assassins, but nol from fear, suspicion, and Buddeu alarms.

I he charcfa >nne is buill upon the ruin*

I imna with their rapitala SICILY. 485

For so many expenses there was need of money. Dionysios

sought to obtain it by war. He seized the city of Aitne, the refuge of the Syracusan exiles, brought over to his side the inhabitants of Enna, a town in the interior, and bought of traitors Katana and Naxos, which he destroyed, after having sold the population. He gave the territory of Naxos to the Sikeloi of the neighborhood, that of Katana to his Cam- panian mercenaries, and compelled

the people of Leontini to emi- TETRADRACHM OF MESSINA.1 grate to Syracuse (400 b. a). The inhabitants of Rhegion, alarmed at seeing Dionysios advance so near their strait, sent over a force to Messina to anticipate him.

COINS OF KATANA -

A mutiny which broke out in this band caused the failure of the enterprise, and Dionysios had thus a pretext for invading Magna

cia at a later period.

Dionysios was a tyrant, but lie was also a man of great energy. His dominant aim, after his own interests, was the abasement of

bhage and the grandeur of Syracuse. All his acts had refer- ence to this aim. After having made his power Becure on the eastern shore, he resolved to extend it. westward and drive back the Carthaginians, who in four years had advanced from the west-

1 nAN. Pan, node, beardless, and horned ' to the left on a rock, on which 1"' has

i hii fawn'i in; in bis left hand he holds the lagobolott, and with the ri'.'lii care

which leaps up to him. Reverse: MEZZANA Messana, i goad in hei hand, standing in

: a i art drawn bj li two mules stepping to the right ; in the exergue, two a KATANAION; laurelled head of Apollo, right profile. Etevei e: ;i woman driving a

pping to the rL-lit. (Silver.) .'. AUOA'AQN; bead ol Apollo, front wearing :i wreath of laurel; in the field, a lyre, a bow, and the plectrum Reverse RATA-

NAION; woman driving :i quadriga at a gallop to the right; the • about to turn

ore them, extendi a wreath i<> the In tin-

s i! rot k lobster. f er ) HISTORY OF GREECE. era poinl of the island to the confines of the Syracusan territory.

For this decisive struggle it was important to place Syracuse beyond danger in case of .1 defeat. He increased the strength of its

Scale IK 1

ri \ \ OF SYRACUSE. SltOWIM i DKFKN8IVI WORKS Ol DIONYSIOS.

wall-, and Burr led by a ramparl the heights of Epipolai, which commanded the city, bo thai it Bhould be impossible to enclos with hostile lit had very nearly been done in the Athenian dition. Sixty thousand laborers, taken from the free popula SICILY. 487 tion of t.ie country, were employed in the work. At the distance of a stadion apart, superintendents directed the laborers, and six thousand yoke of oxen transported the materials. Dionysios himself was constantly present, shared in the fatigue, and excited emula- tion by rewards. The zeal was so great that in twenty days this wall was completed, three miles in length, of hewn stone, flanked by strong tu.vers, and high enough to be secure from assault. 1 He then COIN OF SEI.INOCS. 2 collected a prodigious quantity of weapons and military engines, among them one of a new kind, the catapult, which threw stones and darts. For the navy he obtained ship-timber from Mount Etna, repaired the old galleys, and built new on a model of much greater strength than had hitherto been in use.

COIXS OK TTIERMAI (HIMERA). s

The Athenian fleet consisted of triremes only, whose chief value lay in their speed, tin- ease with which tiny could be manoeuvred, and their powerful rams, whose repeated blows shattered the enemy's ves- Dionysios now built galleys with four and five banks of oars, heavier, but Btronger; and his fleet consisted of more than tl hundred war-vessels, for which he established a hundred and sixty

mains may still !«<• seen of tin; fort on tin' Euryalos, tbe highest point of the- BpipolaL

illari, '/.

\- about to !»• sacrificed, ami the leaf of parsley, tl"- emblem of tin' city's name. Sen

an. I Apollo. haw hit Apollo Artemis in a biga, the I epping to the left; bow, and driving. (Silver.)

* I. of.I'Mii w : bead of Here, right profile, wearing a high ttephane ornamented with

i dolphin. Reverse: the youthful Herakli I on a rock, holding his club ; in the field, tbe bow and quiver. (Silver.) '-' II I of thi of ill"

id crowned wltl I profile. 8 PMITAN; only traces of this the horned Pan dancing, three hermai behind him. (Bronze Thi

1 1 n ) -- HISTOR? OF GEEECE.

Blips, of which oacli could hold two vessels. Sparta, friendly towards any tyranny, had given him permission to enroll in the Pelopon-

d in l.ikonia. as many mercenaries as he wished. Hi> preparations being com-

pleted, Dionysios proposed in

the assembly of the people to declare war against Carth and soon after, with eighty thousand men, he recaptured Gela, Agrigentum, Kamarina, Selinous, and Himera, and advanced tn attack the principal

fortress of the < larthaginians in

the island of Motye, at the

v. '-tern point of Sicily

B. a). It was a memorable

_ The Carthaginians de-

fended themselves with all the

obstinacy of the Punic ra but the new weapons employed

by Dionj sin.- finally got the bet- coinage. Himil- ? Ancient HarbV ter of their .' ' & j . con, however, arrived with a % hundred thousand men and

a large fleet i 395 B. c. He

recovered Motye without difficulty, and skilfully carrying the war eastward, he destroyed

and a naval .- mjap Messina gained battle which brought him into pi \n hi i in i-i \\r» or MOTYE. the harbor of Syracuse. He

• at in the temple of the Olympian Zeus, and fortified his

p with obtained from tombs. The Greeks attributed to icrilege the malarial fevers which, in the autumn.

the marshes surroundinj - use on the west. The

• ' tli.it the army, in its terror, abandoned SICILY. 489

all discipline and vigilance. Dionysios took advantage of this to make a double attack by land and sea, on a moonless night. Part

CARTHAGINIAN COINS AT PANORMOS. 1

of the hostile fleet was burned, and the few serviceable troops that the Carthaginians had were defeated and driven back into their camp, where death awaited them as surely as by the sword of the Syracusans. Himilcon sent secretly to ask at what price he would be permitted to withdraw with the Cartha-

ginians of his ami}', and he COINS OF MOTYE.' paid for this disgrace three

hundred talents ; but he redeemed it by his death. Returning to

Carthage, he accused himself of the disaster, offered prayers in all

1 I. y"X (Sis, perhaps the Punic name of the citj ), head of a nymph, righl profile, liair upon the neck in the knotted ; the field, three dolphins Reverse: dog to the right ; in the field, a nymph's head. (Silver.) -i. OAN0PM02, the Genius of the city nude, seated on the ri\er, repre ented under form the of a human-headed bull, leaping to the right. Reverse ;

\'"i (Si ) Poseidon seated to the right, holding Ins tridenl . in the field a dolphin. (Silver.)

ii woi'.mitikon, in retrograde legend; a nymph's head, righl profile, the hair in a sphen- behind the triquetra, the emblem of Sicily. Reverse, a dog to the right, with reverted

i. ;i head; in the field a mnrex. (Silver ) y? (Sis) , cock to the right. Reverse: six irk of the hemilitron (Bronze.) 6 Diademed head of Persephone, left pro-

:i inded by dolphin R i man standing in quadriga, the horses galloping to the right, and a Victory flying towards him, extending a wreath In the exergue a hippo- Silver camp and the word yi (5i») ) - l. Gorgon's lead, fiont face. Reverse: MIOO (Molya), in Punic; legend a palm-leaf.

(Silver) 2. Head of Gorgon, front face; underneath, tl {lobules, mark of the quaa Ultra Wotya) in Punic legend palm' nze.) HISTOKX OF GREECE. the temples of the city, then, walling up the doors of his house, starved himself to death (394 a. v.).

While Bimilcon fled, the mercenaries, betrayed bj their general, were surrounded and made prisoners or massacred. Instead of push- ing vigorously the advantage that had been thus given him, and driving the Carthaginians out of the whole island. Dionysios, after

1 Vol N I 1 TN A.

two years of feeble hostilities, made peace. He gained only the territory of the Sikeloi, with the fortified citj of Tauromenion. He already occupied Katana, at the foot of Etna; and the possession of

Messina, which gave him command <>i" the strait, opened to him the mad towards the cities of the [taliot Greeks, whose decline had now in, under the repeated attacks of the native populations, Sainnites

1 ». From :i photograph. The i n from 1 1 Benedictine monnsti

\"ii The h. Tlii- thi

.1 .1 -i!. upii of remarkable beaut] . i oromandio

P. a o <

z c 7,

4 H

U. O m < W 3 F

SICILY. 493 and Lucanians. About the year 397 b. c. Dionysios had sought allies in this country, asking the inhabitants of Rhegion to select for him among the young girls of their city a wife. " To have the marriage a suitable one," a citizen said in the public assembly, " we ought' to send him the executioner's daughter." This cutting allusion to the

COINS OF RHEGION. 1 executions ordered by the tyrant remained engraved upon his memory, and Rhegion, which moreover had given shelter to the Syracusan exiles, was first attacked, but it was not the first to be destroyed.

Kaulonia, Hipponion, and Skylakion yielded to the tyrant, and their territory was given to the Lokrians, who long before had formed an alliance with Dionysios. After a siege of eleven months, Rhegion surrendered. Dionysios manifested frightful cruelty in his treatment ol Phyton, who had been in command during the siege, putting to death bis 3on, and inflicting upon himself tortures so greal that the tyrant's own soldiers were indignant at his conduct (387 b. a). As was usual after such a victory, all the inhabitants were sold, and the city was destroyed Krotona. the must important city in Magna

Graecia, fell also into the power of Dionysios, and the Syracusan exiles, fleeing as far as the Adriatic Sea before they could find safety, established themselves at Ancona, the only seaport on that coast.

1 1. /.• Laurelled head ol profile. Reveru PHHNON ; Zeus seated, to the left i>n ;i throne ; be leaoi witli the t'-ft hand upon In i ptre Mid holda in the right :i patera, »iili wlni-li he if about to make a libation upon an altar. (Silver.) 2, Ueada of the Diotkouroi,

•rearing their conical cap urmounted bj ;i itar Reverie: PHTINQN; Hermef standing, to

:i lii- the left, chlamyi on left arm; be wean the petaaos, hold* in one band the caduceui, ;i i >• I in the other a patera in the field at the left, the lcttei u (Bronze.) S. PHHNON, laurelled

>.i •• bead Apollo, right profile Re i lion'a bead, front face. (Silver.) HISTORY OF GREECE.

"> s In t lii.— year, 7 B.C., in which Dionysios had made himself master of mosl of the Greek cities of Sicily and Italy. Artaxerxes imposed on their metropolis the peace of Antalkidas, which subjected to himself the Hellenic cities of Asia Minor; thus in the East in the West, Hellas was humbled.1 In these ruthless expeditions, Dionysios had no other object than strengthen his authority by employing his mercenaries, and to

3 l

CAR! II \'.IMA\ ' "IN- "( ~.,l OS

render his name formidable: it was barbaric warfare, for pillage and destruction. Accordingly, he continued it. without determined plan, apparently, but to keep his forces always ready. Thus his fleet traversed the Ionian Sea. and founded in Dlyria the city of Lissos; again, he re-established in Epeiros an exiled king.

His expeditions eastward brought him neat- Delphi and its ti ures. Protected in earlier ages by the religious awe men felt towards the gods, this great mass of wealth now excited the

*.,u- desires of the powerful. Dionysios would gladly have

1 it; fason thought of attempting the enterprise; and the Phokians, thirty yen- later, actually committed this sacrilege. In the case of Dionysios, Sparta interposed, by sending a detachment

ti oration al the Olympic Festival of ::-i it. c. of which onlj fragments are extant,

dence, and points out the danger i" • Irecce "t tin- twofold stibjei tion.

-1 i the left, lii- chlamys falling from liis Iders, and m ing hit sandal;

x- - I "i in the field, thi em Revei •:; i Head of Pallas, front face Reverse maa (ATo/»»a

i right and he bow (Bronte.) COAONTINON, bi

• f) lit profili in Reverse' IOD3 (Kapkara j rock-

the field, six gl ibules, mark of the hemilitron (Bronte.) i Bead of

wni'.l with whe Kifi3 (itq a i >. a bull going SICILY. 495

of soldiers. The Syracusan compensated himself by plundering elsewhere, but without concentrated action, so that while as a pirate he was very successful, as the ruler of Syracuse he made no important gains. It was at this time an unfortunate period for Italy. ravaged by the Gauls in the north. Dionysios sought his share of

AKIIOnOUS in -I I I \ui 3.1 the prey in the South, plundering the coasts of Latium and Etruria. From one temple, that of Agylla, he carried off fifteen hundred nts. Returning with a fair wind from this sacrilegious expedition, he .-aid to his courtiers: "See how the gods protect the im- - pious!" A.1 he had before this time stolen from Zens his mantle of Bolid gold, replacing it by a woollen one, "'the other being

cold in winter, and too heavy in summer." Asklepios also lost his heard of gold, — "because, since Apollo was beardless, it was nol fitting thai his Bon should wear a beard," — and the Lakinian Here

Imt robe, of such marvellous texture that the Carthaginians, it is

1 Front a photograph. In the Foreground are the ruin of the temple ol Hi i HISTORY OF GREE( E.

ive a hundred and twenty talents for it. that they might

adorn one of their divinities with the spoils of a Greek temple.

1 111! "BAR OI DIOXYSIOS, l\ I ill QUARRIES 01 SYRACUSE.

Iii 383 B.C. Dionysios resumed the war againsi Carthage, and gained over Mago a greal victory, the Carthaginian loss in killed and wounded being upwards of ten thousand, besides five thousand who fell into tin' hands <>f the Syracusans ; but al a subsequent battle

photograph M . . tvern ia about 7S fed high and 213 i» length. Ii li

ufficienl ground, thai Dionysios, hidden al the summit, too

of ill. captlrea ^lmi up below; and aa the mouth of the carern

•

i I into popular ii SICILY. 497 he lost so heavily that he was compelled to give up to the Cartha- ginians all Sicily westward of the river Halykos, and to pay an indemnity of a thousand talents.

We have no further information concerning Dionysios until the year 368 b. c, when he began a third and last war against

Carthage. He captured Selinous. Entella. and Eryx ; but his fleet was destroyed in the harbor of Lilybaion. and his death soon after put an end to hostilities. It was said that he had been poisoned by his son ; but according to other accounts he perished from indigestion after a banquet in honor of his victory in a dramatic contest at Athens. Dionysios had aspired to this renown, as Nero later, and nearly in the same tyrannical way. He sent Philox- enos to the quarries for having criticised his verses ; and when, about 389 b. c, Plato visited his court, the philosopher was quickly sent away on account of his freedom of speech. 1 The debuts of

Dionysios in the stadion and in the theatre were unfortunate : at Olympia his chariots were broken, and at Athens his dramatic efforts were ill received. In the end, however, he obtained the success which is said to have cost him his life. This change in the literary taste of the Athenians was attributed to the political action of Dionysios in Greece ; being called upon to mediate, in

369 b. ( .. between Sparta and Athens, he had reconciled the two cities, which willingly united against Thebes, and he had also sent them Gallic mercenaries. Dionysios reigned thirty-eight years. His ability and energy are worthy of praise; but he was unscrupulous as to the means by which he secured power, and his usurpation had not even the questionable excuse of some good done to his country. His sway was as unfruitful for Syracuse as it was pitiless. And what was it for himself? While brave in (In- presence of the enemy, lie was in his private life a prey to constanl terrors, lie dared not employ a barber, and was accustomed t'> bave his beard singed off by his daughters, who used burning nut-shells for the purpose.

II alwayj wore armor under bis clothing, and caused every one to hi' searched before admission to his presence. — even his own brother, whom he finally proscribed, and his son. He slept in an

' It mn"! be regarded •- ;i fiction ol the rhetorician that Plato wa old a i lave into

ili'- i-lnn'l of \i i der oi l»i" redee I bj the Kyrenaiao A.nnikeris.

\ hi . iv. — .12 - HISTORY OF GREECE.

isolated building surrounded by a moat crossed by a drawbridge, and when be addressed the people it was from the top of a tower. He once asked Antiphon what was the best kind of bronze.

• Tli n of which the statues of Harmodios and Aristogeiton are made," was the reply; and it cost the speaker his life. This

1 was one of ten thousand instances of his cruelty. There is a vivid image of the terrors

ol Dionysios, — the story,

if it be true, of the sword

hung by a thread over the head of Damokles, one of the tyrant's companions and flatterers, who had praised the happiness of kings, and obtained the royal power for a brief -pace. Victorious over Athens. S\ racuse seemed called to extend her influence over the entire island, and

pecially to deliver Sicily from that foreign and hostile race, the Phoeni- ,\ n tIR-DR] 8S1 i:.- cians of Carthage. Bui the thirty-eighl years of the reign of Dionysios had resulted only in reducing the Carthaginian possessions l>\ the narrow sp comprised between the rivers Himera and Halykos. It was small extent of territory, scarcely equal to that belonging to the city of Agrigentum. To accomplish this, a wide region had been devastated, many cities laid in ruins, many men slain. Surely the

eks were justified in distrusting tyrants, their mercenaries, and the hungry crowd of their supporters, who. having nothing, looked to their ma distribute among them the land- and wealth of others. — in their hands a oewly-acquired Fortune soon spent.

W . il not COnfllM, :i« Pin 'I"' tragic poet willl llli' Atllini.in Orator ol (lu-

lu'. I ill III M. 0.

oup discovered at Tanagra, .mil nn» in the Mnieutn of Berlin ffi SICILY. 499

II- — The Yoixgef: Dionysios ; Diox ; Timoleox.

The elder Dionysios was not a man of profligate life. His son. however, committed many offences against social morals. The story runs that the father on one occasion rebuked him severely, referring to his own example' in this respect. '-But you were not a king's son." said the young man. •• And I greatly fear your children will not be sons of a king, if you go on thus." the father rejoined. Such, indeed, was

the fact. The younger Dionysios, in character at once feeble and violent, united good intentions with unbridled SILVKR COIN. 1 dons. Vice and virtue disputed for the mastery in his character. Led by evil companions, he gave himself up to orgies which lasted whole months: at other times he yielded to the influence of two men who urged him to lead a more

worthy life. The estimable Dion, a brother-in-law of the elder Dionysios, gave a wise direction to the early measures of the new

-ii. Himself a pupil of Plato, he inspired the young ruler with a desire to see the master, who was invited to Syracuse. Twice d the court, recalled by the tyrant's better nature, and

hi- teaching for a time had good results: hut Dionysios at last

.'.- weary of philosophy, and ended by giving himself up to the seductions of pleasure and the influence of evil advisers. Dion

himself losl his ascendency, and was compelled to flee to the Peloponnesi Some years passed without the manifestation of anj resentment on the part of the exile; bul when the tyranl confiscated his property and compelled his wife to many another person, Dion resolved to avenge >t once his own wrongs ami those of his country.

1 s Coin if Apollo, right profile, Rerei e: AION02 ; tripod; beneath, the lctiei / \ Kvvdiav], Dion of Syra

prep I at Z lition ngainsl the younger Dionysion; before bia departure

i i ). be offered .1 tolemn laci Ifice to the Zakynthian Apollo PI it i b, Dion, \.\ii. ;

500 HISTORT OF GREE( I.

Hi' tuck into his pay a band of mercenaries, eight hundred in

number, and crossed with them to Minoa, a Carthaginian port on the southern coast of Sicily. Exiles and malcontents soon gathered about him, and Agrigentum, Gela, Kamarina, and even Syra- cuse, whence the tyrant had withdrawn, opened their gates to

him i-">7~i B.C.). The citadel alone was held by the officers of Dionysios, who made a long and skilful resistance. Finally, how-

ever, they yielded. Dionysios meanwhile had fled to Lokris with

his treasures; but he had left discord behind him, instigating against the victorious party the dei Herakleides. Dion offended the populace by his severity; he sought to establish at

Syracuse an aristocracy which would keep the multitude in check, perhaps even a monarchy, as at Sparta. Driven out for having opposed an agrarian law, and shortly after recalled, he perished in

353 B.C., assassinated by an Athenian adventurer, Kallippos, who

himself succeeded in the following year by Bipparinos, a brother of Dionysios. The latter took advantage of these frequent revolutions to return into the city in 346 B.C.; but embittered by mis-

fortune, he showed so much cruelty that the Syracusans called in Iliketas. tyrant of Leontini. who compelled him to shut himself up

in the city, and admitted Carthaginian vessels into the harbor.

It was the intention of Iliketas to promote only his own interest. But a new liberator was sent from Corinth, the mother-city of

Syracuse. Timoleon, who had 1 n designated 1>\ the Corinthians

for this mission, was an honest and energetic man. devoted to liberty,

in whose cause he had sacrificed his own brother. With ten vessels he sailed for Sicily. In the deplorable condition of Syracuse, — the citadel held by the tyrant, the harbor and the town in the pos

sion of enemies, — it seemed that the city was hopelessly lost. Fortu-

nately Dionysios, his resources and his courage being alike exhaust d,

offered to give up the citadel to Timoleon, on condition that he himself, with his treasures, should be transported to Corinth, where

he would henceforth reside as a private individual (343 B.< Jealousy meantime grew up between Biketas and the Carthaginians

the latter, fearing an outbreak in the midst of this great city width

they had so many times threatened with destruction, withdrew on

board their vessels, and Biketas, left unsupported, was forced to dec.

Timoleon d d the fortress that tyrannj had built for itself, SICILY. 501

and upon its site erected porticos and tribunals. The city was at

last set free ; and now it was necessary to re-people it, for incessant revolutions during many years had induced part of the inhabitants

to emigrate ; grass grew in the deserted streets, and wild beasts

prowled around the very gates in the uncultivated fields. Timoleon wrote to Corinth, inviting all the Sicilian Greeks to return to their "homes, and urging new colonists to come out. As a result of this proclamation ten thousand Greeks assembled in the Peloponnesos to

be transported to Syracuse ; and such multitudes flocked thither from different parts of Italy and Sicily that the number of new inhabitants amounted to sixty thousand in all. Timoleon distributed lands among them, and to re-establish the finances, he caused to be sold, for the benefit of the State, all deserted houses, leaving at the same time to their former proprietors the right, if they chose to appear, of recovering their property. He sold also a great number of statues which had been erected at different epochs, after having submitted them to a sort of public judgment; and the statue of Gelon was the only one preserved. He re-established a purely democratic government, perfected the civil legislation, and instituted an annual magistracy, — the amphipolos of the Olympian Zeus, whose name served to designate the year, as did at Athens that of the archon eponymos.

After having re-established order in Syracuse, Timoleon attempted to extend his reforms throughout Sicily. Hiketas was reduced to the condition of a private individual in Leontini ;

Leptines, tyrant of Apollonia, preferred to follow the example of

Dionysioa and withdraw to Corinth. The other Greek cities and mosi of the native inhabitants entered into alliance with Syracuse.

Carthage became alarmed at this power built up by wisdom and regard for welfare seventy a the public ; thousand Africans landed at Lilybaion. With only twelve thousand men. Timoleon advanced to meet this great army A battle took place on the banks of the Krimisos. Timoleon's victory was in part due to the courage ami devotion of his army, but also to a sudden and violent storm of lightning and hail, which threw the enemy's forces into confusion at, a time when part of the Carthaginians were on one tide of the river, and part on the other. More than three thousand

1 thaginian citizen- were killed. — a disaster almost unexampled in a city accustomed to depend upon mercenaries for its arm} _

5(12 HISTORY OF GREECE.

\ followed and in order to make a more lasting gotiations ; rimoleon did not impose burdensome conditions The boun- dary between the territories of the two peoples was fixed at the

r Halykos. But the Greeks who were occupying Carthaginian territory were allowed to emigrate into the Syracusan; t he Greek

- wry,- declared free; and Carthage agreed to make no alliance with an\ of the tyrants (338 B.C.).

Timoleon then resumed liis struggle against these public enemies. The tyrants of Katana and Messina, being vanquished, were put to death a- criminals by the people whom they had impressed; and Timoleon then attacked and destroyed the Campanians, former mercenaries "i Dionysios, who had made their head-quarters on Mount Etna, and ravaged all the surrounding country. After having, in less than four years, imposed peace on Car-

1 1 1 ; the tyrants, restored order Syracuse, and i rthrown to

prosperity to the Greek pari of the island, 'rimoleon laid down his authority.

Had lie retained it. his name would

he lost in the multitude, legitimate or usurping; but his abdication gives him a place apart, lofty and honorable. He 1 st! vi i: COIN. passed the last years of his life in retire-

ment, respected by all the inhabitants; who consulted him on trea partitions of land, and laws. On one inn two orators were hold enough to accuse hi- public conduct, upon which some

<.t Timoleon's friends were extremely indig-

nant; hut be restrained them, saying that it (,ll| Ii IM|\ had been the object of his life to make every

citizen, even the humblest, free to express his thought, whatever it

might !>!. To hi- latesl day. the Syracusans honored their liberator,

soliciting his advice, and bringing strangers to see him. as it their

had nothing liner t.» show than this hero of integrity and deve-

right Motye. moon (Motya) in Punic legend; eagle to the

i ihe hai Head of Demeter, with a wreath oi wheat-ear*, lad profile

I; hone to the right

0„ ,] Aphrodite in Parian marl

i photograph.) 1804 hi ili.' tchradina, and now in the Museum of Syracuse. (From 1 . ,\ \< i . Arm:"!. 1 1 -\ II -i

SICILY. 505

tion to the public service. Near the close of his life Timoleou

became blind ; but the Syracusans still continued to consult him on all matters of importance. He was taken in a chariot to the public assembly, and there, after the discussion, gave his decision.

COINS OF 8YRAC1 SE. ]

which the multitude received with the greatest respect, and in-

variably followed. He died full of years and honors, leaving his adopted country prosperous, great, and free, leaving also a spotless name, notwithstanding the tragedy of his brother's assassination.

1 1. Head of Persephone, with a wreath of wheat-ears, left profile; behind, :i flower.

Serene: a ball, threatening with hi horn to the left; in the field, two dolphiiio and the

letter T (Bronze.) 2. ZEYZ EAEY8EPI0Z; I 'elled head of Zeus, left profile; behind,

;i -tar. Reverse: ZYPAKOZION; the triquetra, emblem of Sicily (Trinakria) (Bronze.)

3 ZYPAKOZION ; bearded bead of Ares, lefl profile, witli a Corinthian helmet. Reverse:

alloping to the left; under him, :i dolphin. (Bronze ) i ZYPA *na'mv~\\ bead ol

, wiili a Corinthian helmet, lefl profile. Reverse winged hippocamp galloping to

tin: left (Bronzi i I Head of Pallas, lefl profile, with a Corinthian lielmel and a necklace B< • ZYPAKOZION; Artemis Sotcira landing, to the left, and drawing the bow; hcrdop

leaping at ber feet ; in the field, ZQ[r

profile; <»n ber diadem, the name of the arti t-engraver of the coin, EYMHNOY; around the

,! I: nan landing in a quadriga, it" to the li M !"

:>i-.v\ holds the rein and a , a Victory, holding al hm.) HISTORY OF GREECE.

His obsequies took place in the presence of a vast multitude, and

with t he magnificence suited to the greatest solemnities. When the body had been placed upon the funeral pile, a herald made proclamation that the people of Syracuse had devoted two hun-

i niinai [about $4,300] to do honor by a stately funeral to

Tiuioleon of Corinth ; that it had been decreed to observe forever

the anniversary of his death by musical competitions, gymnastic contests, and horse-races, inasmuch as Tiuioleon had overthrown

the tyrants in Sicily, conquered the Barbarians, re-peopled the great cities of the island, and restored to the Sicilian Greeks their laws and institutions.

111. — A.GATHOKLES WI> llll

From 337 b. c, the date of Timoleon's death, to 316 we have no facts concerning the history of Syracuse. We discover only

that the city fell back into the anarchy from which Tiuioleon

had rescued it. — a result which was inevitable from the general decline

in public and private morals. It is from anarchy that republics have spe-

cial need to guard themselves. Syra-

cuse, falling hack into disorder, was to COIK "l AOATIIOKLES. be punished by the return of tyranny,

First ruled Herakleides and Sosistratos, who. in the words of

1 1 idoros, ••tilled their lives with acts of perfidy and murder and of the greatest impiety."' Then followed Agathokles, a man

ni u- spoiled by circumstances, who-,' life was remarkable from

his cradle. Bis father. Karkinos of Rhegion, who was living in

haginian Sicily, exposed him to perish, it is said, having had

sries of dreams foretelling that the child would be a cause ol

t misfortune to his country. The mother saved him. and

- later Karkinos, who hail much regretted the child's supposed death, was delighted to recover his son. and brought him

iiir\: head "f Artemli Botefarm, right |in>fil<\ with the <(ui%er on her boulder.

I i . BA2IAE03; winged thunderbolt. (B SICILY. 507 to Syracuse, where he learned the trade of a potter. But his extreme beauty attracted the interest of a wealthy citizen, who placed him in the army and obtained for him the grade of chili- arch. From this time he made his way without difficulty. His brilliant valor and his eloquence gave him fame ; to this he added wealth when, on the death of his protector he married the latter's willow. He then took part in public life, and supported the democratic party. Being exiled by Sosistratos, he fled to Krotona, and later to Tarentum, when he distinguished himself by extreme courage and adroitness, but was expelled from each in turn on

POTTER STIRRING THE FIRE IN HIS FURNACE. 1

account of his ambitious designs. After the fall of Sosistratos and of Herakleides, he returned to Syracuse, and there obtained the command of the army. Very well-founded suspicions caused the Syracusans to regret this appointment. They removed him from office, and posted assassins to take his life; but the person killed was only a slave attired in his master's clothes. To retaliate for this attack, Agathoklea marched upon the city with the army, which was devoted to him personally, being composed of the poorest citizens, who had everything to expeel from their leader's generosity and from a general disturbance of civil order. He accused the

incil of Six Hundred of an attempl to assassinate him. ami

1 Corinthian plaque of terra-cotta, now in the Louvre (CI Ravel and Collignon, //<"-

It in Ce'ramiqut grecque, \< xiii. fig i ) The painter "hai represented atelj tin- roand-topped furnace, with the projecting mouth "t the Bre-box, affording a draft At tin- top. an aperture penniti the nnoke and liame to e i ape . and naif way up ii the opening

u l.y tli'- > which potter introduce! lie ra I bj > mall 'l""i but there a hole ii> the door through which tl»- potter can watch thi "f the baking." .

i HISTORY OF GRE] caused the larger proportion of them to be put to death, with four thousand of the principal citizens; 1 he gave up to pillage the dwell-

oi the rich ; then calling together an assembly of the people, he declared that he was satisfied with having set free the city from the oligarchs, and that now he resigned the authority with which he had been ^-4f^s~\ — sf^rrr^ invested. But in , -\. Ins harangue he had adroitly made mention of an abo-

lition of debts and ~ coins in CAB I M \'.i a division of property, and men's appetites were whetted by the words. He was urged

to the refused, and finally on the resume command ; he accepted, condition that he should not have to share the 'responsibility with colleagues, who mighl perhaps betray the State. The people agreed to accept him as their master (316 b. c). Like the elder Dionysios, Agathokles made war upon Car- thage: and he did it with a degree of genius which makes this war remarkable. He began by breaking up two

lies which had I formed against Syracuse. one having its centre in Messina, and the other in Aerigentum, both

formed at the instiga-

tion of Syracusan exiles. BRONZI COIN.* nid both allied with Carthage. Messina, Tauromenion, Gela, were taken by him and rely deall with Agrigentum, vainly assisted by Akrotatos, the

1 si n ,j| ; , r later took place ;«' Messina, Tauromenion, Gela, and elsewhere

>i i r T r i the Carthaginians, sixteen hundred persons were pal to death. 8 1. Horse, in the right; behind him. a caducous. Reverse ;i palm-tree, bearing two

a wreath of wheat-ears, let) profile. I Bronze.) 2 (lead of Demeter, with

palm tree, bearing two clusters of dates ( Bronic )

• Hi inified Afi i wearing an elephant's head, right profile; she carries two

.1 B the head REX IVBA ; the whole in laurel -wreath.

1 thunderbolt ; lii- win [s art displayed, anil he holds SICILY. 509 son of one of the Spartan kings, asked for peace. Defeated in a great battle on Mount Eknomos by troops superior in number under the command of Hamilcar. Agatbokles was besieged in Syracuse ; but he

MOTHER ANI> DAUGHTER, PEBHAP8 DEMETER AN1> KORA. 1 had succeeded in giving the city time to prepare for a long siege. and, moreover, he meditated a project, the boldest that any mili-

le.tder bad ever conceived, — namely, to retaliate by besieging hage and making Africa the theatre of the war. Without

aceptre in one of hia claw be urrounded bj a laurel-wreath. This bronze coin is how

,f the reign "f the nfaoretanian Juba II. (26 B.C. to 28 a. D.). Ii i* given here only unification »f Africa.

ii and U) rina, and now in the Louvre (Calalogiu . No. 284). For an explain of the typ P tnd Iteinach, La \ polt >' \lyrina, pari IL pp. 181 d / 510 HISTORY OF GREECE.

to any one his design, he equips a fleet, with fourteen thousand men on board, sails out of the harbor, eludes the enemy's squadron, taking advantage of an eclipse, and lands in Africa. There, seizing a torch, he declares to his soldiers that he has made a vow to Demeter and to Persephone that lie will sacrifice to them his vessels, and he sets tire to his own galley; his officers follow his example; the soldiers, transported with enthu- siasm, swear that they will never leave Africa till they are masters of Carthage, and they march upon the city (310 B.C.). Meantime Hamilcar has followed. The sight of the burned vessels gives him the idea of an ingenious deception. He coll the prows of the Greek galleys, carries them back to Syracuse, and announcing to the inhabitants that Agathokles has -uttered a disaster, summons them to open their gates. The fragments brought back by him seemed to prove the truth of his words. Then follow fierce disputes in the city. The majority wish to surrender. Antandros. the brother of Agathokles. and in authority during the latter's absence, is about to yield, when suddenly from the walls a richly adorned galley is seen approaching, and songs of victory are heard from its deck. The vessel, skilfully managed, avoids the

Carthaginian fleet, enters the harbor, and the Syracusans learn at the same time of the venture made by Agathokles and of its sue*

The situation is at once changed, and Hamilcar withdraws.

It does not concern us to narrate the victories of Agathokles in Africa; they belong to another history than this, now approach-

ing its completion. Notwithstand-

ing the sacrifice of live hundred children of the most influential

families in Carthage, thrown alive into the furnace of the African Moloch, two hundred

cities, it is -aid. were taken by

ri>i\- el BICH Y. I\ 1.1 \i t:i ' the Syracusan or made alliance with him The Numidians furnished him troops; Ophelias. -... nor of Kyrene, brought him twenty thousand men. The treaty

' - Reroi IYM 1 ..|. ti,.-.| head of Sicily, right profile; before her, the word ItKBAIA

' of tli' l« I een two «rl I m MAXIKON lighted I Hi II' SICILY. 511

concluded between them gave Africa to one, and to the other Sicily and the West. Thus the great projects of Alexander were

accomplished, and the Greek race invaded all lands. 1

3- Coin of the Mamertines.

4. AlaUa('). 6. Kentoripa.

-' SICILIAN < < II N ~

But Agathoklfs committed a crime which was — as crime always i-> — a blunder. Through jealousy, perhaps, or regretting the prom- that he had made, he instigated a tumult, during which Ophelias mated. This detached from him a portion of his new troops, compelled him to Bend others away, and caused distrust in

• It v. nil ili" -aiin' period, and in Africa, thai Agathokles took the title of king

1 and assumed the crown, in imitation ol Alexander ucce oi

-' i. Head of the youthful Heraklee (or lolaos), right profile, bound »itli ;i fillet; the linn's *kin coven his neck. B ArYPINAION, a leopard i" the right, dcv -ing a

(B | 2. TVNAAPI2; head of Tyndaris, diademed, right profile; behind, a star.

Reverse, one ol tl Dio on hi galloping to the right ; in the field, a branch of

Q ) I IPEOZ; laurelled head "i Vres, right profile; behind, ;> Macedonian

el with chei i MAMEPTINQN, an eagle, "iili wing >li played, standing "i thunderbolt. (Bronze ) I. Laurelled head Apollo, left profile. Reverse: 2YMMA

\ ikon); thunderbolt and bunch o (Bronze attributed t" Alalia.) 5. Head <>i

phone, with wreath ol whi il cai left profile underneath, two u bi Revei e ki;n

rOPtmNON ; leopard to the left, with lifted paw, (Bronzi > HISTORY OF GREECE.

the camp. However, he was again victorious. But affairs in Sicily, which had been going well, gradually turned out disastrously, and the Syracusan generals senl Eor Agathokles. He returned into the island, restored order in Syracuse, and subjugated Agrigentum, which had again taken up arms. Unfortunately, two divisions of Ins army had been destroyed in Africa during his absence, and the Carthaginians, who had made desperate efforts, held the third besieged. Agathokles returned to Africa, but found only ten or

twelve thousand men, exhausted 1>\ fighting and divided by sedi- tions. A defeat which he experienced increased the demoralization.

I lis sons, who were

his principal subor- dinates, cast him into prison. How- ever, he succeeded 0IN8 of KORKYRA.1 in escaping on board

a trireme and returning to Syracuse (307 B. c), while Carthage expressed gratitude to her sanguinary gods by sacrificing to them the handsomesl of the Syracusan prisoners. bthokles had already shown himself very cruel after the ; African disaster he became ruthless. His sons having been

slain by the soldiers, he put to death all their relative-. At the end of a year he made peace

with Carthage, who retained all the cities she had before held, and re ceived three hundred talent- and tun hundred thousand medimnoi of wheat. Resl was not suited to this COIK "1 Mil N'>N. : turbulenl character, lie rushed almost immediately into new enterprises, subjugated the country of the Bruttii, Krotona. and even Korkyra, which had invoked his

• insl the Macedonians. Withal, Carthage still occu-

- 1 l. K0PK1 part "f .ui c.\. i.. the right. R two iini.it- in dens of Alkinoos; in the field, a bunch < grapes, a kantharoa, and Kl.

I suckling her ealf. Reverse K. iml

•ii of the Vlkinobs S

!-!,., ,| i.i I ' . I,, of Hieron. lefl profile. R

i I-, lli '.i I- I wiili lir l.i ii. .iml In- pcploJ bark from lii« slum

) SICILY. 513

pied his thoughts : at the age of more than seventy years he again began immense preparations, and increased his fleet to the number of two hundred vessels. Death finally put an end to his career. He desired to secure the crown to his son Agathokles. Another of his sons, Archagathos, one of those who had been assassinated in Africa, had left a son of the same name. This young man invited his uncle to a banquet.

MONUMENT KNOWN \- MM fOMB "I ARCHIMEDES, \T SYRACUSE.1 and killed him. To rid himself also of his grandfather, Archagathos gave him, if is said, a poisoned tooth-pick which would not be immediately fatal. The old king, unable to punish his son's murderer, was resolved to deprive him of the power which he had sought by

ies to attain, and to tlii- end he gave liberty to the Syracusans.

A few days later he

1 From photograph The name i nol appropriate, for the tomb ol A.rchiined« w;>- at A Agrigentutn

VOL. !•. —

.14 HISTORY OF GREECE.

author-, was placed upon the funeral pile before he had actually

breathed his last (289 B. a). After this tragic storj of tyrants are seen the fruits of tyranny,

revolutions and general disorder. Sicily fell into a frightful condi-

tion. The mercenaries of Agathoklcs ravaged it. then established

themselves al Messina, and spread terror on both sides of the strait under the name of Maniert ines. Carthage allied herself with them, and her troops laid siege to Syracuse. The city called in the aid of Pyrrhos, and he drove the Cartha- ginians back towards the west of the island but his defeat before Lily- j liaion. the insubordination of the Sici- lians, and his tyranny over them. prevented him from completing the

deliverance of the island, and he with-

drew as he came, an adventurer, pillaging the temples along his road.

•• Sicily will be a good battle-ticld for the Romans and Carthaginians." he said on leaving the island. Syracuse had no longer the strength to struggle against Carthage, the undisputed mistress of Africa and the Mediterra- FIGURE ON A SICILIAN VASK. 1 nean. She felt this, abandoned her

Former policy, and under llieron. who governed wiselj from 275 to 215 B.C., she resigned herself to an alliance with the Carthaginians againsl Home, whence henceforth came the greatest danger. Sharing

in the defeat of Carthage, llieron obtained from the Roman Senate

lift\ years of peace and the possession of many Sicilian cities. —

a period which brings u- down to 212 B.C., when Syracuse, after

having defied the strength of Athens, and sometimes all that Car-

thage could bring against her. fell bravely under the .-word of Rome the ii-i page "i her history showing the great name of Archimedi Rome conies in everywhere, at the death of the Greek States.

nting 'in .i vase discovered al Gela, from Benodorf, G

p|. vivii. i. The flgun tented flying, holding in the left hand :< lyra, and

with ilir righl pouring <>m tin' i ontenti ol i

sj,„ *, . •! ,,.,. // plsodc in the dliturbed lif< , SICILY. 51") to inherit their possessions. " As the sea receives all rivers," said Aristeides the rhetorician, "so the Roman Empire receives and keeps all the nations." From this ruin of Greece, and later from the downfall of the Roman Empire, has been drawn the axiom, beloved of poets, that States, like individuals, pass successively through a brilliant youth, a maturity sometimes fruitful, soon followed by a fatal decline. But there are nations which defy time, notwithstanding the most

deadly blows ; and for others there is a renascence which gives them a new existence, thanks to the lessons received by them from their dying predecessors. Thus Greece, crushed by Macedon, and later by Rome, has continued to live in intellect and art. This we shall now seek to show in a brief review of her history. CHAPTER XL.

GENEEAL SUMMAEY.

r)OME began in prose, and for centuries know no other expression -*-* of thought. Greece began with poetry, and there were poets even among her legislators and her philosophers: hence, of her earli- esl age we have do knowledge except from those who sang the gods and heroes of ancient days. It has been the same in many other countries. The Sagas and the Edda are the Tliad of the North- cm nations; the Nibelungenlied is that of the Germans; the Chah- Nameh of Ferdousi that of the Persians. These legendary histories without doubt contain a certain amount of truth. But how is it

able to recognize feci in the midst of so much fable? Fortunately we have, in respect to these races, other testimony than legend : for Persia, Herodotos and the Aehaimenid inscriptions, which to-day we read; for the Germans, Tacitus. Jordanes, and Gregory of Tours; for the Saxons and Scandinavians, the Venerable Bede and Alfred the Great; and these writers permit us to place, at the side of the popular traditions, statements which correct or explain them. B for ancient Greece, who shall testify against Homer? Shall we, with

Euhemeros and his successors, believe that all these gods were men. which reason can and bringdown legend to a form accept ; or, like belated disciples of the Porch and the Academy, Bee noble teaching

D in frivolous tales'.' What Ariadne's thread guides in this labyrinth ; and when the breath of criticism lias withered these deia lie and beautiful flowers, what, remains from them'.'

To belii it mythology is Action only on the surface, and that it is truth within. — that it is a curtain hiding e mi GENERAL SUMMARY. 517 which real action takes place, — would be singularly to undervalue the creative power of the popular imagination. Two forces which are contradictory, feeling and reason, guide the lives of men and of peoples. The former, which has the strength of instinct, long rides alone, and always disputes the sovereignty with the other, whose authority is established only with extreme slowness, gain- ing point after point successively and laboriously. There is, then, in the life of nations an age when all is sentiment and image, when everything lives and is personified, — as there comes another when all is reflection and scrutiny, when everything is analyzed and dissected. The former is the time of faith in phenomena, the legendary epoch, which peoples with so many divinities Olympos and Valhalla, which crowds with so many adventures the history of the heroes, of Achilleus or of Roland, of Theseus or of King

Arthur. The latter is a time of doubt as to whatever seems to be outside of natural laws, — an epoch when scientific research into cause and effect has reduced the role of gods and heroes, showing behind the latter the condition of the race, which makes half their strength, and behind the former the faith which has created them, and commands their action while seeming to obey them.

Of these two ages, the first continues — and thus includes some of the most eminent of the Greek writers — up to the sixth century

B. c, and the second begins with Anaxagoras and Thucydides.

II rodotos still wears the yoke of the old faith; he has the child- like curiosity of a traveller amazed at everything he sees, and except with a few timid interpretations, he believes in all the stories of the Muse. Between Berodotos and Thucydides Greece attained man's estate. The son of Oloros, animated with a freer spirit, removes the shining veils which cover the cradle of his race, and boldly uses bis reason among the men and the events of the past. He avoids dealing with mythological impossibilities, and notices only the great facts; from these be eliminates the element of the marvellous, while he brings out their political aspect, and thus presents, of

these tim< dark to criticism, so lull of light to faith, a picture

in sober tones, which m its general outlines is verj probably quite

true "The events of the early days," he says in his Introduction,

•• it i~ impossible, from their remotene certain with certainty."

In .1 previous work it h.i been thought best not to enter into BISTORY OF GREECE.

the labyrinth of Roman beginnings; much more undesirable would

it In' to attempt to draw a connected narrative from those poetic fragments which cover and conceal under graceful or tragic fictions the early storj of Greece, — as if one were to make a history of the

Middle Age.- from l'h< Golden Legend, the Chronicles of Archbishop Turpin, or the French luimnnces of Chivalry. The early Greek history has been therefore treated as was the early Roman. The legends which have been related it is important to know, because modern literature is full of them, and modern art still seeks from them Its inspiration; hut after seeking out the probabilities to which general history ami the comparison of facts lead us, we have advanced rapidly towards times which are better known. Meanwhile, behind the Greece of the poets, modern science has discovered a prehistoric Greece. It has studied what remains to us from a society more ancient than Homer by perhaps ten centu-

. and it has asked from this land, all mountains, peninsulas. and island-, from the sea- which bathe its coasts, from the sky above it. what the influences were which acted upon its earliest inhabitants. Whence came they? From Asia, the cradle of the Aryan race, which, in its Ion.; journey towards the extreme west, left, along the

in shore of the iEgoean Sea. in Thrace and in Greece, peoples whose language and religion hail a common hasis; so that around the great Hellenic lake cities grew up among which mutual rela- tion- were possible.

If. in the legendary period, political history can gather up bul few authentic facts, social history finds much that is valuable in the usages which have endured. At that time the family w ,- formed, the rite- of worship were established, cities were built, and it was on ancient foundation- that rested the dome-tic hearth, the public prytaneion, ami the agora, when 1 at firsl around the king

-at the chief-, his counsellors, and later the people came to delib-

and vote.

'in ill.- 1 >i i - ll"l opposite page i~ represented a marble 1 of Tbucydidcs, now in

Bath, I n land, anil photographed for the first time bj V Michaelis in

/ 7 cm- pier M Michaelia has kindly placed at mj disposal his paper, which wn« prinl :~.i the fine photograph here reprod

> •!. |i i III. , now in the Museum "f Nap' nf

i -• I HI > I

;

GENERAL SUMMARY. 521

In Homer there is only the clash of arms, in Hesiod only the birth of the gods and the labors of husbandry. In these old poems and in the legends whence they are derived, the incidents related doubtless are rather matters of imagination than of reality but we find there ideas, manners, and beliefs which have long survived. Achilleus extols martial glory. Hektor depends upon his exploits to obtain immortality in the memory of men ; and they have bequeathed to the heroes of the historic age the sentiment of

honor. The women of the legendary period are : the noble Andro-

mache ; Arete, or Virtue, so worthy of her name ; her daughter

Xausikaa, of maiden simplicity ; Alkestis. who gives her life for

her husband ; Antigone, sacrificing herself for her brother ; and all those noble types of heroines who grace the drama of Sopho- kles. The religion of that time retains the traces of a coarse naturalism which blends itself with the worship of the glorious Olympians, and, together with beneficent daimons, calls into existence divinities who are displeased at the sight of human happi-

ness. Slowly, however, the sombre sky clears : Destiny ceases to be blind. Nemesis to be envious; Apollo, the god of light, gives wise counsels, and Athene makes the manners of her people gentler. Death is bound to life by the funeral honors which give men's ancestors a new existence beyond the grave, and make them the protectors of those whom they have left behind. The worship of the dead — a tie between the generations — gives a

families and it is around tombs, sacred character to the aristocratic ; as well as temples, that patriotism, the great virtue of those ancient communities, gains the strength wliieli has enabled it to mplish so many miracles. 1

1 Isaios, the instructor of Demosthenes, says, in the fourth century: " AH who think oi death leave behind them Bomeone who will bring to their mane: the funeral offerings. - I In: hiw even impose* on thearcbon thedutj ol making il lure thai do house bec< extinct."

[Concerning the Inheritance oj I. 30.} 522 HISTORY OF GREECE.

II.

The return i>t the Herakleids, and the great migrations which

followed it. close the legendary period. Traditions suddenly end;

the Muse is silent; the luminous splendor thrown h\ Homer upon

the heroic age is extinguished; and we enter upon Eour centuries

of darkness. This night which came over Greece is the pass

from legend to history, from the world of fiction to the world of

fact. When, in 776 B.C., was instituted the custom of counting

the years by the return of the Olympic festivals, this furnished the means "I establishing chronology. Bui how man) gaps there

were before the age of Herodotos! And inm often [ try takes

the place <>!' history, as in respect to the Messenian wars.

W. have then nothing to place between the Invasion of the Dorians — a race unknown to the Iliad — and the Era of the Olym- piads. Concerning Sparta before Lykourgos, and Athens before

m, only a few words here and their can be found; and for the

ol Hellas there is almost nothing, although from this time

Greece had an existence, and its historic life had begun. Each

region has the population it will keep till the nation's latest

day; and each one of thes< communities is already assuming,

under the double influence of i1 raphical position and the

circumstances of its establishment, the character which will give

in hostilities of races, ideas, and interests.

From the eleventh to the seventh centurj b. c. a fact of importance took place; namely, the dispersal of the Hellenic race

ilmost all the shores of the Mediterranean.

The Greeks, delighting t<> conceal a deep meaning under the

mosl eful images, relate thai a shepherd who was feeding his

flock near the shore of the sea saw one day a beautiful young girl

.an of the waves. Minle upon him. and call him to come

to 1,. i \t first he hesitated, then yielded to the charm, and threw himself into the water. How man) enchanting sirens thus ound these beautiful shores and called the dwellers

at upon the blue lake the shepherd, the Greeks

ible al I ia« Imii. ami made their wa\ from GENERAL SUMMARY. 523

island to island, among the three continents that these islands connected, meeting at many points peoples of kindred origin, or already attached to them by old commercial relations. In two ways Nature laid upon the Hellenes the obligation "to " sail perpetually upon the mighty sea ; namely, by the situation of their native land, with the sea almost everywhere in sight, and still more by the products of their soil, which, ill adapted to cereals, notwithstanding the protection of Demeter. the revered goddess, 1 is much better suited to the cultivation of the vine and the olive, — products dealt with by industry and commerce. A people having wheat and cattle may isolate themselves, and ask nothing more

from the soil which feeds them ; hence the slow growth of aoricul- tural communities. But one having only wine and oil would die of hunger without an interchange of commodities. Hence this population is forced to live in constant relations with its neighbors, to travel, and to collect merchandise, knowledge, and ideas. Can we wonder that the Greeks were and still are, chiefly occupied with commerce, that they visited all the countries of the ancient world, and left colonies on every shore ?

Commerce lives by liberty : the Greek colonies were free ; those of Rome were dependent, because they were an instrument of conquest, and rule requires obedience. While the Greeks thus went forth by the thousand gates that Nature bad opened to them, a revolution at home was slowly sub- stituting, for the kings of the heroic age, who were the sons of tli'- gods, a race of nobles, also claiming divine descent. When this aristocracy attained its object of having no master above it, it at once fell a necessity of having subjects beneath it. But the subjects, in their turn having attained greater prosperity and intelligence, considered themselves capable of self-government, and they effected against the oligarchy what, the oligarchy bad accomplished against the kings. But, Eor this struggle, they had chosen chiefs, who now ed the supremacy, rupawoi'. here by force or strategy, there by

1 On nted, from a photograph, .1 itatuc >! Demeter in marble, discov-

U Knldoi, and bow in the British Museum Tl Ide it leated, and the veil covering

li In r head add* to the cxpn idni in her face, 1 the type of the afflicted Demeter, wlin lii- rainly wearied herself in the March for her daughter. Cf. the rer c "I the Homeric llvinn (iv. 197 and their cruelty brought about a new revolution, this time democratic. Such then is the life of Greece up to the Median wars: first, kings; then, an aristocracy; then, tyrants supported by the oppressed class; lastly, the community governing itself, — in sonic cities granting more to the people who live by industry and commerce; in others, more to the rich who own the soil. This form prevailed in Greece at the tune when the Persians invaded the country; and Herodotos tells us it was her free institutions that saved her. During this long and arduous work of political transformation. intellectual life i-. as it were, suspended in the metropolis. But in the Asiatic colonies, neighbors to the great Oriental civilization-, genius is developed. Art and science arc born there; poetry adds to the inheritance of Homer: and the Greek world is lighted up at it- circumference with extreme brilliancy. At the end of the sixth centurj before Christ, a hostile rule has been imposed upon these intellectual cities. This foreign hand chills the springs of lib', and civilization was about to perish, smothered in the germ, when

Marathon and Salami- saved it. — glorious names, which grateful humanity will never cease to repeat.

111.

With its gulfs tor moats, and it- mountains for bastions, dreece is like a great fortress built up between Europe and Asia. Xerxes, with his myriads, in vain assailed it: the immense Empire of the

- shattered against it. These victories were chiefh trained h\ Athens, and decided her destinies. Invasion having been re-

pulsed, its return must lie prevented : Athens alone thought of this and provided for it Hence the origin and the justification of her

Bway. This supremacy, which make- the ,-e.i- -ate. which stimulates industry and traffic, which spread- wide prosperity, and kindle- the intellect, i- the happiest moment of Greece and the most brilliant in the life of humanity . Athens no doubt does not stand alone in Hellas.

All men labor ind ill think ; but everything i- attracted tow. mis her. 1,1 mi hi: 01 KN1D08.

GENERAL SUMMARY. 527

— genius, as well as power and wealth. At this centre the scattered rays are collected, and shine forth upon the world, a splendid radi-

ance. Even before she was at her greatest height, a stranger, almost an enemy to her by birth, — Pindar, — celebrates " the city of genius." the city " brilliant, immortal, violet-crowned, like the Graces and the Muses."

Grandest of all the noble figures which crowd within her walls

is Perikles. His enemies called him " the Olympian," and not without reason; for he guided and restrained with sovereign wisdom this intelligent, excitable, mobile people, who in time of need could show a Roman constancy, who were guilty of many errors, but redeemed them by the great works of art and the great examples it has left

us. A multitude elegant and intellectual, interested in art, in

science, and in poetry ; among whom wealth scarcely made a dis- tinction of ranks, where education, the same for all, established none; — less a people than a popular aristocracy, and raised to this point of grandeur by its own genius, the result of its geographical position and of its history, and by institutions the most humane, the most truly liberal of the ancient world. 1 Let us suppose that

Athens and the great Athenians were obliterated from history : how much of Greece is left ?

I confess my love and sympathy fur this splendid republic, which had Factions and revolutions, but never civil wars or slave- revolts ;" for this city, which its two -real enemies, Philip and Alex-

ander, could not hate ; for this people, whose bistoiy opens at Marathon in a brilliant victory, and closes at Chaironeia with the eloquent cry of Demosthenes: "No, no, Athenians, yon have not failed in defending, to the death, the liberty of Greece!" Let it

' Then tx ide the principle of equality before the law (iaovofda), an actual law of habi Demosthenes (Against Timokrates, Mi) shows that, with two excep-

•nlv. namely, in the case of high treason, or ol fraud against the State in il"' matter of

-a citizen, even after the order to detain him in prison had been legallj

. might I)'- set al liberty if three ol lii- Fellow citizem of the same class would give bail lur him. In tl treason against the State, nothing le than a decision ol the popular equired for making an indictment (Hyperides, For Euxenippoi, 6; ed. Didot) • I li" domicile ol the c inviolable; no one could enter without I accompanied bj n

L) \ga i olion, iO). On one occa ion letters from Philip to

Olympias had been Intercepted; but the assemblj forbade opening them, being unwilling to

e pondence of .1 husband with lii- wife (PI DoXtnni mspayy«Atiara, ''>)

' 1 - v Tli' revolt ol slaves, pureli local, -mil one 1 war. that which wa brought

1. 1 not riallv a national war, ince behind the tyrant tood HISTORY OF GREECE. never be forgotten that this much-accused people treated their slaves

1 gently, made the stranger welcome, and on certain days set prisoners at liberty, that they might share in the merry Festivals of 8 Dionysos. The guilty were put to death, but they were not put 8 t>> the torture; to the exile was left his property, and to persons guilty of certain forms of manslaughter 4 an opportunity to escape before condemnation. To the aged and the infirm, to the disabled soldier, Athens secured a support, and gave the country as a mother to children whom war had made orphans.8 " Let the archon eponv- mos," says a law quoted by Demosthenes, "take care of orphans, of heiresses, and of widows." Better still. — -in the market-place at Athens."' says I'ausanias, "the Athenians, alone among all peoples, have built an altar to Pity, whereon suppliants nun hang their c I'd lets."

1 There was no reluctance at Athens to five citizenship to a slave. After the battle of

Arginousai. all the slaves in the fleet received it (Hellanikos, in tin- Scholia to the 1 of Aristophanes, 694). Andokides {On his Return, 23, Didot, p. 76) Felicitates Athens on having often granted the n-oAirn'a. Sov\mt cuSpamois In his oration On thi Chtrsonesos, it. Demosthenes proposes to associate as assistants to the treasurers of the State, public slaves, trfnoaiui. who -hall render accounts of their administration. Euripides often reproduces these kindly feeling towards house-servants. When Alkestas is m1h.ui to die. .-he take- each one of her -laves by the hand and says farewell.

- />• Demosthenes, Against A ndrotion, 68, Cicero ( Offic, ii. 15) says that for an Athenian not to show tin' way to a Btranger seeking guidance, was a punishable offence. 3 The most severe punishment at Athens was death, and that, a- a rule, inflicted in the leasl cruel way. by the poison of hemlock. To apply torture to a free man. a special decision of the assembly was required, says Darcste {Plaid, pnlil. «/< Dem. , ii 801). Andokides

i/ i . IS, Didot, p. 55) refer- to a decree in the archonsbip of Skaiuandrios prohibiting

the torture of a citizen. Antiphon was i ondemned to torture, followed by death ; hut this was after a decree bad expelled him From Athens, and he had Becretl) returned, to burn the net t

(Demosthenes, On '/* ( 'rotcn, l :>) In the oration Against Pantainttos, 1 1 (Didot, \< 507), of the vi ar 3 i'. d < .. I lemosthenes make- objection to the system of seeking to ascertain the truth

l>\ the torture of -hue- : bni thi- i- the onli protest of the kind found in the Greek pleas. 1 Banishment, bnt not exile, involved the confiscation of property and for certain kinds of manslaughter tl lemncd pi d escape bj flight from the execution of the

Ol Plat ad /num. Aristotle, Polit., ii 6

' The Athenians, according to [sokrates, were considered the most gentle and compas- o, I I Plutarch says also (noXirutd wnpayyfKiiara,

a >. f> Tj\aiav ri'xui/rdt o ryi)i'. cmot.. , (iVil'rf., 1 the \ fan ttjxW ( Sec fnrther 7, 8 and 9)

1 -. for pathetic incidents which he mentions to the r of Ail We i nnnot, however, vouch the truth ol Mm nt a- tlo-. that a senator in the Areiopagos was punished tor h

the oi ' k .a a little bird which had flown to him for shelter, thi- act being n

i > i nelly (I' p. 1 ed. of 1653). Still Ii ccpl tin

i the authority ol llyperidcs, that admission to ill. lie had been -ecu dining in an inn

house of ill repute. Bul we ina\ liclicvc, on the word of Demosthi GENERAL SUMMARY. 529

The Athenians were indeed the favored people of " the goddess

having many thoughts," ' who from the height of the Akropolis

watched over her faithful city or inspired it ; who mingled with the

combatants but to moderate their fury ; who held the spear only in

the cause of right ; who was the divine Sophia, born from the brain of Zeus, and also human wisdom revealing to sages the laws of the world, and was. moreover, the divine worker'- who invented

useful arts, who gave the olive-tree, and taught domestic virtues to the wife. 3

The people were like their goddess, or rather — which is nearer the truth — the goddess was like her people. The most intellectual and the best of the Greek cities rightly had for Poliac and eponymous divinity the worthiest of the Greek Olympians. On the day when the young Athenian, attaining his eighteenth year, received the weapons which he was to bear for his country's

defence, he took this oath : —

" I will not dishonor these sacred weapons, and I will not desert my companion in the ranks. 1 will fight for all that is sacred and dear, alone

or with many ; and I will not give a diminished country to those who shall

condemnation of that Athenian whom the heliasts punished for having trafficked in the heauty of youns; Olynthian girls whom he had bought as slaves after the destruction of Olynthos b\- the Macedonians. Aristotle [History of Animal*, vi. 21) mentions an octogenarian mule, in behalf of whom the Athenians made a decree that he should not be driven awaj by the grain- merchants whin he came anions their stores to (Veil. This [act i- rendered probable by others that Plutarch relates in his Life of Calo : "The Athenians took care of the mules that had been employed for the temple of Athene; Kimon built a tomb for his horses victorious -it Olwnpia, and Xanthippos for a dog that had Bwum after him as far as Salamis." The sage of Chairo- " ncia end- by this very true remark : Kindness goes much further than justice." I'nfor- tunatelj religious intolerance, that deadly foe of the mind, sometimes transformed this amiable

Athenian population into a vindictive one. See Vol. II. pp. 17 7. 552. 1 rioAu^rrris (Homer. Hymn, xxviii. 2).

- Mqruvim (I'ausanias, viii. 36, :'. ).

* When tin- book appeared for the fir>l time, ill 1851, the work of the learned men who were giving the world a new science of antiquity bad not yet reached tie great mass of the public, and I surprised tome reader- by tic- unwonted respect I manifested lor the fellow- citizens of Perikles, as well a- by the severity, nol .it thai time thought justifiable, with which

the sterile life of Sparta and of the aimless agitations ol the last daysol Greece.

I a In- historic pn i ised me to receive from tic authorities of the University severe reprimand on u,\ "temerity." Time In pa then, "tl tat U icher," says

Aischylos; and I find myself now with a very large majority. In Grate's great work, pub-

" all it- I lisher! a year after mine, it i- said : The Athenian empire, which, with defects, believe ." to baM' been much better lor thi itie ili in autonomj would have been. . . (ix. 279).

Curtius also is very favorable to the Athenian democracy. In j60ol tie- Panegyric of fsokratex i i magnificent eulogy of this city, "which ha made the word Greek nol o mm h the name ol " a people i of intellect Itself

vol iv. :m 530 HISTORY OF GREECE.

follow me, bul a greater and stronger one I will obey the magistrates

and the laws, and it any one destroy these laws or will not obey them,

1 will be their avenger, alone >>r with my fellow-citizens; and 1 will honor " the religion of mj fathers. I t:ikr the gods to witness my wards !

Ami they kepi this oath. Thanks to their system of military education and discipline, the Greeks, before the phalanx of Alexan- der and the Roman legion, were the besl soldiers in the world. After this, we cannot wonder that this people apotheosized themselves, <>r rather thai they divinized the institutions which, in the

fifth century at least, made them so great: a sanctuary was built Demos and the Charites, the goddesses personifying gratitude. 1

IV.

Greece is loved for her poets, philosophers, and artists, and also because, first in the ancient, world, she had as her ideal political liberty, secured by the complete development of the individual. The East knew only the calm and sterile unity of great monarchies sub-

ject to a single will, almost always of the same character, however differenl the individuals who wielded the sovereignty. Greece comprised as many independent States as Nature had given the country

defence in valleys and promontories well adapted for ; and almost all the cities the inhabitants accepted this servitude to religion and to constitutional law for the sake of our right, — that of themselves establishing the law to which thej gave obedience.

The political life of the Greeks at the historic epoch was made of two ideas. — the independence of the city, and the equalitj of the

< she citizens. Thej desired to have then- i t \ governed by the law- herself made: this was autonomy; and that .ill the citizens should

a state having have tie- same rights : this was isonomy. In these

two aims, the man at lirst wa- lost in the citizen. To make the latter more important, the former wa- made less so. and would have been reduced to extreme insignificance if the philosophers had

had their way.-— even tin' most illustrious, Plato ami Aristotle The social import nice given to the citizen fortified in him the

' ..i . [lio, 'In learned paper Hatuaon W/mm

S5 <

mm ^HiSLilian m

GENERAL SUMMARY. 533 sentiment of personal dignity, which placed him far above the servile populations of the East. It was a first step towards the great principle which Christianity was to introduce, — that of moral equality and of the brotherhood of man. The second was to be made by Rome

when she gave citizenship to all her inhabitants ; and her jurisconsults said, following the Stoic philosophers : Societas jus quodammodo

1 fratemitatis in se habet. But the advance is so slow that this last sentiment still remains only a formula, which hinders neither the wars of classes nor those of nations. The Hellenic city in which this great evolution began had only a small population, and made no effort to increase it. The sovereign assembly at Athens rarely numbered five thousand citizens, and from a phrase of Demosthenes we may conclude that a very few votes often decided an important question. " On the day of the election of the pylagorai." he says, " three or four hands were raised for Aischines, and he was thus invested with the authority of Athens." 2 A few men, attractive speakers, could then exercise a dangerous influence over these sovereign assemblies, called together sometimes on the spur of the moment, in which the members legislated, gave judicial decisions, and administered the law by means of a vote which might have been won by some trick, or called out by the excitement of the hour.

There was another danger. With a population so limited in number, these cities could not be the solid basis of an empire. Living isolated within the limits which the nature of the land gave them, they had outside allies or subjects, and they formed ties

of hospitality ; but jealous of their citizenship, which would have opened to the stranger the agora and the temples, they would neither give their Poliac divinities to the worshippers of other gods, nor their institutions to men reared under other laws. Athens and Sparta would have gladly destroyed, the one Megara, the other

1 Argos ; never would they have granted isonomy to these cities.

1 >'•'! />/

' Tin- i- the reproach which Tadtni iddn i to them quid tdiud . . . eriiin/uii . . . mm quirt victonpro atit ""/• nil on ebanl t To thin narrow idea <>f the city !»• oppoaei the Roman p

ion marry or Imlil proper!) i» another city Per ili«' grant of citizenship there »!-* mm requli ad al ttben* a fird meeting o( the | plea) which title w;i^ granted "foT aerrico rendered to the Uheniann," and a econd amtcmbly, where more ili:m i"ix thou IHSToKY OF GRFJ

This hostility between neighbors was a cause of continual wars. Bui we have no right to reproach the Greeks with their pugnacity, for, everywhere and at all times, mankind lias obeyed this remnant of the animal nature of which it cannot rid itself, which

to love the act of destroying. In theory, the municipal r&giim seems the best of all forms of government, since it accords the most liberty to the individual ; but in Bellas it never lin' Greeks the desire of living tranquilly around their temples ami places of assembly.

We, their heir.-, lament these acts of violence which seem tr us a crime against ourselves, because they diverted to the sanguinary work of war forces which might have been employed in the beneficent labors of peace. (Civilization is. indeed, not a (lower that grows amid ruins and in storms, but neither does it always unfold itself in calm and silence. The struggle of interests and pas>ion> develops the character: life is more energetic; tin- faculties become richer and more active. From these little cities, distracted and turbulent, came forth many a marvel of art and thought.

Aristotle says : "Greece has courage and intelligence; if she were united, she would he capable of conquering the world.' 1 He was

right : twice, the Greeks united, when at Salamis eighty thousand of them and at I'lataia a hundred and ten thousand vanquished the Meets and armies of Xerxes, and when, with the Macedonians, they made the conquest of Asia. But in the ordinary course of their historic life they knew only the civic form of government, and never, except for a moment in their latest days, did the\ adopt an} other; so that Greece ceased to he itself when, with Alex-

afinned b) Becret ballot the favorable vote (Demosthenic Collection, Againd Ntaira,

:\. ed. I'i.i

1 Politii -. iv. <. 1.

Noti . < in the opposite page is represented fragment of a marble statue discover)

:n the Louvre (W. Prohner, \ de la Sculpture antiqut du Lout . p ii".

So i lt the river "t Deloa, and

eolo till di lignate il In tin* iraj Ii I thai the figure, of winch the

left in tin rough, w.i* reclining, and occupied the angle of i pediment Ii U,- otl but ire cannol regard the as certain. Winmm not the statur rvt

' to the name, M Ravaiseon seems to have had a happj inspiration in proposing thai

he royal fillet, and though not tlir exact portrait of the king,

. i-- en idealized likeness. Vnother head, which Jia- points ot resembl

n in the Louvre, Im* been recent!) discovered at Delos bj M Homolle (Bull.

GENERAL SUMMARY. 53V

ander, it became an empire. By the number and the independence of its cities it was fitted, in the time when its characteristic genius scope, had free to produce the most brilliant form of civilization ; it was not adapted to establish a durable sway, and its independence was lost as soon as there arose around it [lowers organized for conquest or assimilation. Faithful to her oldest traditions, Greece was intoxicated with a mad delight on the day when the Romans proclaimed that every league was destroyed, every city made autonomous. The Greeks believed themselves free on the day when, for them, a servitude of twenty centuries began.

These little communities often saw the enemy at their gates, and. with him. wounds, slavery, and death. Hence the city, whose walls sheltered the family, the gods, and independence, was loved

with an ardent affection ; as in a besieged place, everything must be sacrificed to its safety, not merely a man's life, but also, which is often more difficult, his fortune. An inscription speaks of voluntary loans. 1 without interest; and patriotic gifts were frecpient. Demos- thenes mentions the strategos Nausikles. who furnished the pay for

two thousand hoplites whom the State had left unpaid ; two generals supplied their troops with eight hundred shields which were

needed ; others employed a part of their property in repairing the city walls. For a work of tins kind, Demosthenes, who was not. a rich man, gave voluntarily live talents, and for the theatre a hundred niinai." What was their reward? A wreath, which by decree of the people was bestowed in the theatre on the da\ of the Great Panathenaia.

These gifts ought not to surprise us : they sprang from the sentiment mosl energetic in these cities, — patriotism; but we find in them another sentiment, — charity, — which usually is not, looked

I'ii there. The hour for the gre.it charitable institutions which Christianity and philosophy have made so numerous had not yet come, because the social condition did not call for them. Demos- thenes waa not silcfne in redeeming captives, in giving dowries to poor young girls, and in being able i" say, n in the oration <>» the

< a : "You know. Athenians thai I have been always kindly,

1 Corput Inter, attic., ii 884.

Uion m, iiir Crown, \> 188 (Didot) ibovo, y i.'\. the decree propo ud bj Ljrkourgo* in honor of Eudi HISTORY OF GRE] I K humane, ready to relieve every misfortune;" elsewhere he takes

pride in saying that lit.- has never failed in the duties of philan- thropy,1 a word which, though believed to be very modern, was current in Alliens inure than twenty-two centuries ago. Lysias speaks of a person who — in this case Becretly — gave dowries, delivered prisoners, and buried the dead who lay unnoticed on the high-roads, without expectation of any reward.2 How many others did the same! If the allowance made to citizens who attended the public assembly and the festivals in honor of the $nnh had certain political disadvantages, it was, at tirst. assistance given to those who had need of it. The same is true as to the distribu- tions <>!' wheat made to the people from time to time, and also in

respect to the repasts after -Teat -acrifices of victims, when the gods required only the smoke from the altar. The gymnasia maintained by the State corresponded to our free .schools; Hippokrates advised the medical fraternity to accept no pay from those who conld not give it without difficulty, while many cities furnished medical assistance gratuitously to their poor;' 1 and Plato says:

4 •We must do ill to no man. not even to the wicked." These sentiments are the noble side of Greek municipal morals. We may further >a\ that in these communities property and the on foundations in the hut Family rested better than Easl ; systems of law- made soleh fur the State guaranteed hut imperfectly the protection of property and the security of the individual." The citizen belonged to the community, which disposed oi him as it to pleas.d : so that the interests of each being subordinated tho*

1 In the oration On thi Affairs of th 10, where he recalls bis service! oi\tiii\u>ru»: roiavnu aAAM rpujpapvias "t.ii x°P ,ry' a( Kai xaPl if 'T ^'" tloipopas, mi avoym mi umins.

125. Citzens also nnil.Tii.uk a superintendence oi il»- schools. See

I, of ilii- n-crk.

/; i 9. III.-. sentiments again I'm. I expression in imperial Rome; see

bap. butxiii. sect. i. and chap. Ixxxiv. sect. 6.

\i Sparta, ..- in Plato's /.'/' S ate «•.-. so '.. speak, -"I.' father and sole pro-

ir. This was never tl Athens. Aristotle, who looks at the legal

..- obtained ict, .hi. I re ssion its origin, however He ! irnlturr, from pill' nyutor, «B«n

li \ ..! tin- I ii. ii. 1 .1 ii.. lii* Solon regarded as I in principle of time.

ili<- ai i ii ofti n happened in Groo . thai Ian which •! i measure* new division < "i debts, a prohibition to sell, oi other .Mil. rights "i ownership. GENERAL SUMMARY. 539

the State, that which appeared useful to the latter became justice,

even though to the former it might be injustice. Of one man the

law made a soldier, whatever his age ; of another, the commander

of a galley, which he must fit out at his own expense ; of a third, though guiltless of crime, an exile. No man could resist this claim

' of the State, not merely as regards military service and fiscal

charges, but also for the education of youth : the State would have the body and soul of its children, much more their property. In the aristocratic times, the Eupatrids, being alone taken into account, were alone in having any obligations. — as, in the Homeric

times, the heroes drew upon themselves all the stress of the battle.

Inheriting this ancient custom, most of the Greek cities had it as a principle of their financial organization that a part of the public expenses should be at the charge of the rich. Solon, for example, without making much change in the old order of things, laid heavy taxes upon the members of the higher classes ; but, in return, he

secured to them political privileges. With time, the burdens increased and the privileges disappeared. Every citizen, even the

poorest, might attain public office by lot. and as a result of the frequency of wars and the increasing magnificence of the festivals, the leitoiirgkti and choregiai, reserved to the rich, imposed expenses

daily heavier. If it was decided to fit out a fleet, immediately into the public assembly came demands for a reduction of taxes; the temple of Artemis was crowded with those who had passed for rich men. now eager to avoid the burdens of the trierarchy, and the prisons with luckless citizens dragged thither by the inspec-

tor of the marine because they had not furnished the new sails

needed for their galley.' Sophokles and Sokrates spoke well of "the unwritten laws" which Nature has placed in the human conscience; systems of government, even the best, could onlj make the State the supreme

arbiter of good and evil, so that in the Greek cities justice was

often absent, as true liberty always was. Aristotle depicts the

democracy as everywhere busj in levelling men's fortunes l>\

ruinous fines and confiscations; and in fact for many agi-

ire, — for these "blunderers," as Polybios calls them. toi»

KaxeVraq, — the end of all political endeavor was to put under, that

1 DeauMtheni oration On the Crown See ilno Vol III |> OSS, note 1. .

:»-|n HISTORY OF GRE] which had been above. Thus Messina divides among the populace the property <>t' the rich; Kleomenes al Sparta, Nikokles at

Sikyon, do likewise. A- it is only the dead who arc sure not to return, a demag _ - of Chios causes to be pul to deatb those whom he plunders; Nabia does the same wherever be is master. The Aitolians and the Thessalians abolish debts; the Chiotes have another scheme of social economy : when the government has nerd of money, it decrees that all private debts lie paid to the State: elsewhere, their jewels are taken from the women, their harvests from the tanners: and even in Athens there are many who think that an illegal confiscation is nol a resource to be disdained. 1

The consequence of this financial servitude of the rich, and the dangers menacing property, was that landowners and capitalists often showed themselves, in a world become commercial and industrial, the natural enemies of old customs and the jnilitie.il systems which consecrated them. Hence plots, revolutions, sentences of exile or confiscation, and banished men forever making

2 armed incursions upon the city which had driven them out. It was well made a part of the official oath of the heliasts in Athens:

•• I swear never to permit tin' abolition of debts, nor the division of lands and houses." 3 And in truth these revolutionary measures were not decreed in the city of Athene, where commercial prosperity depended on the faithful execution of contracts; but how often the sykophantai of that cit\ destroyed ancient and legitimate fortunes by the most unfounded accusations!' When these disturbances became frequent, the old ideas of devotion to the city

i I.- ! Nikomachos, 22; Polybios, vii. l"; w. 21; Fragm 68; Aristotle,

/ He mentions this as having been practised al Byzantion, Chios, Khuomenai,

Epb i !! rakleia, an. I Lampsakos.

\ I Philip thai he would find in Greece, for Ins expedition into

(- In' might require, because there were bo man) exiles, among whom il

(/'/,././.. i army than among citizens 90, ed. Didot, p * Westermann questions il»' authenticity of the Spuot ijXunrTtii.. bul without ronvin-

l> ri or Weil, who maintain it, — the one in bis translation of th<

i. 1 I . " and 184) ; the other in his

>. 1 • ..n of 1 - li p, 137.

4 Tl • tin- .1. in i.-o._'v is cnvj and suspicion, which, when it rules the inbu-

ilt judicial spoliations. Aristophonol \zenia was prosecuted seventj five

trary to the laws,yood>q trapandptw ; l>ut it is jusl to add thai be

I (Aischinc l!M Demosthenes was not so often riled 1

d him seven times, and he had often to di ;

GENERAL SUMMARY. 541

were lost; alliances contrary to the genius and to the interests of the people were contracted ; and as these innovations came in a time when all things were shaken, — religion, patriotism, and the civic virtues, — the State, no longer standing firm on its ancient foundations, crumhled and fell. The Greeks had, like ourselves, two other kinds of property,

— the public domain, differing in extent in different cities, and property belonging to the temples, the latter often of great value, but not always respected ; for instance, the treasures of Delphi were pillaged by the Phokians, those of Olympia by the Arkadians, and more than once certain portions of the sacred possessions were secularized. In case of necessity the State borrowed from the sanctuary, and becoming a debtor to its gods, paid them the interest on these loans, but at times neglected to return the principal. The State being the superior authority, this property of the temples was endangered by the vicissitudes in public events and politics determined all things in the temple as in the agora. 1 In another respect, the organization of the family, the Greeks give us nothing. Too near Asia, they did not allot to woman,2 in the historic age, a condition greatly superior to that which we find in Nineveh and Babylon. Her one duty was to be the mother of legitimate children, who would continue the family and the domestic sacrifices ; nothing more was asked of her, and the noble women of the Homeric times — Alkestis, Andromache, Penelope — were altogether forgotten. The Greek women were not certainly all of them companions of the Lysistrata of Aris- tophanes, hut none gained the respect of a whole city, like the mother of the Gracchi; and although the gynaikaion was a great advance upon the harem, the Greek wife was never the Roman " mat ion. and si ill less ••the virtuous woman of Scripture.

1 f - Private 1 1 did not escape ilii- omnipotence "f the State. Man} Greek cities pr<>- bibitcd celibacy. Sparta punished nol merely hiin who did nol marry, but even the man who married late. Hie State had the power to prescribe a< Athene industry, and :ii Sparta idle- Lyrann) extended in the in at Lokris the law Forbade men in drink pure wine; al Miletot and al Marseille! il"- made i" women. Ii was

nary (oi dn ennined by the laws of each city ; the legislation of Spartn regulated tin- women'* headgear, and that of Ithen Forbade them to carry more than three

attiri! wlii-n mi .i journe) Al Rho lan might ihave; al Byzantion none might cviii own a razor, under penalty of a fine; while al Sparta the law Forbade wearing thi

i I 1 i 1. < ..i i , che. l 1 1 \ -...I i antique, p •• >• in Vol. Ill p I IK, .i quotation attributed lo Demo thi ni :,J-J HIST0R1 OF GREEl E

Great as is our admiration, then, for ancient Greece, in pobV

d Irani from her nothing, except it be to avoid the faults into which she fell; between* her and our modern world the distance is too great.

To the political causes which proved fatal to Greece were added the moral causes which destroyed her old ideal, without giving her a new one. Tin tart must be acknowledged that the impulse given to men's minds by the age of Perikles — that golden age of the human intellect — opened the way into unknown regions where Am lent Hellas was lost. Therein were found noble inspirations tor art and thought: hut then appeared, with a strength hitherto unknown, philosophy, the rebellious daughter of polytheism, who SOUghl to account for the world and for mankind, never explained by tie- old myths. Born near tie- temple.- which she was one dav to overthrow, for children like her destroy their own mothers, as plants which grow in the crevices of old walls at lasl cause them to crumble, — philosophy early manifested hostility to positive religion. Nor was this ancient religion adapted to become a rule of moral-. In Nature there is neither good nor evil; only the play of physical and chemical forces. The ancient peoples, living too

to Nature not to undergo her influence, had religions which, by aii expressive barbarism, have been called the cult ol Nature naturanS, or of the material force-, and that of Nature naturata, or of the phenomena under which these forces manifest themselves. Hence the monstrous conceptions of Egypt and ol

i prostitution of Babylon and Corinth, the strange

n in Athenian streets and carried in procession b} Athenian maidens. Hence also these peoples, without hesitation.

'in the oppo led i bead in Parian marble, in the CilyptoUiek

ii i 1 1 I: i n . i.i No. 89, p. 113) It l» here giren front ibe rum .... published by Bruno and Bruokmano Ii i- "in' ol the he Ulj ptoUwk Ill Ml III A OKI I k WOMAN.

GENERAL SUMMARY. 545

attributed to their gods the most shameful passions, so that polytheism obscured the idea of right and legitimated wrong by the example of those who were sometimes, and should have been always, the ideal of goodness. Then, by a parallel development. but in opposite directions, of the divine legends and of human reason', it came about that Greek polytheism found itself in that condition, fatal to any cult, when religion was on one side, and morality on the other. The latter attacked the former, and conquered it ; the gods fell from Olympos, and grass grew in the courts of the temples. This would have been well, had the legends of these dethroned divinities been replaced by noble teachings, fitted to enlighten and purify the human mind. Such instruction was found here and there, in the words of poets and of philosophers; but the crowd did not listen, given over to the degrading super- stitions in which, for weak minds, great faiths end at last. In expelling the gods from Olympos, philosophy went outside

the circle of the vulgar beliefs ; she also, by her teaching went beyond the narrow limits of the city. Above man, she beheld humanity; above the State, the world. And we have reason to fear that she aided in the destruction of patriotism, as in the destruction of the gods, by the very fact that she rose to purer ideas as to the divinity and true virtue. The noble saving of .Manns Aurelius,

"I am a citizen of the world," is from Sokrates, 1 or one of his disciples; another school will go so far as to deride the patriotic sentiments of an earlier day. "Let US give ourselves no care about saving Greece," says the Epicurean, Metrodoros, ••nor to gain civic wreaths. The only wreath to he desired is that of wisdom." Yes. certainly, for the individual; but iiol lor the citizen, who ought, to have besides a. very frenzy of self-sacrifice.

In its turn, poetry popularized the sceptical deductions of the philosophers. Epicharmos and Aristophanes, by their sarcasms, utter the cry which Lucretius heard in Rome: '-The gods will die!"

And so. in the teiicr caused to the peoples by the silence of Heaven. and the darkness Sophist cl around questions once easily answered, the unreasoning crowd strike down even those who

1 o trngpAnfl oin ABrfvaiot • • I \Xq . aXXd »'..i/»i

• :, / ... ' / I Dio the Cynic repeat! th«" 'imiiiir

• ii tnautrntikiTm (Diogene I. had been already ipoken by I'. i i

. she , .0 bears ner later wiini'l it in the teaching! <•< &cno VOL. iv. :

HISTORY OF GREECE. bold up the torch of the future. Athens drives oui Anaxagoros, and will have Sokrates drink hemlock; hut it is a cruel and sterile triumph of intolerance. All i> over; the gods go from them, ami. unhappily, the new God has not yel come. Meanwhile, a great genius seems to perceive him. Many verities belonging to the faith of the future are announced by Plato. Only a few comprehend them; the others hear and understand only those teachers who cry oul that there is doubl concerning everything, — heaven, patriotism, virtue. — and that a man should believe only in chance and in

Then love of country fails, morality is lost, the cities sink beneath the load of corruption; and Greece, exhausted, dying, after a century and a hall of civil wars perishes noiselessly, under foreign rule. — •• for lack of men." Polybios says vigorously (oXiyui'Spi.'a). 1

VI.

The splendid period in the life of Greece lasted hut a hundred and fifty years.— from the victories of the war of independence to the battle of Chaironeia. where Hellenic libert) found its grave.

This interval i> tilled with the duel between Sparta and Athens, in which Thebes al list took part, with warfare incessantly renewed, with a gre.it destruction of men and cities. Nevertheless this time, so short, -utliced to make Greece tic Holj hand of horn. civilization : there human thought was

'.' have indicated B il wh\ was this greatness so transient We principal causes of it- rapid decline: we .-hall now speak of nstruments; namely, two Greek peoples. — the Spartans and the Macedonians. — and a foreign race, the Romans. The latter, when the) appeared on the eastern side of the Adriatic, found in Greece,

-called, onh cities incapable of defending themselves.

• Hannibal thej hid sen! into the held twenty-three legions nough to overcome the difficulties offered by the network donian mountains and the warlike energj of the soldiers

n up," hi wok won 1. "men «ill rwur no children, even

< .1 two —

GENERAL SUMMARY. 547

The eighteenth century admired Lacedaemon only, won over

as it was to the paradox of Rousseau as to the superiority of the man of nature, and the necessary supremacy of the State. But the Spartans, who, according to the fabulous genealogy of Hellen, called themselves the eldest-born of the nation, were always an exception in Greece. Nothing of all that made the Greek character — the love of art. harangues in the agora, philosophic discussions in the schools — interested them. With their limited ownership of

property, they had but a restricted liberty. — if indeed they were ever free as we now understand the word. The ancients admired, and our Utopians have also admired, the great things that were to be found in the unwalled city on the banks of the Eurotas, — the sobriety, the discipline, the contempt for passions, for suffering and

death. The Spartans knew how to obey and to die. If a people have no other duty than to live from day to day, without care

for the morrow or for the world outside, absorbed in self-adoration

and in the practice of certain virtues, Sparta fulfilled her duty.

But if every people is accountable in the presence of history for

its efforts to add its stone to the edifice which humanity builds for

itself, Sparta — a mere machine of war. an instrument of destruction which at last destroyed itself — has no answer to make when we ask what was her share in the common labor, what work did

she bequeath to the world. Musicians and poets indeed lived for a time in Sparta, — the Kretan Thaletas, Alkman of Sardis, Terpandroa of Lesbos. Polymnesios of Kolophon, Sakadas of Argos,

even the Athenian, Tyrtaios ; bill liny all were natives of other

-. and no one of them was .1 welcome teacher among this people, where only military valor was honored. And of her citizens, what did Sparta make'.' Slaves of the State, having only the

deceitful right of choosing their masters, as has been the case in

another age when the activity of the social life was nol greatly

cared for. One half of Greece was flourishing in a tranquil prosperity, under a rule as yet Bullied by no violence, when Lacedaemon began the

fatal Peloponnesian war. Victorious, -thanks to the ill-judged Sicilian expedition, to Median gold, and to the accident of battle, shed the city which has been for a hundred years the honor

of II iword ami shield. Ami then how ill she bears her 548 HISTORY OF GREE< I

* prosperity; what violence, what bloodshed, and in the end what a grace, in thai treat) of A.ntalkidas where the descendants of

' I nidas, kneeling, receive the orders of the Axshaimenid king I

It is not Athens only which falls in this struggle, — all Greece totters; Sparta herself is threatened with ruin, for soon Epamei- uondas attacks her at Leuktra and Mantineia. But these are profitless victories also: like the bee, which, it is said, leaves its sting in the wound and dies, Thebes does not survive her triumph.

Then all is ended. From this great field id' carnage which death has reaped during three quarters of a century, a pestilential miasma rises which take- form, and has been called, in a previous chapter, " condottierism." Mercenaries invade and eorrupl everything.

They make the result of a war. the destiny of a Mate, depend on an

obolos inure or less in their pay ; and. as the last, misfortune of all, they produce tyrants. Greece is then like the palace of Odysseus:

the suitors will not depart ; the) insult the grief of the son and of the faithful servants. Penelope is in desolation and grief: she awaits Odysseus, but Odysseus will nol return. The resounding

1">\\ will never he drawn by his powerful hand to slay the suitors.

It i- they who will triumph.

The assembly a< Corinth repeated the tale, so often a reality, of the horse who wished to he revenged on the stag. To glut its hatred of two hundred year.- againsi the great Eastern empire, Greece threw herself into the arms of Macedon. But then occurred a phenomenon rare in history and fruitful in grave results, — two men of remarkable ability following one another on the same throne, Alexander, Philip, who organized Macedon and disorganized Greece ; who ruined them both, while believing that he had founded a new

Hellas in the East. Becoming masters of the immense wealth that the Greal Kings li.nl hoarded in their palaces, the successors of Alexander bought

in it..- Indromacke of Euripides, 145-449, the violent imprecations of (In- poel

ioui policy and tl»' perfidy of Lacedannon : —

*Q iratrtv irBpttirourui fgctaroi (Spursir

71 IT il> I \«

i| 1,,-. .irli id*, « I'll. "C justice 'I" *""

w * hov mbei ''in '!"• mi writim in Vthens GENERAL SUMMARY. 549

up everything in Greece. Whoever felt that he had courage, ability, or ambition, deserted the old city to become a soldier of fortune, the courtier of a king, or the minister to royal profligacy. Athens had been so brilliant in her great days because men came from every land to seek from her inspiration, or her recompense of

fame. It is towards the Hellenized countries of Asia and Africa

1 that life now is attracted; it is there that pleasure and wealth " are found. A poet of this sad epoch says : A man's country is the place where he lives most comfortably."

VII.

What, after all, is the place of Greece in the general history of humanity ? In the vast plains rendered fertile by the sun of the tropics and watered by great rivers, man finds readily an abundant supply of food. But this sun burns and enervates, these rivers in their freshets

sweep away forests and cities, this indulgent nature is sometimes agitated by terrible convulsions. Everything is in an extreme, evil

as well as good ; and man. by turns terrified and fascinated, abandons himself to the charms as well as to the terrors which surround him, and allows himself to be unresistingly borne onward. Swayed by this physical fatality, unable to react successfully against this external world which exercises over him so powerful an influence, he

recogni/.''- his weakness; he avows it, and these formidable forces of

nature became for him imperious divinities, who have in priests and kings their immutable representatives. In Greece tin- phenomena of the external world have no such

dangerous mastery over man. The air of the < ntrv is stimulating,

tin- winter al times severe, the ~'>il arid rather than fertile. Instead ot limitless plains where the eye loses Itself ami the st<>ps go astray,

where plants .i- will as animals '.tow to colossal proportions, Greece

1 Iti the satrapies of [Jppei Vsia alone, twenty three thou and Greek ro e in insurrection

"t \t 1 • - after the death candi r How many wore there in 1 other provinces, and how mani perished in that ten years' war ? At the battle of Raphia, between the armie ol Egypt and

i.i (217 B.C.), there were among the comlntantt sixty or seventy thou and Greek men pnai HISTORY OF GRE1

is only mountains and valleys: everywhere the sea, gulfs, and harbors; everywhere peninsulas, promontories, and islands. 1 No- where occurs more happily the fruitful union of land and ocean. All things arc Limited to harmonious proportions, and a thousand diverse influences acl instead of one, imperious and immutable, as if to leave man his liberty of action. Thus he struggles vigorously to dispute with the wild beasts a precarious subsistence in the heroic times, and then with neighboring tribes, later to demand from the earth its fruits, from the sea its riches. Obliged constantly to rely on his own strength and intelligence, he develops these qualities, and takes pride in their employ. Far from identifying himself with Nature, far from believing, like the Hindu, that he is an

accident, an ephemeral emanation of the god-universe, i he again absorbed in the central life from which he is for the moment separated, he stands ereel in the face of creation, and if he consents to worship the forces of Nature, it is on condition that they accept some of the conditions of humanity, and that, at need, he can even oppose them. Thus in Homer. Diomedes wounds Aphrodite, Aias dares to contend with Ares. Among a people who. with the poet, extolled this audacity of their heroes, the religious sentiment was losing much of its power; hut there profited thereby another sentiment unknown in the East, which, later, philosophy developed, — that of moral liberty and of the dignity of man. In the Oriental theogonies, man not belonging

to himself, all actions are matters of indifference, and good lies in

submission, evil in disobedience to certain arbitrary prescriptions.

In declaring himself free he becomes responsible and a moral agent.

This is the immense step that the (neck mind caused the world to

make Twenty-five centuries have not sufficed to exhaust all the

1 It 1 » - Cnvier writes ilms in liis Elogt dt "Sheltered by 1 • low, calcareous mountain-

1 in height, having many ramifications, abounding in springs of water, which

diversify the surface of Greece and Italy, in those delightful valleys, rich with all the pro

It ..i Natun . grew philosophy and tin- -in~. i^ here thai the human race has seen the

birth "f thi in whom she took greatest pride ; while the vast sand) p it \ n their population always in the condition "I wandering and savage shepherds."

tnd yel populations do change; and »itli the

I Itni one "tli. i elcmenl must be taken

• in iimstances. If Darius and Xerxes had ronquered al

ui would have made ol ancient fireeci ths nunc thai the Bviantim

them the Turks, made of I ' ol 'l" Middle Vges and of thi GENERAL SUMMARY. 551 consequences of these two principles, — personal morals and individual liberty. For this reason there are, under an apparent diversity of forms, only two civilizations. — that of the East, where fatalism in doctrines and despotism in government prevail, which is immu-

table, though empires rise and fall ; and that of Greece and of modern Europe, which is movement itself, because it is dependent upon liberty.

It is not. as some envious Roman once said, because Greece produced great and ingenious writers that she enjoys an immortal fame.

That little country changed, in the moral order, the poles of the world. The East produced sages, but below them the populations were only a flock docile to the master's word. In Greece humanity for the first time was conscious of itself ; man took full possession

of the faculties with which Nature had endowed him ; there was kindled the torch which still lights up Europe, — a torch which Europe in turn carries into the new and into the old world, that ancient Oriental world which she has, so to speak, re-discovered. The creator of the Syracusan drama. Epicharmos, said, twenty- four centuries ago: -'The gods sell all good things at the price of labor." Upon this principle Greece acted, in turn receiving all the

3 of Heaven, with this, of putting measure, order, harmony into all the subjects of art and thought. Apollo counselled the Greeks to this, bidding them inscribe upon his temple the famous formula,

•• this Know thyself," wherein all philosophy is contained ; and other, •• In all things moderation," which is one of the great rules of composition in literature and the arts.

But let us go more into detail.

In religion, Greece was at, once sterile and fruitful. Inheriting. not the- severe and sober genius which a pari of the Semitic race found in its deserts, but that love of the marvellous which in India clothes the religious idea with the thousand embroideries of a, tireless

imagination, the Greek saw in each phenomenon of nature a super-

Lira] power, ami lived at first, alarmed and timid, in the rnidsl of a world which seemed to him full of divinity. Liter he gained cour- to represent tic-'' for divine personages, animating them

with hi- own pa- ions, mingling them with his own history, and poetrj took possession of them, constituting that polytheism where

form takes the place of the idea. the latter | rand confused. HISTORY OF GREECE.

the former elegant and graceful. What would this mythology be.

were it deprived of its splendid garment? Beautiful without : within.

nothing but asbes. Art only, in all its manifestations, found advantage in this system which appealed to the eyes, while never having any powerful influence upon the soul, and by degrees gave way before Science and Philosophy. These two forces dissipated men's

tenors and diminished their worship, — the former 1 > \ showing, under phenomena, laws: the latter by bringing doubt, or reason, into the midst of all these dreams.

There is always in the world a certain amount of folly, it- forms varying according to the epoch, as maladies differ in different cli- mates. The madness of ambition is common in our time: in the

Middle Ages, those possessed l>\ devils were numerous: and the supernatural has always prevailed in the Bast, with its train of visionary prophets and pious charlatans, dupes of their own assertions.

Rationalist though she was. (!r helieved that her Poliac divin- it it's did indeed dwell in the statues which were consecrated to them, so that patriotism had the force of a religion, and the oracles were to her a permanent revelation of the divine will. Fortunately. political wisdom made itself the interpreter of these response- of the gods, and neither the interests of the State nor public morals suffered thereby, excepting when intolerance, which is found in all religions, called for victims.

All this changed when the authority <>f the ancient cult diminished, when Alkibiades and his friends scoffed at the Mysteries, and the poets deprived the gods of their government of the world. To the ancients the hereditary transmission of crime and expiation had been an article of faith, and this belief had mule the family and the State very strong, by the solidarity of kindred and of fellow- members of a community. When the Erinyes disappeared, with their serpents and their deeds of vengeance, when the thunderbolt

of /en- | to l.l, i/e. and Apollo's arrows were broken, all moral sanction being removed from life, there was nothing left hut pleasure and the abandonment of one-elf to all the caprices

une Under a sky become empty, or peopled only with

.1 entitle,, the Greek d to be citizens, ceased

to '"' men. But tor art. polytheism retained a fecundity

i h i> not yet exhausted. GENERAL SUMMARY. 553

With religion were connected the great national games, at which every Hellene had a right to be present as a spectator or as a competitor. They were celebrated at Delphi under the eye

of Apollo, of Zeus at Olympia, of Poseidon at Corinth ; and security for the journey in going and returning was guaranteed by a " Truce of God " which suspended hostilities. This the

Mediaeval Church did, but the Greeks had done it before her.

Let us note also, since a reminiscence of the Middle Ages has made its way into this history of an ancient people, that we sometimes find in Greece sentiments that belong to the period of chivalry. — as when, for instance, the men of Eretria and of Chalkis made an agreement with each other that they would employ in their battles no projectiles, regarded by them as a coward's weapons because they delivered their blows from a distance. 1

In politics, the Greeks tried everything except the system of modern Europe, — representative government, — which was incom- patible with the Greek and Roman idea of sovereignty, always directly and personally exercised. A monarchy, despotic or lim-

ited ; a tyranny, violent or popular : an aristocracy, broad or nar-

row : a democracy wisely restrained, or an unbridled demagogy,

— Greece saw and tried them all. She ended, in some States, by a limited democratic form, which gratified her inveterate in- stincts towards local independence, and by a government almost representative, which rendered union possible. This time, indeed, it was no longer under the imperious rule of one alone, a king or a State, as it had been in the time of Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and of Philip, that a union was proposed, but under conditions of equality offered to all. (niortunately. the revolutionary character at this tune assumed by Sparta compelled the Achaians to have recourse to Macedon; and Macedon'a intervention made

.1 pretext [or that of Home. Legislation. — Greece and Rome are the two faces of the classic world. - the latter stem and severe, the former youthful and smil- in_ A close kinship may be recognized between the laws and customs of the two, no less than between their lanj In

alike: iu in i u v respecU the systems oi Solon and of Servius are the

Ko .i m the Agora, it is the assembl) ol the people which

1 Strabo, x I. 12. —

;,:,( fflSTORl OF GREECE.

pronounces sentence in capital cases, and it is the presiding officer of the assembly who proposes the names of candidates for election.

The Roman colony is like the klerouchoi of A.thens; the Eleven remind us of the Triumviri capitcUes; the isoteleia obtained by an alien resembles the jus civitatis nine mffragio ; the Greek Hermai are the Termini of Latium. In both countries the Mams are the dead purified by funeral rites; adoption, in case of the absence of a legitimate son, is almost a legal obligation; and the usage of the M gnesians and of the Kretans to send to Delphi first-fruits of everything in a consecrated season, is like the Ver sacrum of the Sabellians. Neither Greece nor Rome bad any prosecuting officer of the State, and both, instead, accepted the services of the delator, — sometimes useful, but too often deserving his evil reputation. Many other resemblances may be found on a somewhat closer examination. The Athenian timema, as a basis of

taxation, is like the Roman caput. The Codex preserves in the

k text the edicts of Athenian legislation, and a great part of the Attic law was incorporated into the Praetorian Edict because.

being less a slave to old juridic forms than the haw of the Twelve

Tallies, it approached nearer to equity, — the aequum and bonum.

It might even be said that Aristotle has defined for us society. "a community of brothers and equals;" this, at least, is our ideal.

if it does not yet enter into our spirit and our actual practice.

Philosophy. — Since Greece had neither sacred hooks, nor a

system of doctrines, nor a sacerdotal caste reserving dogma and

science to itself, nor. in fine, any aristocracy limiting the field of

thoughts, she left to her children the most complete liberty ol lopment. Accordingly the Creek- established philosophy in

it- independence h\ separating it from religion, and they created human ethics ly deriving them from the conscience. In this wa\

they opened a wide horizon to the intellect. That which mere

feeling and logic vaguely touched, reason boldly grasped, and with what power' Have twentj centuries added much to the

philosophic discoveries of the Hellene-'' If we represent to our-

selves civilization as a wide road through a region of dangerous

>n the opp '1 head in marble, found, ii is behoved,

.mil ' I i now in th< Naples (fr n photograph) It is interesting mpare

' ....ii. represented in Vol. III. p. 151 Cf. Overt* tuesV II II 1 1 I

GENERAL SUMMARY. 557 morasses, where sometimes humanity goes astray and is lost, we must place at the entrance of this road the statues of Sokrates, Plato, and Aristotle. All the philosophic movement of the world begins with them, and we are still occupied with the great questions which thev raised. — one seeking what was essential in man;

the second recalling us to the ideal ; the third to science. Everything has its law. — the insect, creeping invisible upon a

grain of dust, as truly as the worlds which revolve in space ; and life is measured out to the hyssop and to the cedar as well as to the star which shall one day become extinct. Man also has his lawr as regards the physical constitution with which nature has endowed him: he has also a law of the moral constitution which the age in which he lives, religions, and philosophy have given him. by evolving it from his higher nature. This latter law Sokrates and Aristotle have formulated, for the benefit of the

State, as the useful sought in the good, which is indispensable to civic life; Plato, as the noblest rule for the individual, — o/xoiwcris ro>

-i dtq> ; and Spinoza, after twenty centuries, repeats it: A man must " rule his life according to the idea of the Perfect Being ; that is to say, for those who cannot rise to the conception of the purely divine essence, it is necessary to conceive an ideal of human perfection, and strive unremittingly to approach it. The aim proposed by Platonism was pursued by a vigorous school, born amid the ruins of the Greek society whose spirit is expressed in this " heroic phrase : Do what you ought, and leave results to the gods." In its second period the Stoic philosophy by its practical ethics formed noble characters; combined with the Christian spirit and modified by it, this philosophy was destined to make many more. 1

There was. nevertheless, a profound difference between the Hellenic conception of the world and that held by the Christian believers. The latter saw heaven chiefly; the Greeks fixed their upon the earth, and their heroines, about to die. breathed no regref except thai thev were aboul to

The two were thus absolutely opposed to each other.

1 •-..- History <•/ Rome, chap. Ixxxi, •••

' There bai been round peuiraigm in Greece doubtli il did prevail there, for death i

omlition of life, and de paii ha o |io< tii ide in which the oul ometime takes pleasure. HISTORY OF GREEI E

Hence the violent hatred that Christianity conceived for the old Olympos, although the followers of Plato had prepared a transi- tion from their demiourgos to the Son of God. Without desert-

ing the New Jerusalem, which sought to substitute the religion of the -".mI for the religion of the beautiful, — the popular morality of the Gospel for the aristocratic morality of the Greeks, — we

>ti!l look back towards Greece when we strive to render our life on earth more happy by righteousness, as Aristotle desired, and apply ourselves, still resembling him. to the discovery of the secrets of creation.

nces. — Bossuet, the lasl Father of the Church, has called the truths which science discovers the "Christianity of Nature." and

Aristotle says that it is his function to make us enjoj the harmony of the Kosmos. With the Greeks began the measuring of the

ii and the numbering of the stars. They created astronomy, pure mathematics, geometry, and mechanics. — which Egypt and Chaldaea had hut roughly sketched. — natural history, medicine, and hygiene. 1

The Eastern world had. it is true, preceded them in some of

these researches, but without systematizing anything; and it is to

the Greeks thai we owe principles and methods. — that is to say, the real beginnings and the actual progress of the sciences.

While it is true that they did not always walk with steady pace

in the way winch Hippokrates had opened to them, and to which

Aristotle called them, they did at least mark out the road which

alone can lead to a rational conception of the world and of the general order of things.1

Nemesis was long one of the most Formidable divinities i>i il><' Hellenii Olympos (><. Vol. I.

pp. ;;.'ii. ./ ..

<>l moral life and it was Christian ascetics who desired, lik> the followers "I Sakyamonni, the rapid annihilation of the terrestrial existence

1 \ r. in.il kable fai i i- the great age t" which, in the entire possession <>f their faculties,

minenl men ol (Jrcece lived. Wi in obliged to except the military leaders who

[ i Miltiadcs, Ki n, Alkibiades, Bpametnondas, and Alexander; but

I I pichnrmos, Pythagoras, Solon, Stesichoros, Anakrcon, Sophokles, Euripi-

i >. Xenophon, Isokrates, Kleanthos, Dcmokrciios ol Abtlera, ind of genius. Nature gav< them largeh one ol her most

led Nature b) ;i » is* hygiene, hj temperance, and bi .-» wcll-

the beautiful, were also masters "i !)" true, whether, "iili

lie foundations of neometn and mochai

h Hippokrates, the > GENERAL SUMMARY. 559

Science, which is not without a poetry of it.- own. has been fatal

to that of the ancient poets ; it has killed the nymphs of land and

sea. and all the gods of air. earth, and ocean. Nevertheless, they

yet live, but are called, prosaically, the influence of the environment; and under that name have a greater power over men and States than ever was wielded by the radiant Olympians.

In literatim, what splendor ; how many styles created and

carried to perfection. — the epic, elegy, and lyric, tragedy, comedy,

history, the eloquence of the platform and of the bar. — when it was not placed at the service of Sophists like that Karneades who spoke one day in praise of justice, and on the morrow in praise of

iniquity ! And how durable its empire ! Europe, since her intel-

lectual revival, is still nourished by it. The Germanic literatures

are of yesterday, if we except Shakspeare and Milton, who are not very old. and Goethe, sometimes so Greek, and Schiller, not always

a Teuton. The Slavic literatures are but just born ; the Scandi-

navian deserve no separate mention ; but the Southern literatures, hitherto the most brilliant, have for masters those who are called the classic writers, and they for the most part speak the language of Homer, for the most illustrious Romans were only the followers of the Greeks. The Latin Muses are daughters also of the Hellenic Zeus, and sisters of the Delphic Apollo. 1

Thus, almost all secular literature is derived from Greece, as sacred literature from Palestine. From these two countries came the two great streams that have watered barbaric Europe.

In respect to the arts, Greece did even more. Lovers of form. and color, and of all that is the delight of the eyes, the Greeks

were able to seize the fugitive moment of beauty and fix it eternally in marble and brass. Egypt, Assyria, and India have never known that Sower of elegance whicb sprang upon the banks hi" the [lissos, and lasted there 30 long. The Oriental productions whicb surprise, without delighting, by the enormous mass of materials

and of adventures, or dazzle the mind and fatigue it li\ the infinite rariet) and the unnatural association of forms the mosl diverse, were

ami interrogating; or whether, irith Plato, the method! "t discussion (Moleschott, L'unite di

' Pr>Ang Wolf estimates that classic literature 1 tained teen hundred works, entire or motdated, of which three quarters belonged to ih G out "i these, four hundred and

fifty were anterior to Liriui Andronicus, the mo • am ienl "I the Rom HISTORY OF GRFJ

broughl hack in Greece to the just and harmonious proportions oi human beauty which arc radiant with youth and life in the works of Pheidiaa and Praxiteles, as they arc in those oi Homer, Sophokles, and Plato. To the sculptor and to the painter, religion and poetry furnished a precious mine; and the manners and customs of the

- well as their institutions, offered the strongesl encour-

nts. "The epoch of republican liberty," says Winckelmann. u was the golden age of the arts."

Architectural beauty depends not merely .,n proportions and

lines, but also on the aerial perspective and the harmony with sur-

rounding nature. In Greece this offered sites most suited to receive the decoration of marble, of bronze, and of great sculptures. Hence

Chateaubriand writes, with a poet's exaggeration: " If , after seeing the monuments oi Koine, those of Frame appeared coarse to me, the

monuments of Koine seemed to me barbaric after I had seen those

1 The soil of tin untry furnished the best materials. the climate preserved them, and instead of blackening them, as the

Northern fogs blacken our edifices, it gave them the warmest and

richest tints. To \\w> we add that the sculptor and the painter had

ire their eyes the most beautiful race the world has ever seen,

and that they found in the ambitious desire of each people to have their city more finely adorned than an\ of its rivals, the encour

incut of which talent has n 1. Until the time of Alexander, artists

worked for the State oi foi the conquerors in the Olympic Gai and very rarely for private individuals.

Thus in respect to plastic beaut} we remain pagan, worshippers of the dead gods, -lain by reason hut restored by art to their immor-

tality what sculptors have we who are not pupils of the great ; sculptors of Athen-. of Sikyon, or of Pergamon? And from London

to Vienna, from St. Petersburg to Madrid, what architecture to the

presenl daj is not derived from Olympia or the Parthenon ? What

new art ha- the world created in two thousand years? The Middle

• had the Byzantine dome which the Mast built, — and still keeps,

on account of its climate, — and the pointed arch, the monumental

iety no longer existing, — hence itself oi ephe-

meral character. Modern time- have music — the your oi the

though it now l- and painting, which would have

i M antiquity if the works of Zeuxis and Parrhasias GENERAL SUMMARY. 56] had not perished. Is not, in truth, the great Platonic teaching. — that the true, the beautiful, and the good should be united and blended in one universal harmony. — still our own, notwithstanding the efforts of certain schools of brief duration ?

This worship of the beautiful, which was a second religion in Greece, was serviceable to its industries, capable as they are, in a part of their domain, of showing symmetry in form, and harmony in color. While the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians exported to the maritime cities of the western Mediterranean products simply useful, and manufactured articles in which there was not a trace of genius, the Greeks sold everywhere objects quite as much of artistic as of commercial value. Their pottery, their bronzes, even their coins, bore the stamp of a refined taste which survived in them the loss of liberty. When Athens was no more than a school of rhetoricians, and Corinth only a heap of ruins, the Greeks, becoming the dealers in art to the Roman world, saved, by their copies, the glory of the ancient masters. But because they had no vast empire like the Romans, they neither made military roads nor built triumphal arches, — the one a necessity, the other a pride to victorious nations, — nor were they familiar with the art of mosaic, the delight of the opulent class, 1 nor did they need aqueducts of colossal structure, as populous cities do ; and the amphitheatres whose ruins we admire, forgetting that their soil has been soaked in blood, are all Roman.

VIII.

I)oulitIi'.-s there are reservations to be made in our praise of Greek civilization: a poetic religion, but without moral influence; the family constituted very in imperfectly ; the rights of property

-''ure; notwithstanding a mental development of great brilliancy, the moral nature often vi\ dark. — in contrasl with Rome, where the strength wae generally nol of intellect, bul of character; in the best days of the country, a lack of security, a frequent perfidy, and

1 At lead ire know of no Greek mosaici in the tin i indi pi ndencc but Pi rgamon and Alexandria were acquainted wiili ilii- art, which pained over to Rome, and became of great '!" Importance daring Empire. Se< Hi • Rome, ,/ VOL IV HISTORY OF GREECE. civil wars, with their usual results, — banishment, confiscation, and blood shed in torrents ; in her evil "lays, a depravity so to shocking thai modern language has no words describe it ; and always and everywhere the open wound of slavery, with all the miseries which it brings- Man\ evils arc those from which Greece suffered, and of which history makes mention. Bui as the distance broadens, and we look down from a greater height, these shadows

lose themselves in the light : Demades disappears, Demosthenes remains: AJkibiades is effaced by Perikles; the Athens of Sophokles conceals thai of Alexis, the city of Leonidas thai of Nabis ; and to Greek vices are opposed heroic and honorable friendships.1 We count no longer the evils for which Greece paid so dearly in her laborious existence, we see only her great legacy to the world.

• Remember," wrote Cicero to his brother, " that you rule over the Greeks, who have civilized all nations by teaching them gentleness and humanity, and Koine owe- to them the enlightenment which she now poss< 3ses." a Montesquieu was indeed right: ••This antiquity enchants me.

' and I am always readj to sa \ with Pliny : You are going to Athens,

— respect her gi ids. Raphael, wishing to paint Greece, composed the immortal work.

'/'/>, School of Athens. Under those porticos, buill by Dctinos or Pheidias, behold Sokrates laying the foundations of the dogmas of human morality: Plato and Aristotle opening to philosophy its two

it paths ; Pythagoras revealing the properties of numbers ; Vrchimedes applying them: and the illustrious crowd who gather

around the master- to receive and transmit their words. Give life

; it ; masterpiece of the greatest painter in the world, and. like

history, you will regard with love those heroes oi thought, you will

listen with rapture tu their voices, musical or severe, and you will saj

that the ancient Greeks, notwithstanding their faults and their mis-

ines, made the most glorious stage in the progress of humanity.

1 Winn in nut holding hi Greece the place she has been able to win for herself in modern

ide from her, man) ties, differing in their character. Petran b,

like mini ni the Sokratii school " Friendship i« the most

n il>- world .ift<;r virtue." I'nJr hwnaiiitas, doctritia, putantmr. GENERAL SUMMARY. 563

It will be permitted me. in writing these last lines, to felici- tate myself that my life has been prolonged sufficiently to enable me to complete a task, undertaken more than forty years ago, of divine; to French historic literature two works which it lacked,

— the history of the life of Rome during twelve centuries, and that of ancient Greece until the loss of her independence. Later, there will be better work done. I at least, in the measure of my ability, have opened the road, and have attested the gratitude which France, the most direct descendant of Rome and of Athens, owes to the two nations that have stamped her genius with an ineffaceable imprint. To-day, bending under the weight of years, but without taking leave of literature, the great consoler,

I repeat the words of the aged Entellus, —

Hie caestus artemque repono.

1 Marble statue in the Capitol (from Clarac, Musee de Sculpture, pi. 767, No. 1,894).

Ii is impossible to determine the appropriate name for this statue. The left hand, with the serpent's head, and the right with the fragment of a spear, are modern restorations.

' QfHOB i m I I Y Note. — In closing this work, the Author desires to thank for their assistance — M. Babelon, of the Cabinet de France, for coins, which often establish facts, political, military, and religious, or are objects of art, and illustrate, by their diversity, the fecundity of the Greek mind : and M. B. Baussonllier, of the Ecole det Hautes Etudes, for engravings which show the masterpieces of European museums, and whose explanation has brought the archaeological portion of this history to the level of the discoveries of the French School .it Athens, which, though young, has done good work.

Also to M. Salomon Reinach, of the Museum oi Saint-Germain, is due a debt of gratitude for his kindness, which has been extremely serviceable to me. in making a final re-reading of the proofs. GENERAL INDEX.

;

GENERAL INDEX.

A BAI, in Phokis, oracle of, ii. 256. Adeimantos, Corinthian general in the Median •£*• Abantidas, tyrant of Sikyon, iv. 317. wars, ii. 451.

Abbott, Evelyn, his History of Greece, i. 17. Admetos, Thessalian king, i. 216, 332.

Abdera, founded by a colony from Teos, ii Adonis, Phoenician divinity, iii. 71, 316, 319,

270; birthplace of Demokritos, iii 158 ; 445.

sacked by the Romans, iv. 433 Adramyttion, a city of Mysia, iv. 129.

Abydos, a colony of Miletos, ii. 173, 434-, 439; Adrapsa, iv. 174.

iii. 368 ; iv. 382. Adrasteia (Nemesis), iii. 12 and note.

Academy, gardens near Athens where Plato Adrastos, Argive king, i. 222, 379-80.

taught, iii. 105 note, 618 and note. Adrastos, grandson of Midas, ii. 246-55. Adultery, Achaia, i 131, 139; ii. 58; iii. 276, 587, 598. in the heroic age, i. 299-300 ; laws

Achaian League, hated by Athens and Sparta, of Drako concerning it, 521 and note; laws

i. 95 ; its character, 96; question of obliga- of Solon, 275 note.

tion to it on the part of its members, 95-99 iEgaean Sea, i. 151, 177, 183.

its conflict with Rome, 101 ; iii 314-466 Aeropos, descendant of Temeuos, iv. 10,

(chapter xxxv.) ; originally a confederation 11.

of Aigialeia, 314; consolidated by A rains Agamemnon, his supposed tomb, i. 190;

and the addition its chief of Sikyon, 317-23; of the Greeks in the Trojan war, 241-8 ;

constitution, 322-8 ; its success, 330 ; the his death, 262 ; funereal games in his honor,

only power that could save Greece, 334-5 ; 279.

strife with Sparta, 342-9; hostilities with the Agamemnon, drama of Aischylos, iii 16.

Aitolian League, 352-3 ; interference of Agarista, daughter of Kleisthcnes of Sikyon,

Ion in its affairs, 354-6; strengthened ii. 73-1.

by Phflopoimen, 381-2, Mis. (09-12; broken Agathokles, son of a potter of Rhegion, iv.

up by the Romans. 155-67 iv 455-466' 506; becomes tyrant of Syracuse, 508; makes I his Achaians, of tin- heroic age, i. 107 el seij.; with war on Carthage, 510 ; disasters in Sicily,

them bi"_'iiis Greek history, 197; their resist- 512 ; Ins death, 513 I I

ance to the Dorian Invasion, 279; subjugated Agathokles, son of the tyrant of Syracuse, iv.

bj the Roman*, iv. (55-66 513

Achalos, son of Xantha i. 193 Agathokles, son of Lvsimaelio.s, iv 302.

i Acbarnal, the most important of the Attic Agathon, Irei i poet, iv 16

demoi, iii Ageladan b i of I'heidias,

Achamiana, a comedy of Aristophanes, iii. 79, Myron, and Polykleitos, ii 19s; iii. 157. Agelaos, of Nanpaktos, iv 377.

Acheloos, the river, i L31 2, 135, 288. Agenor, kiu^' of Tyre and Bidon, i Mis

Achilleus, non of Peleua and Thetis, i 198, Agenor. father of Europa, iii, I 19

'! 211 !S7 Agesllaoa, chosen king of Sparta, iii. 492 ; his

'."''' : Achradina. a quarter of Syracusi iii expedition into \ ia M inoi , 504 8; in the Corinthian war. 514; hi^ struggle against

Aclliim Olabrio, Roman consul, sent ag Thebes, 58?, i-fl 598; his

Antioohos, king of Syria, iv. 103, 416 death m I , ;

GENERAL INDEX.

Agesilaoa, a Spartan orator, his part in the Aigion or Aigeion. place of meeting of the

reforms projected bj Agis, iv. 339, 340, 341. Acliaian assembly, iv I, Agesipolis kin;: of Sparta, takes Mantiucia, Aigira. enters the Achaiau League, iv. 317

iii. ; Ins .leatli, 533 537. Aigistheus. i 241. 262.

Agesipolis in., chosen iv king of Sparta, Aigospotamoi. naval battle of, iii. 3S8-90. Aigys, city of Lakouia, subjugated by Sparta.

Agesistrate, mother of Agis, iv. 33S, 341. i 476.

Agiatis. wife of Agis. afterwards wife of Kleo- Aineia. colony of Corinth, ii. 130.

menes, iv. 341. Aineias, i. 946, 252. 861.

Agis I., son of Eurysthenes, founder of one of Aiolian dialect, i. 196; migration, ii. 114-16 race, the royal houses of Sparta, i 437. a blending cf various tribes, i. 195-6, Agis II., king of Sparta, defeats the Argives at 506.

Aiolis, I leia, iii. 898 \ ravages Attika, 348; is 114.

repulsed by the Athenians in an attack on Aiolos, god of the winds, i 350.

their city. 361-2; is succeeded by his son Aiolos, descendant of Dcukalion, i. 193.

laOS, f92. Aipytos. Spartan king, i. 47S-9.

Agis IV., king of Sparta, iv. 338-41 ; Ins Airopos, descendant of Temenos, iv, 10, 11.

fruitless attempts to re-establish the insti- Aischines, Athenian orator, the rival of Demos-

tutions of Lykourgos, iv. 338-9; his death, thenes, h 7\ 82, 83, 98, goes inlo voluu tary 341; lu's work carried forward by Kleomenes, exile, 223 ; Ins death, 943,

341-9. Aischylos. son of Euphoriou, i. 147. 337. 343,

Agnon, son of Nikias, founds Amphipolis, ii 354, 375; wounded at Marathon, ii 416:

588. the poet of the Median wars, 196 ; defeated

Agonides. Athenian orator, accuses Pliokion, by Sophokles at the Great Dioi ysia, iii. 9; iv -253. 237. his tragedies, 10-20, 450 note.

Agora, place of assembly of the Athenian peo- Aisymnetes, ii. S6.

ple, i. 288, 543-4. Aitne, Sicilian city. iv. 4S3, 485.

Agorakritos. sculptor, pupil of Phcidias, ii. Aitolia, i 129, 196.

419; iii. 107. Aitolian League, confederation of the cities of by Agrigentum (Akragas), colony of Gcla, ii. 138, kitolia: hated Athens, i. 93; hostile to 896-7; ui 158, 303, 307, 30*, 330, 337; the Romans, 100; its value to Greece, 100- iv. 1 taken bj the Carthaginians, 475- 101; 327-9; its struggle with the Achaian

League. is 80; retaken by Dionyaios nl' Syracuse, 488 353-6 ; broken up by the Romans, J

opens its g I ii, 500; under Agatho- KM

kles. 508-9. Akamantis fan Athenian tribe), iii. 105.

Aiakidai, descendants of Aiakos, i. 515. Akanthos, in the lVloponm sian War. iii 275,

Aiakos, son of Zeus, i 1S2, 21 f

Akarnania, i Alas, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, i. 2 1 f. 135, 978) ii 563; iii, 237. 961, Ins death, 256. 518, 556.

i. 136, i\ - Aias, sun of Oilcus, king of I.nkris, i. 246, 263 Akarnanians, 39] note, III! Aias -liyhis. iii. 28.

Aichinos, occupied by Philip of Macedon, w Akoria, king of Egypt, iii 566; iv 199

101. Akrisios. Argive kins. i. 9<

.' Aietes, kins of Kolchis, i Akrokorinthos. n I

6, 9 and nolf. Akropolis of Athens, i. 189, Iff. 169, 172

is,". '.'1 Aigeus, father of Theseus, i. 172. 909, 910 188 note; iii 106, LIS

Aigialein Akrotatos king of Sparta, ii ' ;

i Aigidai. Thehan family, i 993 itolf. Aktaion, 170

Aigila. rilv ,,f |, !'i| Akte. promontory in Attika.

Aign . Alea intf.

temples, Aietes. Ilerakleid. first Dorian knit; of Corinth, enters Alrn.xi.ii i I • i\ frightfully in ;;

GENERAL INDEX. 569

Alexander " 1, king of Macedon, the Phil- return to Athens, 355-01; commands the helieue," son of Amyntas I., brings inform- Athenian fleet at Kyzikos. 368-76 ; again ation to the before Greeks Plataia, 11. 4S5 bauished from Athens by the Thirty, he es- his friendship for the Athenians, iii. 12-1-1. capes to Thrace and Asia, 381; his death, Alexander II., king of Macedon, sou of 403.

Ainyntas II., kmg of Macedon, called into Alkidamas, the Sophist, ni. 434.

Thessaly by die Aleuadai, iii. 5S4. Alkiuoos king of Phoiakiaus, i. 264-06. Alexander III., the Great, king of Macedon, Alkmaionidai, Athenian family, i 27S, 510,

his period neglected by English i. historians, 520; then- exile aud return, ii. 20-2S. 82; Grote's judgment of him unfair, 82-3; Alkman, Lydian poet, receives citizenship originator of a new form of civilization, 83-6 ; from Sparta, ii. 203. his claims to divine ancestry, 87-8 ; son of Alkmene, mother of Herakles, i. 205, 300, Philip and Olympias, iv. 115; his edueatiou 353

and tutors, 116-19 ; his campaigns in Greece, Aloides, i 341

120-27; his conquests in Asia, 12S-94 Alopekonnesos, iv 97.

battle of the Grauikos, 134-7 ; battle of Alphabet, the i. Greek, 171 note; ii. 1S5-6 ;

Issos, 145-9 : conquests in Phoenicia and iii. 40S note

Syria, 149-52; conquests in Egypt, 154-S Alpheus. a river of Elis, i. 132, 138-9.

battle of Arbela, 162-5; occupation of the Alyattes. Lydian king, ii 237-41.

Persian capitals, 165-S ; campaigns in Bak- Amaryuthos, amphiktyony at, ii 307.

triana and Sogdiana, 174-190; expedition Amasis, king of Egypt, ii. 162, 272, 2S3.

into India, 190-94 ; his return to Babylon, Amastris, niece of Darius, iv 2.

194-206 ; his death, 209 ; result of his vic- Amathous, i. 373.

tories, the diffusion of Hellenism, 209-14. Amazons, the, i 174, 201, 203 and note. 210; Alexander Aigos, son of Alexander the Great visit of their queen to Alexander, iv. 177.

and Roxana, iv. 265-7, 269, 274-5. Ambrakia, Corinthian colony, ii. S3. So, 133;

Alexander, son of Kassandros, iv. 299-300. occupied by the Macedonians, iv. 111.

Alexander, son of Polysperchon, iv. 272. Ambrakiots, the, ni. 509.

Alexander the Molossian, king of Epeiros, Ameinias, brother of Aischylos, at Salamis, ii.

iv. 370 588

Alexander, tyrant of Phcrai, ui. 583, 585, 589, Amisos, founded by Mdetos, ii 17-'i. 590.

iv :'>7. Ammon. the oracle of, consulted by Alkibiades,

Alexandreia ( Alexandria), in Egypt, iv. 154-5, in. 311 , visited by Alexander, iv. 157 and

Alexandreia (Herat), iv 173 Amphiaraos, the soothsayer, i. 293.

Alexandreia (Kandahar), iv. 174 note. Amphiktyon, one of t lie successors of Kikrops,

Alexandreia ( Khodjend), iv. 177. i. 172; institutes tin- Amphiktyonic Council,

Alimnestos, I he Spartan, kills Mardonios at ii. 308.

a. li. 539. Amphiktyonic Council, its origin and char-

Aliphera, iv. 3S9 no/?. acter, ii. 308-18; proposition to exclude some

Staiis it. Alkaios, poet of Mylilrnr, i 460; ii. 8, 180, k from 507; condemns the

SOS .'77 irtans for seizure of the Theban citadel, iii.

Alkamenes, king of Sparta, i 476. 573, quarrel of Thebes ami Phokis before

iv. 5^-01 Alkamenes. the sculptor, in 108, 1 the Council, ; condemns the 1'ho- Alkestu. wife of Admel 210 kians, 84; makes Philip ol Macedon a mem-

Alketaa, king of EpeirOB, allies himself with ber ami presiding offict r, 84 5; an. I gi .

' tin- I a, king of Thenar/, in 550, 557, of Council's army, 99; convoked at Ther-

Alketaa. king of Man-don, iv 136. im.|i\ '.I. i.v Uexander, 121

Alkibiades. , of Mimas, his brilliant quali Ampbilochiana, i 136

lies, tin- \tiiii, Amphion dcaccndaiil of Eadmoa, i 170, SC

a - \lli. ns. n :,SS, .. send an expedition into Sicily, 309 I Ainphipolia.

demoed at Athena, Ik- takes refuge at Sparta, c Peloponni ian nat iii 270.

f| - by 'i.'i; i irr>-ls with Sparta 359 I at the conquered Philip ol Mace

1 court of TSaaapbernea, 354; Ins intrignea to ; 'i 31,39 1

GENERAL INDEX.

'.'0, Amphissa. taken by Philip of Macedon, h . Antenor, Trojan prince, emigrates to 1'

3 after the fall of Troy, i 261, 263.

Amphitryon, i Anthela, plain of, meeting-place of the Am.

Amyklai. nt ihr time of tlir Dorian invasion, phiktyons, ii. 308.

176. Anthesteria, floral festival in honor of Diony-

Amynandros. king of the Athamaniaus, hostile sos, i. 518; ii. 339; iii. 130.

Philip, iv. 388 ; his share in the spot Antidosis. n 60S and note his son claims the crown of Antigenes, chief of the Afgrraspides, put to

ii by Antigonos, [v. 263, 264>

Amyntas I k [on, IV 11,13. Antigone, daughter of Oidipous, i. 221, 223.

iv. Amyntas II., k 1 1 l: of Maccdon, 19. Antigone, tragedy of Sophokles, ii. 29-3,

Amyntas. P rdikkas, pul to death by Antigoneia. in Arkadia, built on the site of

A exander, iv 119. M n.tiiieia. iv MIT note.

Amyntor, kinc ol Orchomer Antigonis. kthens, named in honor of

Auakeion, icmplr of the Dioskouroi al Athens, Antigonos, ii

m. 105, I Antigonos. governor of Phrygia, one of the

Anakreon of Teos, ii. 16, 206; iii. 166. gen Uexander the Great, iv 219;

Anaktorion. founded bj Corinth, ii. 83 hostile- to Antipatros, 230; hostile to Poly-

in the Peloponnesian war, iii. 237, sperchon, 251, 269, 263-4; assumes the title 281. of king, 286; death.

Anaphlystos, Attic demos, i 278, 515. Antigonos Doson, kin"; of Maccdon. grand-

Anapos. r ver of Sicily, iii. 329, 33). son of Demetrios I'oliorkctcs, iv. 334 and note, Anaxagoras of Klazomenai, Ionian philoso- 346-5

pher, ii 223; so is d ol impiety, goes into Antigonos Gonatas. Vuvz of Macedon. - in

doctrine, iii. 165, 160—72. of D imetrios Poliorketes, i 91-8; iv. 414—15. iil-b. 305, 312, 333.

Anaxibios, Spartan admiral, iii. 483 Antikirrha. iv. 381,

Anaxilaos. tyrant of Rhi 17, iii- 302. Antilion. - tidier of the Ten Thousand, iii ;

Anaximandros of Klazomenai, philosopher, Antiochos I, Soter, kins of Syria, iv ' ii 219-20 and 223. Antiochos III., king of Syria, ally of Philip, iv.

Anaximenes of Lampsakos, Ionian philoso- I d into <: -1 the Romans,

pher, ii. 220 an I, 102-3; defeated and driven away. f

Andania \ i istomenes, i. Iv Antiope, mother of Amphion and Setbos, i Andokides. Athenian orator hostile to Alki

'• 1 Antipatros, Macedonian -.in ! - general, iv. Ill and

Andriskos. claims the succession to Perseus. note . governs Macedon during Alexander's expedition into Asia, 133, 171-2; victorious

Androkleides, Theban chief at Athens, iii. over tin' Athenians at Krannon, 934; ap-

pointed regent of Macedon, 256 . his death, Androkles. Athenian oral- 30n. Andromache, widow of Hektor, i 261, Antipatros, son of Kassandros, iv 299-300.

Antiphilos. SUi ' r the bat

Andromeda, dehvered by Perseus, i tie dd to be in the

Audros. I iii one of the 177, 588 ;

Antiphon, oligarchical leader at Allien-, insti

Androsthenes. sculptor, in. 16 ivernincnt of the Four Hundred, iii.

AnimaN lor their protection, i 161 and ' 367 and note

Antiphon. victim of Dionysioe 9 ." Ant., ns 17-8. 198

Antalkul i • Antisna. destroyed by the B Antisthenea. philosopher, founder of the

( !j uic school, in 105 note, I

Antandros. h .10. Anytoa (I he lame ) 3ol 167 GENERAL INDEX. 571

Acmes, a Pelasgian tribe, i. 162. Architheoria, ii. 004.

Aornos, in Paktriana, iv. 171. Archon-king, his functions, i. 517; ii. 339.

Apelles, the painter, iv. 617. Archons, ii 520, 616, 618 et seq.

Aphlaston, iii. 368 note. Archytas of Tarentum, ii. 143-4, 231.

Aphrodite (the Roman Venus), i. 182, 317, Areiopagos, the, instituted by Kekrops, i.

li. 313, 316 ; 651 and note ; of Jlelos, iii. 3s0, 167 ; re-established by Solon, 533, 549 ; its 610; of Knidos. iv. 002. functions, 538-40; importance lessened by

Aphrodite Lamia, hetaira, receives a temple, Ephialtes, ii. 545-48.

iv. 283. Ares, Thracian divinity, i. 159-60; becomes

Apia, ancient name of tlie Peloponnesos, i. 242. the god of war of the Greeks, 331, 346.

Apis, Egyptian divinity, iv. 153 and note. Arethousa, the nymph, i. 132.

Apollo, divinity of Asiatic origin, i. 160 ; one Arethousa, a spring in Sicily, ii. 135.

of the great gods of Greece, 331-5, 341, 346, Areus, king of Sparta, iv. 310, 312, 337,

354; ii. 61, 96, 121, 158; iii. 130. 338.

Apollo, laurel-tree of, i. 129 and note. Argaios, king of Macedon, iv. 11, 19, 23, 25.

Apollo, Didymaian, temple of, ii. 194; iv. Arganthonios, king of Tartessos, ii. 153.

614 note, 618. Argeia, a sterile part of Argolis, ii. 158.

Apollo Epikourios, temple of at Phigaleia, Arginousai, battle of, iii. 3S4-7.

s iii 115. 17 ; i\. 599 and note. Argives, i. 440

Apollo. Gryneian, temple of, ii. 167. Argo, the ship of the Argonauts, i. 129, 224.

Apollo, Lykian, temple of, ii. 125. Argolis, i. 133, 139-40, 156, 171, 187, 209,

Apollo Patroos, iii. 014. 211, 241, 278; ii. 5S-02 ; iii. 26S, 297.

Apollo Saurokthonos, iii. 608. Argonautic Expedition, i. 223-31.

Apollo Spodios, altar at Thebes, i. 423. Argonauts, the, a cyclic poem, i. 231.

Apollo. Triopian, temple of, ii. 167. Argos, capital of Argolis, i. 167, 171, 187, 277,

Apollodoros, Athenian general, iii. 94. 500; ii. 40, 60, 520, 545, 576; iii. 157, 299,

Apollonia, in Chalkidike, iii. 534; iv. 74; in 323, 509 ; supports the Arkadians, 590 ; its

Epelros, ii. 133; in Illyria, ii. 133, 372, 380, territory increased by Philip of Maeedon, iv. Macedonians, 120 159 ; in Libya, ii. 157. 110 ; revolt against the ; Apoxyomenos, work of the sculptor Lysippos given up I" the tyrant Nabis, 389. silver iii. 617 Argyraspides, "soldiers of the shield,"

Appius Claudius, iv. 411. guard of Alexander, iii. 131 ; iv. 132, 262.

Xerxes, ii. Apries, Egyptian king, ii 283. Ariabignes. brother of 172.

Minos, i. 210. Arabians, the, ii. W3 Ariadne, daughter of

iii. Aratos, his unpatriotic action, i. 99 ; founder Ariaios, general of Cyrus the Great, 474, of the Achaian League, enfranchises Sikyon, i;;. i78. Ariarathes, kin;,' of Kappadokia, iv. 221. iv. 317-22 ; his wars against tyrants and the

Ariobarzanes, satrap of 1'hiygia, iii. 584; iv. 330-34 ; defeated by the Aitolians,

.") 854; ally and adviser of Philip 111.. 309. I

- Arion. ol mna, ii. 201-2. ; Ins death and t'n iic r;i 1 honors, 379 Uetb)

Arbela, battle of, iv 162-5. Aristagoras, ii. 399, 102. iv. 408, 409. Ar'.hagathos, son of Agathokles, iv. 513, Aristainos, the Achaian, 397 note,

iv Aristarchos, the Athenian, iii. 305-7. Arobelaoa, kingof Macedon, iii. 52 ; 15—16 ii. 424-6, Archiaa, tbc descendant of Temenos, P Aristeides, rival ol Themjstokles, 619, 661 ISI :. |35 517, 619, 523,

Aristeides, n painter, iv. M56, nott Archias, Tbeban leader, iii 538 ; bis death, 539.

• the pay of Cyrus, Archidameia, grandmother ol II poB, Thcssalian, m

Archidameia, Spartan heiress, iv 311. in V,

philosopher, iii, 619. Archidamos II., kin'.' of Sparta, ii 539; iii Atistippos, the

AriBtippoB, tyrant of IrgOS, IV. 881 ..'.

Berakleids, i. 271, I AriBtodemoa, one of the ArchidamoB III., ing ol Bparta, i

i, Archilochos, of P 104-5 i

Architecture 110: AriBtodemoB, the Messenian i I H. iv 560 AiiHtogoitoii, tyrannieidi ' k;

GENERAL INMA

Aristokrates II krkadia, i. 192, Artemis Simnatis, temple of, i 178, 179

Artemisia, queen of Karia, at Salamis, ii Aristomenes, Messenian hero. 472-3

- Ariston. the Aitolians, iv. o.~> 1. Artemision, sea-fighl of, ii. 450-53.

Aristonikos. irator, 11 840. Arthetauros, Illynan chief, iv. 685, Aristophanes, son poet. of Pliilipp Aryandes. Persian governor of Egypt, ii

leaian democracy, Li. 653-6] . 284.

- -69 ; ln>- ridicule of the myths Arymbas. brother of Ohmpias. iv. 115.

his principal work-. 76-86 Asandros. Macedonian general, iv. 219.

Aristotle. Ins political theories, i. 61, 66-7, 76 - Asklepios. i. 227. 311, 349 note, 420; his the physician Nikomaclios of Si statue at Epidauros, ii. 1

principal events nf Ins life, iii. 632-5 Askouris, a i i.irsh iv. ; pro- in Thessaly, 439.

IS mental activity. Ins 635-7 ; principal Asopos. n H impared with Plato, 638-42; Aspasia, of Mlletos, her relations with Perikles, Ins political theories. 642-3. i 661, 663 and note.

Arkadia, its geographical position, i. 138-9, Assembly, the public, of Sparta, l. 451; of

i'M ; n. 19-54; its development afl Athens, .")i:i-i">; abolished by the oligarchy,

battle of Lenktra, iii. 568-73 ; hostilities >7-8

with Sparta, 580; sent - Olympia, 589-92; Assembly of Women (Ekkletuuouzai),

- an importanl S • from Mace- ii dj of Aristophanes, iii. 7'J.

don, IT. Assos, on the gulf of Adramyttion, ii. 115 ; iv.

Arkadians, in the Second Messenian War. i friendly W7-S . to Sparta, tii 291 Assyria, its civilization, ii. 181-2.

Arkas firsl king of Arkadia, n. 53. Assyrians, the. i. 151.

Arkesilaos II., king of Kyrene, ii. 283 Astakos, in Akarnania, iii. 223.

Arkesilaos IIL, king of Kyrene, ii. 284. Astarte. Phoenician goddess, i 329; ii. 289.

Arnauts or Albanians, i 159 and note. Astyages, Median king, it. 212.

Arne. in Thessaly, I. 271 and note. Atalanta, i. 21 1.

Arnold. Thomas, Ins History of Greece, I. 19- Athamas. father of Helle. i. 196, 223.

20 Athene, i 251, 259 note, 871 ; her temple in s Arrhidaios. half-brother of Alexander the 95 . her statue on the Akropolis,

iv. . proclaimed "217, . 78 note ; king, 100, 124 temple on C Soun on, L07 ;

I statue 246, 253; put I opias, 26G of wood the mosl ancient imag

Arses, king of Persia, iv. 131. the goddess, 10s 9j colossal statue in tlie

Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy Soter and wife Parthenon, 125-6; tempi. >l ["eg i 613

ol Lysimachos, iv 301. Athenians, contrasted with Spartans

their . Art, Greek, its influence, i IM-lfi; in the r, ii 52 1-30.

I Athens, . eek colonies, opposi afederations, L

' \": i 1 n. 190 99 • as, iii 92-1 19; elsewhere iphical position of, 1 19, W,

s s ." in Greece, l .">-'.H; id the later period of L58, 167, 172, I ; victorious in the Median

war-, n 395 Ii" uiiiler Pel I 664

Artabanos, brother of Darius, ii 133 W her literature in the tifll nturv B. c . in. Artabazos, - .'r.i|i of Ivithyina. n t'.H her art. 92-149; struggle with

Attihaios Pbrygia, ii in the Peloponnesian war, 197-283; oligar

Artaphernes, satrap of ' ehie.il revolution. 356-60; decline in her

I power after the Sicilian expedition, defeat at

- > x Artaxerxes I, I I' >9; i H>9. potamoi and subjection to

r the Peloponnesian war. anil under II Artaxerxo the Thirty T< I HO; her hnstiliti to •' Art vut'-i Philip of Macedon iv. '-7 ten. ; in tl

A.t. . :t;,i mli of I ntrc

AitTn,, | \

r ' Artcml« IjfMrk'iplu v" M Allies Mmmt \ | mil through, ii IS

x Atiini i VI - l ;

GENERAL INDEX. 573

Atlas, Mauretanian kiug, changed into a moun- Bias of Priene, one of the Seven Sages, ii. 213.

tain, i. 201; or Titan, 263, 337. 215. 241, 270-71.

Atossa, Persian queen, mother of Xerxes, li. Birds, the. of Aristophanes, in. 326.

497-S , lii. 19. Bithynians, the, i. 159.

Atrax, Thessaliau city, iv. 38S. Boiotarchs, Boiotiau chief magistrates, ii. 92.

Atxeids (Atreidai), i. 241. Boiotia, i. 134. 503 137, 111, 169, 186, 196, ;

Atreus, sou of Pelops, i. 178, 211, 211-2. 274 n S9-96, 256-7, 259, 272, 296, 297; iii. Attalos, Macedonian general, iv. Ill, 119. 541-13.

Attika, i. 129, 131. 133, 137. 139, 141, 112, Boiotos, the hero, i. 271

111. 150, 171, 171. 1S2. l->7. 278, 501, 507- Bolg, a Gallic chief, iv 306. 516. Bounarbachi modern village on the site of

Atys, son of Crcesus, ii. 216-55. Tioy('r). i. 152 note, 235.

Augias, l. 207. Boreas, i 215.

Aulis in Boiotia, i. 131, 213. Bosporos, Kimmerian, its relations with

Aurora, sroddess of the dawn, i. 215. Athens, ii. 590.

Autokles, Athenian orator, in. 559-60. Boukephalia, city founded by Alexander, iv. Axieros. Axiokersa, Axiokersos. Sanio- 194. 19s.

ihoracian Kabciroi, ii. 351-2. Boularchos, Ionian painter, ii 195.

Branchidai, oracle of, h. 267 ; massacre of the

Greek inhabitants of by Alexander, iv. 177 "D ABTLON, occupied by Alexander, iv. 166 : "^ Brasidas. Spartan general, worshipped after his return thither, 206 ; his local improve- his death, i. 37S ; campaigns of, 447; iii.

ments, 207-8 : his death there, 209. 223, 238, 240. 261, 273-80 ; honors paid his Bacchanalia, ii. 332-9. memory, 281. Bacchantes, u. 339 Briseis, i. 216. Bacchantes, tragedy of Euripides, iii. 52. Brundusium, iv. 169. Bagoas, iv 131 Bruttians, first mention of, ii. 296. Bakchylidas. ni. 303. Byzantion, ii. 5S0, 5S4; iii. 368, 372, 4S5, Bakis, the soothsayer, iii. 70. 486, 527 : iv. 91, 93-7. Baktria, iv. 174.

Baktriana, iv. 177

Barathron, Athenian prison, ii. 35 and note, CARTHAGE, i 143; ii. 139-40, 166; wars

130 with Sicily, iii. 302; iv. 471-90.

Bardylis, king of Illyria. iv. 19. 25. Cato, advises that the Achaiau exiles be sent

Barke, n. L57, 176, 2-1. home, iv t58.

Barsine, daughter of Darius, wife of Alexander, Centaurs (Kentauroi), i. 215.

iv. 203 note. Chabnas, Athenian general, iii 553, 555, 559; Barsine, widow of liemnon of Rhodes, iv. 216 iepts service in Egypt, 56S; his death, iv,

Bastarnai, tribe of, iv. 420, 429 Chaironeia, in the Peloponnesian war. ii, 90;

viri' i Ki3-4. I p of Macedon, Batis I 153. h

Bathykles, .,1 Hagni .r, ii, 197. ChalkeJon, in 373, 527.

Battiadai, ruling house of Kyrene, ii. 283, 281. Chalkidians, ii 111

1")") Battos I., founded Kyrene, ii 154, Chalkidike, ii 127; ill the Peloponnesian

Battos II, Hi' Fortunate, king of Kyrene, ii. w;ir, in 273-6, 292, 310; confederation of '> s i 15-7, 7

in i 111 , Battos m, tin- Lame, kiug of Kyrene, ii. 884. Chalkls, Buboia, ii, 37. 127; hos tility with Eretria, n 9' burned by

.i - il 202-3, 211 Roman offli I attacki bj the Bellerophon. i

iii. Aiicili 108, declared Roman territory, Bendin. I In tcian divinity, 71-

' Ml Bes divinity, i Chaonians. in Beanos, (trap of Baktriana if 100 ; killi

1 Chare*, ttheniai 83 7 ' 106. ! in Alexander, 178-4

Chares, iii ; ii 291 note. given up bj Bpitameni tli, 17; sculptor, 509 and » . ;;

574 GENERAL INDEX.

• Charidemos, Athenian general, iv. 37. 76, 127, Corinth, i 139, 271. 280; ii. 3!'. 62, 5 13ii. 143. 126, 127, 549, 555 . m. L53, 157. I'.''.).

- the Charilaos, nephew of Lykonrgos, king of . in Peloponnesian war. 237,

in Sparta, i 143, 144, 477. 261, 282, 291, 297; the Corinthian war,

Charites. the, li 96. 519-30; ally of Sparta against Bpameinon.

Clmmides. di-eiple of Sokrates. iii I das, 574, 579, 587, 588; seized by Ptolemy,

iv. ," t.> Charon, a Theban, iii. 27 ; bj Antigonos, -Wi . given the

Charon of Lampsakos, logographer, iii. 160 \ ria S96; destroyed bj Mummius, 461.

Corporations, at Athens, i. 129

Charondas. lawgiver of Katana and Khegiou, Corsica u . 307.

Coruncanius. iv :>72-5. ii 153; and of Tbourion, 591 Romanenvoj toTenta,

Charops, Epeirot chief, iv 387, 188 note. Cox, Sir G. his Hittoty of Greece, i- 33 note.

Charybdis, i Crcesus, king of Lydia, i. 358, 503, 57'J-bl

Cheiron (the Centaur), i. 198, 801. ii. 245-65.

Chersiphron. architect, iii Cumje ( Kyme), colony of Chalkis, ii- 99, 126,

Chersonesos. the Tanric, ii 170. 141, 1 I-' and note, 296; iii, 302, 380; ..

Chersonesos, the Thracian, i 206; ii 513; I'i'.t

in. 35. 1 1 Cunaxa. battle of. iii 173-0

Chileus, Tegean envoy in Sparta, assists the Curtius. Ernst, his History of Greece, i. 15,

v ii aians, ii 180 17. l-'i. 51, 112, L13

Chilon of Sparta, one of the Seven Sages, ii. Customs, paid at Athens, ii- 602.

213. Cyclades, i 123, 132, 111. 171

Chimaira tin, i. 203. Cyclic Poets, the, ii 15, 200.

Chios Ionian island, ii. 300, 351, 353, 372, Cyclopean Walls, i 181-90 and note, 191 turn ally of Athens, 185, 578; in the Cyclopes (Kyklopes), i Us. 1^7. 206, 264

I iii : iv. hi. Macedon, 651, 589 Cyprus, i 111. 156; 130, 279

41 ami not,-, 12, 157; taken bj Memnonof Cyrus the Great, Median king, conquers

Rhodes, 141. Lydia, n 258 ; his hostilities with Grresus, Choaspes. river in India, iv. IV) 261-."); subjugates the [onians, 265 v

Choirilos, Athenian poet, iii 9; at the court Cyrus the Younger, son of Darius II. and

.I Philip of Macedon, iv, 1 * Parysatis, succeeds Tissaphernea in Asia

Choragic monument erected by Lysikrates, Minor, iii 379, 383; his expedition against

i i 105. his brother Artaxerxes, 169-76; killed in the

Choregeia. important Iritoiirgta at Athens, ii. battle of Cunaxa, 176. 604

Chremyle. character in comedy, iii. 66.

Chromios. Argive warrior, i. .1(10. pvAIDALOS, i 1S2; ii. 195 *-^ Chronology, early Greek, i 33—42. Daimon of Sokrates, iii. 150-3.

Chryselephantine statues, in. 124-9. Daimons. definition of, i. 38

Chryses, pries! of Apollo, i 354, Damokreitos, Aehaian exili

Chiysopolis, in Bithynia, iii. 37-2. Damon, teacher of Perikles, ii :!•">. 560 and

Citizens, probable number at Athens, ii. 568

Danae. legend of, i JO

Clinton. Uemci, i. 8, 89 Danaides, i. 171.

Clouds, the, comedy of Aristophanes, ii Danaus, kin? of Egypt, i. 167, 171, 173.

Dancing, Greek, iii 1 I

; Coinage. Sol mi tsnre, Daphnous. eit\ of Phokis, i 1 1

moient, it. 183 ; of Athena in Diid.iiii.ins. i 159

... Darius I., -mi ol Hys( ispea king of Persia, ii

Colonics. Greek, I. 31 Colonists, their condition, Darius III (Codomannus), king of Pet

< ii Coloim ind. I at [ssos, 144-8 | bj Me\

Cono killed by tl ; ;

GENERAL INDEX. 575

Datames, satrap of Kappadokia, iv. 129. and note; on his return put to death bv

Datis, Median general, ii. 403, 413. Philip. 420-21.

Danlis, in Phokis, i. 161. Demetrios Phalereus, appointed by Kassan-

Death, belief of the heroic age concerning, i. dros governor of Athens, iv. 260 ; his admin-

385-97. istration, 278-S0 ; his exile, 2S3 note. Debts, abolition of, proposed by Agis IV. at Demetrios of Pharos, iv 372, 375, 376.

Sparta, iv 338 Demiourgoi, iv. 324, 327.

Deianeira, wife of Herakles, i. 20S. Demochares, nephew of Demosthenes, iv.

Deiuokrates, iv. 397 note, 411 2b 3.

Dekeleia, iu the Pelopounesian war, iii. 330, Democracy, Greek, its character, i. 47-8

3, 350, 367. condemned by literature, 57 ; modern, a s Delion, iu the Pelopounesian war, iii. -272. 27 . modified form, 65.

Delos, one of the Cyclades, i. 124, 210, 420; Demokedes of Krotona, iii. 182 and note.

centre of the confederation established by Demokrates, sculptor, iii. 599

Aristeides, ii. 518 ; its privileges given up to Demokreitos of Abdera, philosopher, iii. Athens, 572, 575-6; games instituted there 172-5. 415.

in honor of Apollo, iii. 259 and note; its Demonax, law-maker of Kyrene, ii. 284.

temple of Apollo. 550 note ; given up to Demos, the, i 45-9 ; character of Aristophaues,

Alliens, iv 306. iii. 60-63.

Delphi, i. 129 and note, 186, 420; remains out- Demosthenes, the general, at Sphakteria, iii.

side the Phokian confederation, ii 100-101 266; seizes Nisaia, 271-2; failure in the

Sicilian expedition, 336-45 ; his death, 346. its oracle, 256-7 ; consulted by Croesus, 256 ;

Demosthenes, the orator, i. by the Athenians, 447-9 . by Lysandros, 69-74, 76-8,

S 1 ; iv. note ; his industry, 491 : its temple, iii. 154 79— 49, 50 and

Delphinion, fort iu Chios, in 380-Sl. 50-51 ; made official orator, he opposes the

Delphos, Spartan leader of a colony, ii 122. designs of Philip, 51-4; his Philippics, 67- 74-6 Deluge of Deukalion, i 129, 192 and note. 72. S7, S8, 92 ; his Olynihiatu, ; induces

Demades, Athenian orator, hostile to Demos- Athens to succor Olynthos, 76 ; rivalry with

thenes, iv. 224, 230, 236,212 Aischines, 79—SI ; defeats Philip's designs upon the Demaratos, Spartan king, ii. 39, 406, 433. Peloponnesos and Akarnania, S8-90;

is saved bj his eloquence, 93-5 Demeter, i. 161. 241, 322, 343, 346; festivals Byzantion ; at the battle of Chaironeia, 104 and note; in Iiit honor at Athens, ii 349-51 ; legend

oration over the slain, 107. 109 ; oration On of, 355-69 ; her temple at Eleusis, iii. 107, 115. the Croien, 222-3; given up by Athens to honors Demetrias, taken by the Aitolians, iv. 400. Antipatros, 237 ; death, 240-41; paid

Demetnaa, a Dew tribe at Athens named in his memory, 241-2 ; last great Athenian, 243.

honor of Demetrioa Poliorketes, iv. 283. Derai, battle of, i. 188 iv. 14. Demetrios, sculptor, iii 599 Derdas, king ofOrestis,

schools at Eleusis, ii. Demetrioa Poliorketes, BOB 108, i. Derkitos, superintends

138 ; iv. 273; hiv campaign in Asia, 273-1; 650.

Derkyllidas, Spartan general, i. 457-8. welcomed in Athens, 280, 283 ; hi^ Cypr. after victory at Balamis as- Despots, Age of the (Grote's), i. 43-8; its x utility, sumes the title of kiiiL'. 2 6 ; siege of Rhodi s, 91.

K andros at Thermopylai, Destiny, Greek belief in, i 356 61.

292-3; bis marriage and popularity at Athens, Dexileos, Athenian, his monument, iii 510«or>.

initiation into the Greater and I. Dexippos, Spartan, i\. 176

Diagoras of Melos, poet, iii. 176. 115, 419 ries, 293-4; di I , 295 i

296-7; Dialects. Greek, ii- forbidden I I hens, in Mace-

i ">is; ii. not*, 683. don, prisoner in Diatetai, arbitrators, 631 Dikastn Sei Heliasts.

Biculus, i B9, l'»7 ; \\ 17') and Demetrios II. ion o( \> Diodorua

of Haoedon, iv. 333; his death, Diogenes of Apollonla, Ionian philosopher, Demetrios. on of Philip III .

in •• 149 i Rome, 119 175 - 1 . . 1

GENERAL IM>I.\

Diogenes. philosopher, born at Sinope, Dymaues, due tin Cynic of the tribe: i

in 158; vi-itf.l bj Alexander, iv. L91 16 1

1" 1 Diokles of Syracuse, lav-giver, iv. 1 1 - 7 Dyme. h 317, Dyrrachium Diomedes, Thracian king, | Epidamnos), colony of K

Diomedes, >..n ofTydeus, Aitolian king, i 246 ii 133; iii. 301-2; besieged bj the Ulyrians, Dion. Macedonian city, iv 1 »i iv 372; seaport of the Roman province of

Dion of Syracuse, iv. 149 Maced l.v.i.

Dionysia. festivals in honor of Dionysos, ii,

Dionysios of Phokis. ii. 103 TpCHEMOS, king ol I J—l Dionysios, tyrant >! Syracuse (the elder), in Egesta, Sicilian city, ii. 13

Egypt, early (ii i79; of obscure origin. i\ 180; becomes units in. u 157-04 ;

s "> ei of Syracuse, 180-5; his wars, l lur influence upon Greek art. 179-80 and Ptolemy 197 ; Ins death, 497 ; character, M'7-^ Eion. port of Dionysios, tyrant of Syracuse (the younger), Ainphipohs, ii. 531 ; iii. 27'i. 277.

his character, iv 199 j events

Hili. >00; withdraws to Corinth. 500, 501 Eira. Mount, i 193. Dionysos (identified with the Roman Bacchus), Ekbatana. io'i'iipn.1 bj Alexander, iv. 168. 349' Elateia, taken Philip of . 170, 331 and not,-. 343, and note; by Maeedon. iv 100;

Orphic divinity under the name of Iakchos, ii. 188-9.

375 : theatre of, at Athens, iii. 105 Elea, colony of Phokis, ii 1 18, 270; its school

philosophy, 222-3 in. Diopeithes, Athenian general, iv 91. of ; L58

Diophanes of Actaaia. friendly to Rome, iv. Eleians. the, iii. 282, 291, 519

397 '>' W9. Elektra, tragedy of Sophokles, ii 32. 393 note.

Dioryktos, channel of Lcukadia, 1. 13i>. Eleous, ii 513-1 1 ; iv 97

Dioskourias. Greek city in Asia, ii. 170, 175 Eleusis, i 137. 144. 18

Dioskouroi (Kastorand Polydeukes), i l--i*"> lamous Mysteries, iii. 355-7; the Thirty take

Dipoinos. Kretan sculptor, ii 75, 196 shelter at. W6-7.

Dirke. wife of Lykos, i. 142. Elis, I. 131, 139, 112. L67, 196, 277; ii. 5 1-7;

Dodona, i 121, 129, 186, 270, 293; its oracle, 77, 587, 589-92.

iii. 191 Elpinike, daughter of Miltiades, sister of

Dolopes, iv. 123 Kfmon. ii 122. 614.

Dorian colonists in Asia, ii. 121-9 Elymaians. a Macedonian tribe, iv. 6.

Dorians, i 195,269-81, 439, 178,516; ii. 63, Elymoi, Sicilian race, ii. 134

143, L54, Emathia, a Macedonian province, iv. 9. Doric Order of Architecture, most ancient Empedokles of Agrigentum. philosopher,

">, in Greece, iii ii 221 : iii 16] I To.

Dorieus, the Rhodian, iii 381 174.

Dorimachos, Aitolian strategOS, i\ 328, 353 Emporeion. founded by Massaba, ii 154.

Doris, i 129. 135. Emporion, in Peiraicus. iii, 51s noit, •

Doriskos. Xerxea at. ii G 607

Doros. descendant of Deukalion, i 1 Endymion. king of Kits, loved by Arlrini-

v Doryphoros.l'.imniisworki'l Polykleitos, iii. 1 7

Drako. Athenian archon and law-maker, i 520- Enna. Sicilian city, iv 185

\| trilx'. \y . his laws abolished by Solon, 533 Eordai.ms. icedonian

Dryads, i Epameinondas. Theban general, hi 539-40;

Dryopes i. 162, his character, 544-6; victorious at Leuktra,

Dryopis. 1-8; victory and death at Mautincia.

Drypetis, Persian princess, married to lleph.ii

Bp "itoi. \rk.nli.in standing army, iii

Diinr.kpr. Max. bis // 1 12, Epcios. I .'ol

Durny. Victor. i« • histori Ei.riros. i 186

Bphabol, their training, '•! 8 ;

GENERAL INDEX. 577

Ephesos, an Ionian city, ii. in Eudemos of Plataia, iv. 119, 234 ; 224.

50(3 ; iv. 137. Eudemos, satrap of Upper Asia, iv. 263.

Ephetai, judges in criminal cases, instituted Eukleides, king of Sparta, brother of Kleo-

by Drako, I. 521, 548. menes, iv. 345, 349

Ephialtes, the Trachiuian, betrays the Greeks Eukleides, great geometer, ii, 222-3 and note.

at Thermopylai, ii. 455. Eukleides, disciple of Sokrates, iii. 619.

Ephialtes, an Athenian, friend of Perikles, ii. Eukleides, archon of Athens, iii. 407-8.

544, 545, 553, 616, 626. Eukrates, Athenian orator, iv. 240.

Ephialtes, Athenian envoy at Susa, iv. 94 ; in Eumaios, servant of Odysseus, i. 267, 296.

exile at Halikarnassos, 139-40 ; his deatb, Eumeues of Kardia, governor of Kappadokia

•222. and Paphlagonia, iv. 219; his attachment to

Ephoroi, elective magistrates at Sparta, i. 453, Alexander's family and the regent Perdikkas,

454. 4S6 and note. 247 ; pursued by Antigonos, 251 partisan ;

Epicharmos, Sicilian poet and philosopher, ii. of the regent Polysperchon, 252, 260, 264

207 ; iii. 158, 160 and note, 161, 303, 416-7 put to death by order of Antigonos, 264. and note. Eumenes, son of Attalos, king of Pergamon,

Epidamnos. Sec Dyrrachium. iv 396; Roman sympathies of, 424; de-

Epidauros, citj of Argolis, i. 277, 279; ii. 59, nounces Perseus to the Senate, 1-25 ; attempted

(ill. 62. 231; in 297, 679. assassination of, 426-s ; his negotiations

Epigonoi, tin- sons of the seven chiefs who with Perseus. 143.

perished before Thebes, i. 223, 271. Eumenides, the, i. 359.

Epikourios, Apollo, his temple near Fhigali ia, Eumenides, drama of Aiseliylos, iii. 16-17.

iii. 115. 118. Eumolpos, founder of the Eleusinian Mysteries,

Epikouros (Epicurus), Athenian philosopher, i. 161.

Eumolpidai, ol' ii. note. i 111 : ni 174. 619 note priests Demeter, 293

Epimenides. K retail philosopher, ii 293 ''i 6—7. 528-30. Eupatrids, ancient and aristocratic families of

Epipolai, a quarter of Syracuse, iii 330 anil Athens, i. 288, 510, 515-16.

note, 334, 338. Euphaes, Messenian king, i ISO, 482. Episkopoi, agents who kept watch on the con- Euphemos, one of the Argonauts, i, 436.

duct of the Athenian allies, ii. 578 and note. Euphranor, a painter, iii. 614. Euphrates, river of western Asia, crossed by Epitadeos the ephor, i 445 note ; iv. 457 note. Epiteles of Messenia, iv 577 Alexander, iv. 161; his intended voyage on

Eratosthenes, on the date of Lykonrgos, i. it. 2fJ8

443 note. Euphronios, a vase-painter, ii. 534 poet, Erechtheion, finest example of the Ionic order, Eupolis, Athenian comic precursor of

Aristophanes, iii. 65, 77, 310. 10; in 100, 108, I I 1 and note.

Euripides, s if Mnesarchos, iii. 43-57 ; his Erechtheus, king of Athens, i. 172, 173 note, treatment of the myths, 46-52; character of

his dramas, 317, 127. Eretria, rival of Chalkis, ii 9! 99 I !«, 108 mil,'. in. in. taken bv the 3ss Euripos, the, i. 1 3 1 and 134, 137. 9, 366 | Romans, iv,

Europa, sister of Kad.nos, i 168, 353; ii. Hrlahthonloa, king of Athens, i. 172. 173 note.

Erinyes. goddesses, i 333. 359, 1**7 389

Eurotas, of Bparta, i 136 Erymanthos, inouiilain in \ i k.idi.i. i. 131. king

Erythreia, in Eurotas, the river, i 132, 138-9, 132, 435;

Eryx. Sicilian city, ii. 184, ita valli 135-6 Etna. 4S7. Eurybiades, commander of the allied Heel al Mount i hit ii. 134; iv. iss Enboia,! 131.111.112;.. 17 19,452,657; Balamii ii. 151 . iii. wife ol iii. 221, 259 ', 573; iv. 36. Eurydike, nicct ol Uexauder the Great,

Euboulos, Athenian orator, envoy to Philip ol Arrhidaioa, iv. 218, 215 6 . pnl to death b\

89 ' i ipifl 166—6 E.nykl.-i., EiK.heir. < iter, ii 195

Ei.ohid.i* of Platala, n. Boiymadon, colleague of Nikias in Sicily, iii

Etidamidas, Spartan general, iii 5

\'.i IV. 1

- GENERAL INDEX.

Eurysthenes J7, 437- Germans, the, i 157

i 17" 178 Geronthrai, city of Lakonia. 439. Geryon, in. note Eurystheus Siykenai, i 806, 273. HI Euthydemos commander of the Athenian Getai, Thracian tribe, i. 161; attacked by Alex- ander, iv. 123.

his i. i Gillies, History Greece, 56. Euthymos, fan . S91-9 of

Glaukos of Chios, ii. 196 and note. Euxine. the, li 171. 173

-5 Gnomic poets, the. ii Evadne • Evagoras. kins of Cyprus, iu. 518. 527: IT. Gods aud goddesses, the Twelve Great, i. 346-9.

Golden Fleece, legend of the, i 223.

Gomphoi. defile of, i. 270.

i ill age, i. 296-309 Ill Tp" AMILY. he, the heroic ; Gordion, Alexander at, iv. Sparta, 168-3; at Athens, 563; in Gorgias of Leontini, Sophist, in. 309. 541. Gorgias Plato's, in 121, 157

Gorgons, 1. Fates, the, i 215 the, 204

-uii nt' Fauns, i. 349. Gorgos, Aristomenes, L 497.

Festivals, religious, ii 330-78 ; their number Gortyna, city of Krete, ii 294.

ktbens increased by Perikles, ii. 636. Granikos. a river of the Troad, iv. 134; Alex-

Five Thousand Assembly of, at Athens, iii ander's battle there. 131-7 Greece, geographical position and geueral con-

Flamininus T Q, Roman consul sent into figuration of, i 122—46

its i 386; liis tir^t campaign, 3S6-90 ; Greek Art influence, 114-16; in the

- Willi Perseus. 390-91 : captures heroic age, 310 note , in the Greek colonies,

es, 391 ; Ins victory at Kynoskepbalai, ii. 190-99; kthena, iii. 99-149 ; elsewhere

392-5 ; proclaims liberty to Greece, 395-7 in Greece, 185-94; in the later period of

Four Hundred, Council of, at Athens, iii Greece, iv 559-63.

366, 570 Greek History, its special claims, i. 3 ; its

Frogs the, comedy of Aristophanes, iii. 79. three stages, 39-43; prehistoric, 39-40 ; of

Funeral rites, i 304 the epic age, 40-42 ; of the lyric age,

Furies, the > Erinyes 18

Greek Language, its value as B study. L 107, 117-18.

i iken bj iii 280. r* ALEPSOS. Kleon, Greek Legends. Grote'a view of them, i 13-

^-* Galleys. - Athenian, ii 598 1 1; other theories, I

• the Isthmi . Nemean. Games, the Greek Literature, i. 116-17. Olympic. 55, 61, 378 Greek Music, i 65-6.

. 389; the Pythian. 106, Greek Thought, its influence on Christianity, Gargaphia. fountaiu of, near Plataia, u 183, i 109-10; on mediaeval and modem culture, 185 111

Gauanes, descendant "I Temenos, iv 10 Grote George. Ins fli*tor

Gauls, inv • their Gryllos. son of Xenophon, iii

Gaz i hr. under, 153 j defe Grynos. kim: of Then, ii 154

Gyges. k hilt of I.ydia. ii. L36 Ge. •!. 12.314 Gylippos. Spartan, s.m of K In* Gel.. birth, i 117- ml to the aid ol S

180, 189 in 330; destr Athenian il

army, 33 1 15; expelled ft

Gelon. t Gymn.isiarchia, import

61 147 Mb. 1 GenneUi. Gvmnopaidia.

Ornthio. ,„/, Gytheton ot Gythion, seaport of Sparta, ii GENERAL INDEX. 579

TTADES. i. :;24 note, 349, 357 and nute. Hephaistos, i 314 note, 317, 346, 350. ** Hadria, receives au Athenian colony, ii. Heraia, city of Arkadia, ii. 619-20; iii. 572 ; 591. iv. 389.

Haimonia, i 270, 272. Herakleia, of Latinos, ii. 119.

Haimos, Tliraciau mountain range, i. 141. Herakleia, city of Macedon, iv. 6.

Halia, on the Argolic Gulf, lii 234 Herakleia, of Magna Groecia, iii. 157.

Hallartos, Thebau victory at, iii 508 Herakleia, Trachiniau, iii 298, 582; iv. 403.

Halikarnassos, ii. 167 ; birthplace of Hero- Herakleides, assassinates Kotys, iii 586 note

dotos, iii. 125 ; taken by Alexander, iv. Herakleides, Syracusan demagogue, iv. 500, 139-40 506, 507.

Hamilcar, Carthaginian general, besieges Syra- Herakleids (llerakleidai). Return of the, i.

cuse, iv. 509-10. 2;:;-9.

Harmodios, tyrannicide, ii. 19-20. Herakles, legendary hero, i. 14S, 205-9, 222,

Harmosts, military governors sent by Sparta 227, 443 note; iii. 617-

to the allied cities, iii. 4v3. Herakles, son of Alexander the Great and

Harmozia, port on the Red Sea, iv. 203. Barsine, iv. 216, 218, 269, 275.

Harpagos, general of Cyrus the Great, ii. 268. Hercules, Pillars of (Straits of Gibraltar), i. Harpalos, satrap ol Babylon, iv 203, 229-30 20S, 22S ; iii. 310

and note Here, the great goddess of the Achaiaus, i. 205,

Hebe, the goddess, invoked by the Greeks at 236, 249, 317, 341, 343, 346; ii. 151, 153,

Mykale, ii. 496. 272

Hebros, Thracian river, i 142. Here, the Lakinian, her temple at Krotona, ii.

Hebrews, tin-, i. 177. 147. 151, 296. Hegesippos, orator, iv 53 Hermes, god of shepherds, worshipped by the

Hegias, receives Spartan citizenship, i 447. i 326 and note, 349 Thracians, 160, 317, ;

Hekabe. wile of Priam, i 261 statue by Praxiteles, 111, 610.

Hekataios of Miletos, historian and geogra Hermes Psychopompos, i. 397.

ii iii pher, precursor of Herodotos, 211 ; Hermione, daughter ol Menelaos, i, 437.

166-7. HI Hermione, a city of Argolis, it 59 ; iii 231.

Hekatombeion, Achaian defeat at, iv 316 Hermokrates, Syracusan, iii. 309, 330, 346,

the ii Hekatompedon. a name of Parthenon, 355 ; iv. 171. 480.

Hermolaos, iv. 188

Hekatompylos. citj on the frontier of Parthia, Hermos, Lydian river, ii 120.

iv. 169, 172 Hero, priestess al Abydos, ii. 437.

'< Hektor, i 246, 249 252 Herodes Atticus, iii. 107.

1 i 212-3. I' ii. Helen, wife ol Menelaos, 210. 214, Herodotos, historian, i . 5 t , 125, 167-9,

Hehasts, tribunal of, instituted by Solon, i. 242, 196; iii. HI .

546-8; their authority increased in tl Heroes, llicir worship, i. 376-sli.

ol Perikles, ii 621 and m Herzberg's Hi*tun/ of the Oreekt, i. 102.

Helike, a my of Acliaia, iv, 316 Hesiod, chapters \ and vi., pataim ; his works

Hehkon, a mountain in Boitoia, the hon collected under Peisistratos, ii. 15; his

i. 16H. 6 the Muses, 129. 161 ; ii. 96 maxims and precepts, 92

Hellanikos of Mytilene, logographcr, n 211 ; Hesione. Bister of Priam, i 208.

' in. 167 ttole Hesperidea, \ Bli -t."i 207,228

Hellanodikoi. . superintended Hesperis, a eii v ..i Kyrcnaika, ii 152

tin- gainCS, n Hestia, goddess identified with the Roman

Hellen. >.ii ..I Dcul .Ion. i 193 , :,ii. I note, 346, 349

Hellenion. cot inity of Greek* al Naukl He»ti,i«iH. a leitourgia at Uhens, ii 604

i. 163. Het.iui.ii, 366

niatic kingdom, tin ... - Hetairoi, the companion cavalr ol Ui lander

HeloU. tlavi mi Bparl i, i I •, jj ii the Great, iv

in Hieromnenonen, of lh. 269, I

th.' < HephaUtion. I I ..I \l. [auder tin- Great, i Ampbiktyc louncil.

r. 148, U ii 811 . '

GENEK \l. [NDEX.

Hieron. S 1 t- '• iii Kypates in 540. Hyperbolos. \i lirni.ii rarizod,

Hieronymos of Kardia. i\. 251 ii 35; iii. 68, 312

i. 77- s iii. Hiketas. tyrant ol Leontini, iv Hyperides. Athenian orator, ; \20;

:! ."• ' " ' - I 140. Himera. S » i

19 Hyrkania. provit n Empire, ir. 172; 173.

- I B

Himeraios, bl

TAKCHOS, Orphic divinity, ii

lalyaos, citj Rhodes, i. 151, 1">I. 1 Himilcon, Cartliaginian general, of n 16 Hipparchos. son of 1*

Iapygia. province of Southern Italy, ii. 1 II.

Iason, Argonaut, I. 192 Hippias, - Idsou. tyi liis Hippias. general in the army "t Perseus, attempts increase the power of Thi the H ins, iv. to HO, Ml. 5S1 Ibykos of Rhegion, poet, iii. 303. Hippias of Elis S iii. 121

Ida Mount i 235 Hippobotai oligarchs, at Chalkis, ii 97, 557

Idomeneus. Icing of Krete, i l^i. Hippodameia. daughter of Oiuomaos, i 241 Iktiuos, architect of the Partheuon, ii. 6 Hippodamos of Miletos, iii. 216.

I, 111. 115 Hippokleides. suitor "i \- 10

Iliad, the. i. 232, 282 52; ii. 15. i

i. Hippokoon Illissos, i river of Attika, W : represented pediment of the Parthenon, iii. LOO. Hippokrates. physician, worshipped al K he

Ulyria. i inds the science of medicine, iii. 122, 128,

Aristotle, iii illyiians. ;i> mercenaries, ii 158. 158, 182-5, H t : pn

Irabros. il 588 . iv. L09, . it.

a t Hippokrates, tyrant of Gela, ii. Hi 298. Inachos.

ti : i. 171. 353. Hippokrates, Athenian general, iii Io. dnug of bach w, 150,

Iobates. of Lykia, i. 202 Hippokrene, n <|irin.'. ii king Iokaste, mother and wife of Oidipous, i. 220, Hippolytos so i :us, l 211. 221 Hippomenes. i -.'It

i I. iripides, iii. 56. Hipponax. Ep ii 205. Ion, Ionia, ol Asia Minor, inhao- Hippomkos, Athenian, iii. 287 the western coasl

. 1 its settlement, I i. 13 ; Hiss^ihk 1. 148, 151, ] 52, 15 eeks,

'-' > 1 ii. 119-21 prosperity, 167—75 ; attainments Histiaios, lyra ; Histiaioti- the four d riies- in art. poetry, and philosn| hy, 190

i, : nment, .':U-."> ; stibjug 271 ii. 107 Homer. it* revoll i: 15.

Hostilius Manciims. A. Roman • Ioni his. I' end-

P P

' ' in H\ . :.i . ii. 18/ Ionic irehitecture, 108 nr pick, n 10] Iphigeneia. daughtei

Hyampo.i I By Iplllkl.ltrs. \

ii.. .

- Hydaspes. r,

Hyp> la

ll ice III

Hyll< -

Iphitos. kit I H ; i H GENERAL INDEX. 581

Iris, figure on the pediment of the Pari Kamarina, Athenian attack upon, iii. 320; iii. 132. besieged by the Carthaginians, iv. 482; re-

Isagoras, Athenian, ii. 29. 37. captured by Dionysios, 488.

Isaios, orator, iv. Athenian 50 and Kambounian Mountains, i 12S. 131.

Jsaura, city of Pisidia, iv 22] 2. Kameiros, city of Rhodes, ii. 167. Ischia, ''•"! island of, iii. Kanachos, a Sikyoniau sculptor, ii. 75, 198.

Ismenias, democratic leader at Thebes, iii 5:50. Kapaueus, o if the seven chief- against

Isokrates, Athenian i". orator, 68-9 : iv. 47- Thebes, i. 222.

49, 107. Kaphyai, battle of, iv. 354. Issa, besieged by the Illyriaus, iv. 372-3. Karians, Ihe, i. 17:!, 174; ii. US, 401.

Issorion, a quarter of Sparta, iii. 575. Karkiuos of Rhegion, father of Agathokles, Issos. Gulf of, iv. 256; battle of. L44-8. iv. 5116.

Istros, founded by Miletos, ii, 173. Kaniak, in Egypt, i. 190.

Ithaka, island of, l. 151, 262. 266 Karyai, a city of Lakonia, i. 491 and note

Ithome, Messenian fortress, i. 466, 481, 482, Karystos, in Euboia, ii. 408, 531; iv. 388

485 ; ii. 539. Kassandra, daughter of Priam, i. 261.

Kassandreia, city on the Thermaic Gulf, iv 367.

of. iv. 196-7. "TZABALA, victory Kassandros, son of Antipatros, and king of

Kabeiroi, divinities, ii. SamotliFaeian Macedon, iv. 2 Id. 250; leagued with An- 351-2. tigonos against Polysperchou, 251. 252, 253,

Kadmeia, i. citadel of Thebes, 170 ; seized by 258, 259, 266 ; causes Olympias to be killed,

Spartans, iii. 546-7; recovered by the 267-s; rebuilds Thebes, 268; hostilities Thebaus, 548. Willi Vntigonos and Demetrios Poliorketes,

Kadmeians (Tliebans), i. 271. 269-95; takes the title of king, 286; his

Kadmos, founder of Thebes, i. 167, 170, 173. death. 299.

Kadmos of Miletos, historian, ii. 211; iii. Kastri, \ illage on the site of Delphi, ii. 101 note.

166. Katana, Sicilian city, ii. 134; iii. 320; iv. 70,

Kaikos, a river of Mysia, i. 235. 1S5

Kalchas, the Boothsayer, i. 293, 122 Katanokophoroi, shurs ,,t Sikyon, ii. 70. 8?

Kallias, marries Elpinike and pays tin- tine of Katavothra, subterranean watercourses in

Miltiades, ii. 122 Boiotia, i 139

Kallias, Athenian envoy to Sparta, iii. 559. Kaukones, Pelasginn tribe, i 162

Kallias, -on of Mnesarchos, iv. '.II. Kebes, disciple "I Sokrates, iii 631 note.

Kallikrates, Athenian architect, iii. 115. Kekropia, built b\ Kekrops, i. 172

Kallikrates, Achaian rtrategos, iv. 115. 156. Kekrops, mythical lav-maker of Attika, i. 167, 17^ L71-2, 509

Kallikratidas, S|i:oi:iii. i 147; general of the Kelts, the. i. 157

tan army m tin- Peloponiiesian war, i Kenchreai, one of the ports of Corinth, i. 215.

Kentaurs (Centaurs), Ihe, i 215.

llll Kallimachos, Athenian polemarchal Marathon, Keos, in hyni i note

• . ., ii 110 III l Kephalleni i5fl ii I'M

Kallimachos. architect, iii 111 Kephalos, i 115

Kallinos of Ephesos, elegiac poet, ii '"I Kephisodotos, sculptor, in i 6

Kephissos, river of Attika, i. 137 M' repre-

l 'in i lie "i Kallippon, At Ii' in ii pediment the Pari benon,

' ; loo, i iii. II . In- war w.t

KallippoH .1 Syracu Kerameikos, the outer, a suburb of Uhens, I'll tnilr

iii. Ill K.iiinrhoe Ihr fountain, i Kerberos,

KalltetbMM of Olynthox I

,i. Kallmtr.it', i I, iv pti

Kililii.., i II, Kalypso, Kilix i .

«.i:m:i; \i. LNDEX.

- Kimmerians. .' >7 Kleonai. ,-iiy of Argolis, i. 270

Kimolos. - iad, Kleopatra, niece of Attains, wife of Philip of

Kimon. brother ol 'In- rider Miltiades, thrice liaoedon, iv. 113; put t" death by Olym*

a in the Olympic Games, ii 19 pias, 119

Kimon. * thi Kleopatra, daughter of Philip and (Hum

'! -. s ; ii 530; In* victories, 534- wife ': Alexander ol Epeiros, 112, 21 ;

ii. In- generosity, 567 ; ostracised, 540-41; sought in marriage by Perdikkas, 246; and

ii. 5 l">-7 ; his death, 533-4, 570. liv Ptolemy, 277; put to death by Antigo-

i- Kinadon. Spartan, iii. 498-3. iii !

Kirks (Circe), enchantress 864 Klerouchoi. Athenian colonists, ii. obS and

Kirrha, i. 134, 588; ii. 101-6; destroyed by i98-3.

r "I' the Amphiktyons, 316-17. Knidos. a city of Karia, ii 167 i iii 168; it-

Kithairon. Mount, i. 120. 1:57 ; in school of medicine, 182; in the Peloponne-

">•"] Kition, in Cyprus, ii. 135, 1 sian war. 353; scene of Athenian victory,

Klazomenai.eityoflonia.il 101: in 352,353 .Ms.

Kleandiidas. Spartan, ii i ! Knights, the, comedy of Aristophanes, iii. 356.

Kleandros. ii. i tyrant of Qela, 16 Knossos. city of Krete, i. 151, 181 ;

Kiearchos. chief of Greek mercenaries in the Kodros. i 278, 519.

expedition of the younger Cyrus, iii. 17" Kolchis.

and note, 171. 17+. 177. 17- Kolophon. city of Ionia, ii 110, 236.

Kleinias. rather of Alkibiades, iii. 29 1 Kolote?. sculptor, iii 108 U 1-'.'

iv. s Kleinias. tyrant of Sikyon, 817 Komana. . tj of Kappadokia, ii l 2.

Kleisthenes. tyrant of Sikyon. i 379, 522; ii. Konipodes. name applied to slaves in Epidau- 73-.") 7" n is, ii. 62

Kleisthenes. an Alkmaionid, his reforms in Koiion, Athenian general in the Peloponn*

Athens, ii. 29-36; his disappearani war, Hi 381, 383; desti Spartan

tleet ai Knidos, ."ils. expels the narmosts

Kleitos, m commaud of the Macedonian fleel from the (irerk island- and cities ot \-

under Antipatros, tin- Athi i paid Athens, 527 not?. defeats | honors him by

135; Ins victory in the Hellespont, 259; Kopai's. Lake, i. 134 and I 86—7 and tote,

his defeat and death. ' 205-6; ii 99 Kleitos, Macedonian general, saves Alexander's Kora. See Persephone.

it the Granikos, iv 136; slain by Alexan Korinna.

Korkyra, cplonj of Corinth, ii. 77. 130, Kleobis and Biton 201; «ar with Corinth, 203 7: demi

Kleombrotos, king of Sparta, iii. 546, 549; revolution, 856-8 ; in alliance with Athens. -1 I unsuccessful!] besieged bj 'he Spar-

Kleombrotos, son-in-law of Leonidas, king of ii Athens.

I V . iv. 339, captured by the [llyrians; soon after

341 up to tin' limn an-.

Kleomenes 1 11-8; Koroibos, architect, i, 113 note; 689-40; iii.

' 115- L6.

Korone, in II 111.

Kleomenes II., k Koroneia, ii. ." -I; scene "f a i

. il i.f A between the Spartans and Thebans, 513-14.

(41; al Korybantes. priest K Korynephoroi, -

Kos. island famous a- the birthplace <>f Hippo-

a. i\ 24 I kralcs, iii 1 >S

u ' ipturod h in alli- lon 157

Koametea, \ Kotys.

Kl- :. 164 ;

GENERAL INDEX. 583

Kotytto. Thracian divinity, iii. 115 Laios, king of Thebes, i. 176.

Kouretes, i. 163. Lakedaimon, mythical king of Sparta, i.

Krauuon, Antipatros defeats tlie Greeks at. iv. 436

234-5. Lakonia, i 430-36 ; its early history, 436-40.

Krateros, general of Alexander the Great, iv. Lamachos, Athenian general, ii. 590; iii. 310, 216, 319, 243. 246, 247. 319-20, 331. Kratinos, comic poet, precursor of Aristopha- Lamia, a city of Thessaly, iv. 232.

nes, iii. 65, 7$ note. 79 note. Lamian War, effort of the Greeks to throw

Kretans, their training of youth, i 181. off the Macedonian sway after the death of

Krete. i 123, 1S2 ; n. 2SS-94. Alexander, iv. 221-43; victory of Larnia,

Kritias, one of the Thirty Tyrants, iii. 367-8, 232 ; defeat of Krauuon. 234.

401, 425-7, 457- Lampsakos, colony of Miletos, ii. 173 ; during

Kriton, disciple of Sokrates, iii 4'i2. the Pelopounesian war, iii. 368, 388.

Krenidas, taken by Philip of Maeedou, iv. 33. Laodamas, son of Eleokles, i. 223

Kreou. King of Thebes, i. 220-2:1. Laomedon, iv. 219.

Kreousa, i. 231. Laos, Italian city, ii. 144.

Kreousis, town in Boiotia, i. 134 Lapithai, Pelasgian tribe, i. 162, 215, 274.

Kresphontes, one of the Herakleids, i. 478. Laranda, city of Pisidia, destroyed by Perdikkas,

Krimisos, a Sicilian river, iit 119 note. iv. 221.

i. Krissa, in Phokis, ii. 101-5. Larissa, city of Thessaly, 197-8 ; ii. 109

Kronos. ancient divinity, identified with Sat- iii. 580

urn, i. 323, 337 Lasos of Hermione, dithyrambie poet, ii. 16.

Krotona, city of Magna Graecia, ii. 147-S ; taken Latona See Leto.

hv Dionysios of Syracuse, iv 493. Laureion, silver miues of, i. 130, 142, 144; ii.

Ktesias of Knidos, iii. 182. 127 and note

Kybele, "the Great Mother," a Phrygian god- Leaina, ii. 21-2.

li 401 ; iii. 145 Leander, lover of Hero, ii. 437.

Kydnos, a river of Kilikia, iv. 145. Lebedos. Ionian city. ii. 119.

Kydonia, founded by Minos, i. 181; ii 65. Lechaion, port-town of Corinth, ii. 76.

i. Kyllene, city of Elis, i 497. Leda, mother of Kastoraud Polydeukes, 214;

Kylon, Kupatrid, i. 522-3. ii. 7'i. 353.

i. Kyme.riiyofAioli,, ii. 207-8; 380; iii. 1-02. Leitourgiai, public services at Athens, 603-7 ;

Kynaigeiros, brother of Aischylos, ii. 415. ii. 603-7, 615.

Kynaue, daughter of Philip ol Macedon and Leleges, Pelasgian tribe, i. 162.

Andata. an Illyrian woman, iv. 218, 245-6. Lelex, Grsl king of Lakonia, i 436.

ii. note, Kynosarges, Athenian gj mnasium iii 105 note. Lemnos, island of, 277, 410 and 572,

Kynoskephalai. battle of, iv. 392-3. I; iv 109.

Kynouria, i. 500. ii. 62; iii. 269 Leokrates, Athenian, iv. 223. 7 Sparta, at Thcnnopylai, Kypselos, tyrant of Corinth, ii l'i. 53, —13 Leonidas I, king of

Kyrenai'ka, i. 1 23-4 ii 1

Kyrene, founded by Dorians from the island Leonidas II., king of Sparta. \\ . 339. of Then, a 157. 17o. 283-7. Leonidas, one of Alexander's tutors, iv. 116.

''.1 iii. 21 Leonnatos, our of \!<\ aider's generals, iv. Kythera, i. 182, 500, 502 . ii. ;

Kyzikoa, l citj of M;.sia, ii 173 and

iii Leontiades, Tin-ban. iii -I"

Leontini, Sicilian city, ii, 134; iii 309; iv. 501 Leontios, conspiratoi Philip of M T aeda. therof Kypselos, ii 7 -^ Lacedsmon. See Sparta. don. iv,

Lacedaemonians, n Leosthenes, Athenian general in the fiamian !83.

Lacbare*. Leotychidcs, king of Sparta, ii 106-7; fioto

l. Laches. J, friend ol , (6, Mi , boughl v the ;

GENERAL INDEX.

Lepreon.ilun innesian war, iii. 290. Lykourgos, beco 9 king of Sparta after thl

Leptines, r. ml of Apollooia, i\ . 501. death ol Kleomencs, iv. 351

Lesbos, island of, ii. 115, :.>77. I" .:. 510, 578; in Lynkestis, a district of Macedon, i\. 9

1 i;ir, .'i.'io, the iii. 350, 352, Lysandros. Spartan general ill I me-

: iv 1U. 157. sian war, in. 3/9-95; destroys the Athenian

il Leto. fleet at isp i 383-9 Ins iul Lig ;

Leukadia. channel of, i. 136. at Sparta. 383-6; liis death m tin- battle of

Leukadia lunded by Corinth, i. 136 1 1 iliartos, 508

in the Peloponnesian war, Lysias, Ulieuiau orator, ii. 591; iii. tils ami

in .

Leukou kiug "I the kiniincn is, iv. Lysikles, Athenian general, iv. 105

Lysikrates, Choragic Monument of, iii. 105.

Lenktra. battle of, iii. 561-4. Lysimackos, Akarnanian, one ol the tutors of

Libou of Elis, architect, iii 10S Hole. under, iv. 1 Hi.

Libya. Greek colonies in, n 154-5 Lysimacbos, oue of Alexander's generals,

• Lichas. i Spartan, the coffin of Ore ir ol Thrace, iv. 219 ; be-

-500. lea a partisan "i Seleukos, 270; att

Lichas, Spartan, expelled from ihc Olympic Antigouos, is t firmed in by 271 ; the pos-

- by the Eli ins, iii 295. session of Thrace, -71: assumes the title of

Licinius Crassus P., i sul, in Macedon, iv. king, 286; assists the Rhodians, 291; Ins

I II, successes in Asia, 294; becomes master of

Lindos, city of Rhodes, ii W>7 Vsia Minor, 295; attacks Macedon; lius- Lissos, in lllyna, founded In Dionysios of band of Amastris, afterwards of Arsinoe,

icuse, iv (94 301; liis cruelty, -itH-^. obtains entire

Lokrians. ihe, allies ii of the Persians, (45; possession of Macedon. .'i02-.'i ; defeated

i, in 219. and slain in a battle with Selenkos, -Wi. Lokrians ol Amphissa, condemned by the Lysippos.M-ulpior.il 75 ; in 191,390,617.

iv. Ampluktyonic Council, 98. Lysis of Tarentum, iii 444 and note.

Lokrians, the district of, i 135 101). Ozohan, ;n Lysistrata, coined) of Aristophanes, iii 7t.

Lokrlds, the two, i 134; ii 100,106; in 509,

ii. i Lucanians. the, 29 TyTACEDON. 121, 132, I gra-

Lyceum plural position, iv (Lykcion), gymnasium of Alliens i-."> : its early kings, where Aristotle taught, decorated bj 11-20; its supremacy under Philip ami

tratos. n 12 , ni. lor, note, nder, 21-214; the empire after Ilex-

Lychnidos, an lllyrian city, iv, 396 ander's death, 315-268; three kingdoms

Lydiades. tyrant of Megalopolis, iv. :«.'!, formed from it, 269-313; its condition be-

Lydians, ihe, il 235 58. fore the arrival of the Romans, 367-370; Lygdamis of Naxos First Macedonian War, 376 (86; Second

Lykaios. i \l \1 Mount in Arkadia, M2 . ii (9-50; icedonian War, 382 '•'M . Third

1 1

ii 1 '• - 343 nian War, I- "> I . Perseus, the last kinir

Lykia. ii iii the 125; 141. I Macedon, (21-454; country made .1

Lykiaus, Ihe wisdom of their political organi- III pro\ inoi

- Machanidai •. h •>!

a Lykomedes, rich citizen of Mantineia, iii. 571 Machaon. son of Asklepios, i 196

Lykon iokratea, iii (58 Madytos. city of the ( !hersoiiesos, iv.

Lykophron, Sophist, iii. (34. Makrobians, the. i

Lykophron. tyrant of Pheral, in 580; iv Magnesia, in Lydia, h l"l

. . r Lykof of Polybios, ii U 1 Mago. Carthaginian general, -\ (96

i .nil i. " Lykosoui \ik i L07 iii ii.indrioB of Samoa, i. 503 i M

. Lykourgos (Lycui M ! vndros the river, ii. 119

I M.ile.i. Orcadian Cltj in alliance with Tin'

Lykouxfoa, Athenian orator, iii 10] ii

Malea. Cape, i 123 (32 1 1

GENERAL INDEX. 585

Maliac Gulf, ihe, i. 128, 133. Melanippides, the poet, received by Perdikkas,

Mallians, people of Hindustan, iv. 198-9. iv. 14.

Mamertines, mercenaries of Agathokles, iv. Melanthos, descendant of Nestor, i. 277, 516.

514. Meleagros, Aitohau hero, i. 215.

Mandrokles, bridge-budder, ii. 397. Meleagros, one of Alexander's officers, iv. Manlius Vulso, Cu., Roman consul, iv. 401. 217.

Mantias, Athenian admiral, iv. 23. Meleagros, son of Ptolemy Soter, iv. 306. 32-2 Mantineia, city of Arkadia, i. ; ii. 53, 520 ; Meletos. one of the accusers of Sokrates, iii.

?,". lit. 291, 291, 29b ; taken by the Spartans 45V 160.

after the peace of Aiitalkidas, 533-4; re- Melikertes, son of Athamas, i. 196.

builds its walls, 366 ; battle of, and death of Melissa, wife of Periandros. i 391.

Epameinoudas, 591-5; unites with Sparta, Melissos, Samian philosopher, ii, 583.

313 ; destroyed by Aiatos, 317 and note. Melkart, Tynan god, i. 327

Manto, i. 293. Melon, Theban conspirator, iii. 511.

Marakanda, capital of Sogdiana, iv. 177. Melos, our of thr Cyclades, i 121, 156; taken

Marathon, i. Ill, 209, 273; battle of, ii. I and sacked by the Athenians in the Pelo-

20. pounesian war, iii. 3HII-2, 613.

Marcius Fhilippus, Roman consul, in the Memnon, the Ethiopian, i. 171, 259.

Third Macedonian War, iv 434—42. Memnou of Rhodes, Persian satrap, iv. 139,

Mardonios, Persian general, ii 401. 432, 443. L40.

174. 478, 179, 4S0; defeated and killed at Memphis, iv. 154.

Plataia, 4S1-91. Menandros, Athenian admiral, iii. 340.

Maritsa, river in Thrace, iv. 91. Menandros, one of Alexander's generals, iv.

Maroneia, Thracian seaport, iv. 416. 219

Marriage, Athenian laws and customs conccrn- Menandros i Menander), comic poet, iii. 648

.. 551-63. and fl

Masinissa. king of Numidia, iv. 429. Mende, iii. 280.

Sparta, i. 242. 27 Massalia (Marseilles), founded by tin 1 Menelaos, king of 245, 262,

kaians, u. 15 Menoikeus, son of Kreon, i. 222.

Mausolos, king of Karia, iv. 42 and note, 129. Menou, general of the younger Cyrus, iii. 47 I of Pharsalos, commands the Thessa Mazares, Median, ii. 207-8. Meuon hau cavalry at Lamia, iv. 232. Medeia. sorceress, i 2""

Mentor, Rhodian, iv i 34. Median Wars. ii. 104 ".51. Uscbylos their Messeue, i!n latci capital "I Messenia, built by Herodotoa their historian, I

iii. 576-7. 584-5 its Medimnos, Athenian measure, i. 535 ami eiuondas, 574, j Medios, ) idofthi Thi ssalianAIeoadai, iv.581. independence recognized bj S '5,598;

its territory increased by Philip, iv 110; is Medon. i. 517- from the Achaian League, 111; Medousa, oni of the i. 203, 204, 205. detached

P i ipture and death, Megabazos, ii. 398, 399, I

II ! Megakles. Alkmaionid, the archon, i 5

Messenia, a State of the Peloponnesos, i 132, ii. 2. 3, 4, 3 1. wars 1 167, its with Megakles, grandson of tin- archon, marries 138, 12,

- 7 1 Megalopolis, Messenians, ilnir rcvoll 3 irta, ii. colonize Naupaktos, I I lanu in n i m. 571 ; fa<

Messina ( \f ma oi Mcsscue) in Sicily, col- 6, 171 ;

i nia, i. 197 , refuses

jred bj the Acbaian I.

con, iv i- os, t90 . Megara taken

M-ugenw. architect, iii

' Matanehro*, MataphyalM, GENERAL INDEX.

Metapontum. in Magna Gwecia, ii. II Mummius ( kchaicus), Roman general, cap

temple, iii. 95-6 inns Corinth and destroys it, iv Hit, Metellus Macedonicus, praetor and consul. 165 ''..

Muses, Hi,' i. I sr, 160, H'.l. 165 Nine. 129, 160, L61, ; y \i

Metempsychosis.ii 230 I

•"". iv. Methone. i cit] "I Chalkidike, Music, in Greece, i 65-6; il 187-8; iii >' Methone. Me 1 1:> 7

Methymna, city in Lesbos, u. 277-8 : iii Mykale. battle of, ii. 19

Metoikoi. foreigners living m Athens, i Mykenai, city of Argolis, i. I'll. 156, 178,

. 603. 187-8 , 241; ii. 59, 530, 545

Mcton, Athenian, fouuder of mathem Myous, Ionian city, ii. 1 L9.

lomy, ii- 646, G 17 and Myrkina, founded by II. MiletOS, ii.

Metric System of the Greeks, ii 185, 187.

of, " Myrou. ii Mideia. citj of Argohs, ii. 59 ; battle the tyrant ofSikyon, 70 v Myron, sculptor, iii l * and note (carles? \ ii 157, 9

Myrouides. i' Mikon. painter, ii 534; iii 1 12 Athenian general,

Minor, ii 111 Miletos. city of [on 1 19, 170, 173, Mysia, country of Asia

a treat] with < !yrns Mysteries, the Bleusinian, in I rof Demeter, Lesser, initiation, i by the Persians, 103 ; hostilities with

i- ;:\ Orphism, 375 -6 ; at the cli ; 579 . in the Peloponnesi i

.'!.'>:;. ; il the fifth century, iii. 412; the Samothracian, 372, , the popular party

after the fall of Athens, 185; al war with worship of the Kabeiroi, i 351-2. s s ."> Lesbos, ii. : during hemes, in l Mytilene. city of 27 the

io iii 246-5] Miltiades, tyrant of the I isian war,

;os to Athens, 551 ; bi ; Ath is al Mara-

mhI, and taken by the Persians, i\. 1 U-2 thon, 410-20 . e inncd by the Athenians,

Milto of Phokaia. wile of Cvnis. iii 176

Mimnermos. eli Lria 504 KJABIS. tyrani of Sparta, iv. 383, 389-90

Mindaros. Spartan, iii

s "-' Mino i ity, i I Narykos. in the Comitliain war, iii 510.

Minos I, king and lawgivi i ol Krete, i Naukraria. the twelfth pari of an Attic tribe,

i "il". 513; tlieir number is raised from

Minos II. kins of K> forty-eight to fiftj bj Kleisthenes, 570

Minotaur inster slain by Theseus, i. 182, Naukraros, a householder is the Attic tribrs, 10 s inyai of Orchomenos, i 186, 21 1 . 27 5 1 5 Naukratis. the Greek market in Egypt, ii. 65,

." s Minyas. treasure of, I 162-4 and note

i. 5-6 Mitford h , Naupaktos. city of Lokris, ceded by Athens

i Mnesikles. m 105, 1 I A L5, to the Messenians, ii 563 ; iii.

17* ins I . up b> the Arh. : to »8J be-

Mnesiphilos. ii sieged by the Romans, 103,

Miient hens, i 154 Nauplia. i il s, ii 60 Moloch 1' Niosikaa, daughter of Vlkinoos,

Monimsen's // !0 Naxos. ,n f tin- Cyclades, i 336 note; ii

Morals, i ligious, in tie- heroic age, i fit 1 t

1 1 1 65, Naxos. e t .in SOS

in i U , trcecc, h 55 (85

Mornimrn Ni- ii olios Ki, la* of IWsin.

i \ Mounychi command of Alexander's Beet, i

Nr-il.i. \l |o| Motnaios, i. 1

10,"> NTektansboa, ii

N.i. oi ider of Ionian emigration, ii. 117- ;

GENERAL INDEX. 587

Nemea, games celebrated at, ii 378, 3S3 Oidipous at Kolonos, tragedy of Sophokles,

battle of, iii. 510. ii. 37-S.

Nemesis, i. 36S. Oidipous Tyrannos, tragedy of Sophokles, ii.

Neodamodeis, enfranchised Helots, i. 448. 37-41.

Neokles, father of Themistokles, ii. 121. Oineus, king of Kalydou, i. 354.

425. Oinomaos, king of Elis, i. 241.

Neo-Platonism, i. 107-10. Oinophyta, in Boiotia, ii. 552.

Neoptolemos, king of Epeiros, father of Olym- Oitaians, Thessalian tribe, ii. 108.

pias, iv. 56. Oite, Mount, i. 12S, 131, 135, 271.

Neoptolemos, governor of Armenia, iv. 222. Okeauides, i. 350.

246 Okeanos (the Atlantic Ocean), l. 350.

Nereids, i. 319 Olpai, battle of, iii. 261.

Nestor, i. 196, -216 Olympia, city of Pisatis, i. 138; ii. 54-5: its

i. Niebuhr. historian of Greece, 19. temple of Zeus, iii. 107, 153 ; occupied by

Nikaia, near Thermopylai, receives a Mace- the Arkadians, iv. 5S9, 591.

donian garrison, iv. 84. Olympians, according to Hesiod's Theogony,

Nikaia, in the Punjab, founded by Alexander, i. :;:;.j-41.

iv. 193. Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemos, king of Nikanor of Stageiros, naval officer of Alex Epeiros, wife of Philip of Macedon and

auder, iv. 139 ; sent as envoy to the Olympic mother of Alexander the Great, iv. 56, 115 ; Games, 229 suspected of causing the death of Philip, 113;

Nikias, painter, in. 614 survives her son, 218; causes the death of killed Nikias, Athenian general, i. 425 ; iii. 260 ; in Arrhidaios and Eurydike, 265-6; by the Pelopounesiau war, 260-61, 268-9, 2S0; the soldiers of Kassandros, 267.

at in. 93. his popularity, 281 ; a rival of Alkibiades, Olympieion, Athens,

Syracuse, iii. 329. 299; in the Sicilian expedition, 310-46; Olympieion, a hill m

taken and put to death by the Syracusans, Olympos, Mount, i 128, 131, 162. confedera- 346. Olynthos, capital of the Chalkidic 74-8. Nikokles, friend of Phokion, iv. 256. tion, ii. 127; iii. 537; iv. 32,

i 421-2. Nikokles, ruler of Paphos, iv 276. Omens, prince, iv. Nikokles, tyrant of Sikyon, iv. 321. Omphis. Indian 189. Nikomachos, Boiotian painter, n. 96. Onatas, sculptor, ii. 198

Onesilos of Cyprus, i 377-8. Nineveh, ii 169. Onomakritos, Athenian poet and soothsayer, Niobe. i 237-H, 372 and note.

ii 12, is, 433. Nisaia, port of Megaris, on the Saronic Gulf, Onomarchos. Phokian general, iv li.'i. ii. 545; iii. 240, 271. 281, 373. Opisthodomos, treasury in the Parthenon, iii. i Nomothetai, m Colon's constitution, 578 i 99 ii 621. 108. Opous, in Lokris, iv, 327 note.

Oracles, n. 318-3(1

1 1- Orators, public, al Uhen . i 5 pvCHOS (Artaxerxea lit ), king of Persia.

Orbelos, Mount, i. I I I ^ h 180 L53 note Orchomenos, Aikailian city, iii 419; iv. 343, Odeion, in Athens, ii. 6 LO 3 note. Odessos, colony of Miletus OB thl I 147, s i. 171, l 171 Orchomenos. Boiotian city, 186, 7,

98 ifl i, 573; Odrysai, Thracian, ilnir rehttioni iril 206, 63. iv 18 453-4. Oreithyla, of, i 216 ; iii, Odysseus <\ '!• •). kin'.' '.f [thai legend Oreos, in Baboillt founded bj Athens, ii. 588; 140,

">' iv, 881. Odyssey, ol Hi r, i 981 .'77, Orestes, sou of Agamemnon, i Ml !6S

Oryi-'-H lehaian i m KM 500

Orestes.-' I Wei,, Macedon, IV. ORveia. iihind, i "» 19 Oidipoua ((Edipns), i. I 170 GENEB M. INDEX.

- Ores . 14 Panionion, temple of Poseidon at the foot ot

''. Orestis, i district of Macedon. iv. Count M\ Lai.', a. 167. dropos, important seaport between Attika and Pannomans, i 159.

Pantaleon, Aiiolian chief, iv. 426-7. Pantheion, Orpheus, i 161 75. temple in Athens, in. 105.

Orpheus of Krotona, editor of Homer, ii. IS Fantikapaion, ii. 174.

Orphism. i. 162, 37 l-' 1 Paphoa, city of Cyprus, ii 125.

Orthagoras, tyi : in, ii. 7^ Paraloi, inhabitants of the coast in Attika,

i. Ortygla. island making pa S use, i. 132; 531. in ii. 135 j iii. 330 sl-3. Paralos, son of Perikles, 234.

Ossa. Mount, L 128-9. Paris, son of Priam, i. 201, 212. 259, 260.

Ostracism, institution of Kleisthenes, ii. 34-6. Parraenides, philosopher, a. 221—5.

Otaues. P ;:i. ii. 401. Parmenion, Macedonian general, iv. Ill, 162;

Othryades, Spartan, i. 500. put to death by Alexander, 173 t

Othrys. Mount, i. 129. 133 Parnassos. Mount, in Phokis. i. 129. 192.

Oxos. Baktrian river, iv. 189. Parnes, Mount, in Attika, l 129. 137.

Oxydrakians, iv. 1 Paropamisos, mountain range (the Hindu

Oxylos, Ajtoliau, i. -77 Rush), iv. 173. 197

Paros, island of, i. 142; ii. 121.

Parrhasios, painter, iii. 157. 190, 193.

Parthenians. of i "P ACHES, Athenian general, iii. 248, 251. founders Tarentum, l^r, and -1- Pagai, seaport of Megaris, ii. 5 15

Pagasai. Thessalian seaport, i. 129; occupied Parthenon, the (Temple of the Maiden), mas-

by Philip of Macedon, iv. 64. terpi k art. ii. 639 ; iii. 99-105.

Pagasaian Bay, i 128 Partheuope (Naples), ii. 591.

Paionidai, Athenian family, i 278. Parthia, district of the Persian Empire, iv. 17:>.

Paionios of Mende, sculptor, iii. 1 OS. Parysatis, mother of the younger Cyrus, iii. Paiston Ptestum). See Poseidonia. 169

Paktyes. Lydian, ii. 266-8. Pasargadai, Persian city, iv 16s.

Palamedes, i. 171 and note. Patras, ei!\ of Achaia, in. 296; early member

Pallakopas. Lake, engineering works of Alex- of the league, i\ 256

-. !. 207 9. Patroklos, friend of Achilleus, i- 246, 250.

Pallas. See Athene. Pattala, island •<{. name given to the delta of

Pallene. peninsula, ii 277. the [udoS, u 20 I

Pamisos. Messenian river, i lis Paulus Aemilius (Macedonious), consul, in

Pamphilos. painter, in. 194, 614. the Third Macedonian War, ii 143 50

Pamphylia. country of Asia Minor, iv 1(1 Pausanias, Greek author, i. 391, 133, 17o Pamphylians, one of the three trihes of 492 151. Pausanias. son of Kleombrotos, victorious

Pan. Arkadian divinity, i. 326, 31!) and note; at Plataia, a 181-95; his intrigues with

ess to the Athenians at Xerxes 503 516; In- death, 5

, built by them in Pausanias. son ol I" itonax, king of Sparta.

his honor, U6. a. fir,, cii. B08.

Panainos, painter, iii ! 12. 153 Pausanias. claimant of the Macedonian throne. Panaitios. of tyrant Leontini, ii W \\

Panaitolikon. assembly of the Aitolians. i\ Pausanias. murderer of Philip of Macedon,

iv 113.

Panathenaia. i honor of Athene, i Pausias, painter, la. 193

ts in music Peace, the, corned] <>f Aristophanes, iii. 79

I by Peril Pediaioi. inhabitants of the plain in Attika.

Pandion. k of Dg JLtl 1 5 1 , 131 Pandora Pegaaos. winged hoi

Pangaion. Mount : Peiiaieua, port Athens, i 137; ii SOS V >

GENERAL INDEX. 589

Peirene, a spring on the Akrokorinthos, ii. 77. Perdikkas II., king of Macedou, iii. 207. 229,

Petrithoos, kin;: of the Lapiths, i. 210, 21 5, 274. 280; iv. 13-14.

227. Perdikkas III., king of Macedon, iv. 20-21.

Peisandros, leader of the oligarchical revolu- Perdikkas, one of Alexander's generals, iv.

tion at Athens, iii. 357-8, 362. 216-249 ; regent after Alexander's death,

Peisistratidai, the, ii. 17-29, 133 216-9 ; at war with all the other generals,

Peisistratos, ii. Athenian, a popular citizen, 2 ; 246-9 ; assassinated by bis own soldiers in seizes upon the citadel and establishes a Egypt, 249

tyranny, 3 ; ceremony in his honor, 4 ; a Pergamon, city of Mysia, iv. 221, 382, 466.

second time expelled from the city, 7 ; re- Pergamos, citadel of Troy, i. 235.

turns and establishes himself more securely, Periandros, king of Corinth, ii. 83-85. 213.

7-8 . his public improvements, 8-12 ; bis Perikles, Athenian, son of Xanthippos, his war

interest in literature, 12-10; wisdom of his policy, i. 58-9; ii. 560; his tutors, 560-61 ;

measures, 16-17 ; his death. 17. his character, 561-4 ; his organization of

Peithon, one of Alexander's officers, iv. 178. the Athenian empire, 534-645 ; his misfor-

Peiagonia, Macedonian province, iv. 9 note. tunes, 234 ; his death. 243.

Pelasgians. i. 157-63, 184, 190, 506. Perinthos, in Thrace, ii. 398 ; iv. 93.

Pelasgikon, in Athens, iii. 221 Perioikoi, at Sparta, i. 446.

Pelasgiotis, one of the four districts of Thes- Perrhaiboi, Pelasgian tribe, i. 162.

salv, ii. 107- Persephone (Proserpine), i. 241, 355-6, 366-8.

Peleus, Achaian hero. i. 129, 108. 214, 224. Persepolis, capital of Persia, decorated by a

Peliades, the priestesses at Dodona, i. 293. Greek sculptor. Telephones of Phokis ; its

Pelias, kins of lolkos, i. 224. 231. edifices show Greek, Assyrian, and Egyptian

Pelion, Mount, i. 129. art, iii. 191«o/e; its magnificence, iv. 167;

Pella, city of Chalkidike, iii. 535 ; iv. 15. perhaps more splendid than any city in Greece

Pellene. city of Achaia, iv. Ml 7. ot Egypt, 167ao/«; captured by Alexander,

Pelopeia, daughter of Thyestes, i 241. L67-8 ; revisited by him, 203.

Pelopidas, Theban general, iii 538, 545-6; Perseus, Greek hero, king of Argos and founder

defeats the Spartans at Tegea, 557 '• at of Mykenai, i. 202-5, 211, 241, 346. Lenktat, 557 used of violating Theban Perseus, last king of Macedon, son of Philip

law, 579; prisoner in Pherai, 585-6; his III. (or V .), his schemes to cause his " death, death in Thessaly, brother's iv. 420-21 ; judged by I. ivy

Pelopida. the. i. 190 with unjust seventy, 121-3, bis preparations

Peloponnesian War, treated by Thucydidcs, for a Roman war, 123-5; is denounced by t" Senate. 15 ; in 198-201 : up to the p Eumenes the 125-6; his war

J I I! to Nik . : from thi with !, 129-46; escapes Pella, and

.'' to the battle of Aigospol afterwards to Sa thrace, 446-7 ; a prisoner,

.'i Peloponnesos, i. 121 135, 138-40, 112. 145, it" . carried to Rome, dies in prison in

193, 211. Uba, 154.

Pelops, king of Klis, i. 237, 211. 123, II ; Persians, the, drama of AJSCbylos, n 497-500;

Pelousion (Pelusium), iv. 151. in. 16

Penelope. \ ife of Odyi Pestilence at Athens daring the Peloponnesian

in. rillliwl ill. Till 'iniiliiiii erl ii 10/ war, 233. 234, 213

\\ I Penetu, river of Thessaly, i 128 Petra, defile of,

Peukestas, iv, Fentakoaiomedimnoi, one ol the four I governor of Persia, 263, 264,

II Phaido. Plain's Dialogue, iii. 622 Penteliko*. Mount i Penthenileia qui Phaidriades. rocks at Delphi n I'll mil,-.

7< Phaintoa, in 1 town i. Pentheu*.il' cendant of Kadmo i Krcte, 18]

Penthilon. ion of ' » Phalalko Phokian strutc-

I colony, n 1 1 and

iini.i. i I town in I i Thi Peparethos. I ind oil

i rii.ii.inx . the Perdikkas I Ii I Macedonian,

i . II Ph. liar in, rani : I'., !96 >

GENERAL INDEX.

Phaleron. ancient . Philip III. (or V ). king of Macedon, in

Sts the

in Pharai. ties a) tir>t com] League, 35 1-5 ; earlj

iv. .iir 356; bis designs upon Rome, 376-7 ; ii.

Fhaii- 176 war with Rome, 380-82; his attempts in

Pharnabazos. Persian satrap, m. Thrace ami in Asia Minor. 382; second war

• >23. with Koine. 383-93; sympathizes with

Pharos, island, iv. IS 1 Rome againsl Antiochos, 403-4, 416; his

Pharsalos, in alt). 580, 581. humbled and disabled position against Rome,

Phayllos, Pbokian strategos in the Sacred War. 116-18; family disturbances, 419-21; his

IV I death. 121.

PhedcUas, Athenian sculptor, ii. I tiled, Philip of Krotona. worshipped on account of

; his principal works, in. Ins beauty, iii. 1 18.

at W. Philippeion Olympta, til. 93 i Philippolis. in In Pheidippides, the runner, it. W9 Thrace, founded Philip III .

Pheiditia aon meal at S 164. iv 91, Hn

Pheidon kin;; of Ajgos, n 46, 61. Philippos. Alexander's physician, iv. 145

i\ Pherai. in I 216; Lai 580; 64 Philiskos, envoy to Delphi, iii. 584.

Pherekydes of Leros logographer, n -210. Philokles. Athenian, iii. 391.

Pherekydes of Syros. ii. ->:>i>-7 and Philokrates. Athenian envoy to Philip of

Phigalia. ancient town of Ark: ! I; lit Ion, iv. 82

100 and note, 111, 567 . iv. 'W Philoktetes, i 196, 24

Phila, trife of Demetrios, iv 301. Philoktetes, tragedy of Sophocles, iii. 33.

Philaidai, Attic demos, iii. 87. Philolaos. legislator of Thebes, ii. 90.

Philiuna of Larissa, Thessalian dancing- Philolaos. philosopher, in. 544 note.

woman, mother of Arrhid Philomela, legend of, i 161 note.

Philip I. kins; of Macedon, iv. 11. PhUomelos. Phokian general, seizes the treas-

Philip n.. kniL.- n,sonof AmyntasII., - of Delphi, iv. (*il-2.

iv. 21-114; strength and suppleness of bis Philon, architect, iv

genius. 21-8 ; difficulties encountered by Philopoimeii, general of the Achaian League,

him, 22-3; his reforms, 23; re-organized "the last of the Greeks," i\. 348-9;

the Macedonian armj, 27-31; bis firs) deavors to strengthen the League, 381—2;

. 31-3; founds Philippi, reforms victory over Machan stility the coinage, 34; begins interference with towards the Romans, W9-10; attacks Mes-

I sene, the affair- 55 ; his marriage with Ul-12; capture and death, 112-13;

< rj at tlie Olympic I funeral, 413-] 1

hirtli of bis son, 56 ; his interference in Philotas, son of Pannenion, |>ut to death by

ulsed from Ther- i mder, iv. 132, 173 mopylae 6! hostility ol Philotas, governor ol Kilikia, w

iwards bim, 66-77 ; Phineus, uncle of Andromeda, i

I Phineus. blind aids the \

' •iii Athens, 7 V - '• Phlious. near Sikyot hemes 589

lllvna anil Phoenicia, i 1 13, 173; ii 1-

s -' in Thraee. Phcenicians. i. II". 156,173,177 IT-. I

invited inl by the A Phoibidas. Spartan, i

I 1. I Phoinikc, t] ol peiroa, iv .'>i

1 Ionian ii 171 iir in, I Phokaia. seaport, 119, ' Plink.u.ms. found Massalia, n IS

i Phokian War Phokikon

1 1 i 100 ;

GENERAL INDEX. 591

Phokion, Athenian orator and general, rival of Ploutos, comedy of Aristophanes, iii. 66, 79. iv. Demosthenes, 73. 89, 94, 97, 224; his in- Plutarch, i. 89. tegrity, 235-6 ; envoy to Antipatros, 236 Pnyx, place of assembly in Athens, i. 543, 544 loses Peiraieus and escapes to Polysperchon, note.

is ill received and sent back to Athens, Podaleirios. sou of Asklepios, i. 196. his trial, 253 ; 254-5 ; and death, 256 Poikile, Stoa, portico in Athens decorated

honor paid his remains, 257; misfortunes of with paintings, iii. 142, 189.

his position, estimate of his character, 258. Folemarch, Athenian general, ii 34.

Phokis, country of Central Greece, i. 133, Polis, Spartan leader of a colony, ii. 122. 135-6, 161, 194, 196; u. 99-106; m the Politics, theories of Plato and Aristotle on,

Median wars. ii. 460 : m t lie Aitolian League, iii. 625-31, 644.

iv. 329, 396. Politics, a treatise by Aristotle, iii. 641-4.

Phormion, Athenian admiral,, iii 238. 239. Polos of Agrigentum, Sophist, iii 424.

I'hratriai, religious and social subdivision "I Polybiades, harmost, in. 537.

the Athenian tribes, i 510; transformed Polybios, king of Corinth, l. 219.

under Kleisthenes, ii 31. Polybios, historian, iv. 414. 156

Fhrixos, legend of, l. 196, 223-4. Polychares, Messeuiau, ii. 180.

Phrygia, country of Asia Minor, i. 17S, 237; Polychromy, in Greek architecture, iii. u 170; iv. 137. 111-15, m statuary, 140-41.

Phrygians, the, i. 159. 174. Polydamas, friend of Hektor, i. 422.

Phryne of Thespiai, in. 120; poses in Praxi- Polydamas, tyrant of Pharsalos, iii. 581, 582,

teles tor tin- Aphrodite of Kuidos, Hi. 602, 583 606, 609. Polydeukes, one of the Dioskouroi, brother of

Fhryuichos, Athenian tragic poet, ii 339 Kastor, i 214, 216, 219, 227-

Phrynichos, Atheuiau oligarch, hi. 357, 361, Polydoros, king of Sparta, i. 454.

Polydoros, brother of Iasou, iii. 583.

Phrynon, Athenian genera], u I Polygnotos, painter of Thasos, receives citi-

Phthiotis, one of the four districts of Thessaly, zenship al Alliens, ni. 153, 15S, 534, 539,

i. 197 : u. 107. Polykleitos, sculptor, contemporary "1 l'liei-

Phyllidas, Theban, in 539. dias, in. 153, 157, L87, L88, l'.M note.

Pieria, a division of Macedon, i I- 9 Polykrates, tyrant ol Samos, i. 370; ii, 272-6.

Pinaros, a river of Kihkm. iv. 116. Polyneikes, sun of Oidipous, i. 222.

Pindar ( Pindaros), Boiotian lyric poet, i. 360; Polyphemos the Cyclops, i lis 261

18; iii 17.' Polyphron. brother "i Polydoros, iii. 583.

Pindos, Mount, i 128, 132, 135, 270, 271. Polysperchou, ..nc of Alexander's generals,

Pisa, town in Eh% ii. 55 ; iii. 589. appointed regent after the death of Antipa-

Pisatis. state of the IVloponnesos, ii. 54. tros, iv. 251. hostility ol Kassandros ami

Pisuttane-B, satrap 80 Lntigonos towards him, 252: is defeated in Pitholaos, iv 57 'in ece ."ni put to death by Autigonos, 266,

Pithon, one of Alexa i ieq ernorof Med Polyxene, daughter of Priam, beloved by

in i Pittakos of Mytilene. Achilleu and i acriflced his shade, 201 2,

Plataia, a citj of Boiotia, i. 1'- (03 n 19,

I'. I ; battle Pompeion, n building in Athens, iii. 105 note.

- of, I Poros, Indian king conquered by Uexander, < i in the S I 'H

Poaeidippos, ( tic purl, iv. 279 and note,

PoMldon, eek divinity, i. 128, 327-8,340,

Platalans, the, Bghl il M n itl 150 n. !02 \ll,r„,;, Posoidonia (Pautum) 196

.'in. •r, in H! Potidaia, ..i Chalkidike, ii 127, L30; in

PleiBtonax tin- Pelnponni ian war, iii 207-h, 810,

. I .i PleiBtos. rivet of Ph 101 by PI I tlaei

F don, ii 1

GENERAL lM'l'.V

t he possession of his Prasiai. captured bj Perikles, iii. 234 confirmed in Piatinas. territories, 274; success and cruelties in

'. Praxias. Athenian sculptor, iii ; husband of B wishes

Praxiteles, Athenian sculptor, iii 10S. 135; to marry al ra, sister of Alexander, iracter to Greek sculpture, 277; founder of an enlightened dynasty, BIO 278; receives Demetrios Phalereus, 283 defeated S ilamis, assumes th I ; Priam roy, i. 235, 256, 261 of repels the invasion of Egypt Priene. ni\ of Ionia, Li. 119, 236; iii king, 286; l>\ Demetrios P Problems in science and literature, i- 1-3. kntigonos and

; assists the Rhodiaus, and is i Prodikos of Keos. Sophist, i. '21->; iii 289-90 > unites by them 291 i Proitos descendant of Danaos, i 202, 205

; s - in against Antigonos, and re- Prokles king of Sparta, i. 1 !7. 140, l.~ a league

Prokles. tyrant of Bpidauros, u - covers lost territory, 294; results to him

Prokonnesos. an island in the Propontis, ii. of the victory of Lpsos, 295; recovers Cy- prus, 300; inters Greece, alliance with 173; a I alliance with Athens and Prokroustes. robber killed bj Theseus, i 209. Lysimachos, 301;

i. ' . of the Egyptian Prometheus, i 1+;. 198, 194; ii 350, 361. 30] founder Ins Prometheus Bound, tragedy of Aischylos, iii dynasty of the Lagidai; death, 304 and

11-13 . Prometheus Unbound, tragedy of Aischylos, Ptolemy II Philadelphos. son ol Ptolemy

in 13 ike, Ins hostility to Macedon,

iv. : Property at Sparta, i Ptolemy III Euergetes. son of Ptolemy Property m Greece, n . 540—41.

Propylaia, at the entrance of the Akropolis, Philadelphos and Arsinoe, invited by the

in. 101, I" Aili.-iian League to become their general-in- receives V. . 350. Protagoras. Sophist, ii. 567 ; iii. 17 120, 124, chief, iv. 331 Kleomenes,

133, 149 Ptolemy IV Philopator. son of Ptolemy

Protesilaos, the lirst (Jrcck killed before Troy, Euergetes and Berenike, worthless and dis-

!46 solute king, iv. :i.")U ; hostility t

Prousias. king ol Bithynia, ally of Philip of k le " s, 350-51 of Macedon, iv. 383 ; at war with t lie king of Ptolemy V Epiphanes. son Ptolemy s e, Philip ii. mi. II ; friendly to Perseus, 124; attacked by

wishi mediator between M III. of Macedon, h I Philometor, son of and Rome, 1 13 Ptolemy VI. Ptol

Proxenia, riejlit of hospitality, ii. 393 and mis and Kleopatra, hostilities with

Proxenos. Greek in the army of the younger \ni : I 129.

170, 17 1. 479. Ptolemy Keraunos, eldest son of Ptolemy

Prytaneia. period of office of the prytaneis, ii. md becomes

king of Macedon, iv, 303-4; disinherited by

Prytaneion, public home of the city, i his rather, the king of Egypt, on account of

Prytaneis tte who acted as his violeut character. 305 : defeated and

of the popular assembly, i killed bj the Gauls, 306. Purifications m the heroic age,

ii- 1"! taken l>\ of Prytanis. Delphi, Pydn I kidikc, Philip

1 1 Ps.immetichoB. kil Macedon, iv. 35 ; battle of,

_••. ; Psammetik, I 1 1 n ii pharai Pylagorai, members of the Ann

.1. ii 311.

' Ptolnnv killed Pylos. eily ..I" I 174 I-

war, i ! 7 during the Peloponnesian i"niy I Soter Pyrrha

nor of Pyrrhos, M licni in

Pyrrhoa, in of Achil Pyrrhos II

1 ;

GENERAL INDEX. 593

2S1 ; interferes in the affairs of Macedon, Salaithos, Spartan, defends Mytilene against

300 ; expelled from Macedou by Lysimachos, the Athenians, iii. 24S.

302; bis expedition iuto Italy, 305, 310; Salamis, an island in the Saronic Gulf, i. 131,

further attempts upon Macedon and Greece, 524 ; battle of (Greeks and Persians), ii.

310, 311 ; defeat, 311 ; death, 312. 460-73.

Pythagoras, ii. 214, 225-9, 295; iii. 153, Salamis, city of Cyprus, i 263 ; ii. 125, 288 ; 402 battle of (Demetrios Poliorkctes and Ptole-

Pythia, the priestess of Delphi, i. 293. my), iv. 286-9.

Pythian Games, ii. 376-SO. 3b7. Salmoneus, brother of Sisyplios, i. 196.

Python, a Byzantine orator, sent to Athens by Samos, Ionian island, ii. 119, 163, 175, 273,

Philip of Macedon, iv. 90. 274, 402, 474, 572. 575, 579 ; receives a Python, murderer of Kotys, iv 5S6 note. democratic constitution from Perikles, 5S3-4;

its ancient temple, iii. 95 ; during the Pelo-

ponnesian war, iii. 300, 353, 356, 362, 363,

366 under the Spartan hegemony, 4S5. 5^7 , "D AKOTIS, Egyptian village, iv. 154. ; iv. ; left to the Athenians by Philip Rammius of Brundusium. iv 128 238 note Alexander. 109. 158 its independence Religion, the Greek, in the heroic age, formed and ; from the faith of various peoples, the Pelas- restored. loS note.

Samothrace. island in the jEgsean Sea, i 326 gians, Phoenicians, etc., i. 314 el seq ; as

n 12s ; its Mysteries, 351-2; its temple, represented in Homer, 316 ; and in Hesiod, in, 416. 335; details of, 349-76; its mythology Santorin, its prehistoric objects and buildings, ridiculed by Aristophanes, ii. 69-75 ; bos.

i. 148, 149, 154, 156. tility of the philosophic spirit. 411-34; at Sappho, poetess, ii. 202-3. once sterile and fruitful, 551-4.

Sardis, capital of Lydia, i. 503; ii. 237; taken Republic, the, treatise of Plato, hi. 623, 627-8. and burned by the Ionians, 401. Rhadamanthos. i. 1S2.

Saronic Gulf, l. 130, 137, 174. Rhapsodists, poets of the heroic age. i. 287- Sarpedon, Cretan divinity, ii. 125. Rhea, Phrygian goddess, i. 327.

divinities, l. 349. Rhegion (Rhenium), a colony of Chalkidike, Satyrs, inferior Scipio Nasica Corculum, Roman officer in i 497; ii. 151; neutral during the Sicilian the Third Macedonian War, iv 414, 459. expedition, iii. 319 ; receives a Roman gar- Sculpture, aptitude of the Athenians for, iii. rison, iv. 469-70 ; hostilities with Dionysios, 116 23; colossal, 123-4; chryselephantine, ) ; captured by Dionysios, 193 125-30; its character in the fifth century Rhion, in Achaia, in 296 b.c, 132-41. Rhodes, i. 154, 150, 171. 1S1 ; during the Skamandros, river of the Troad, i. 235, 252, Peloponnesian war. iii 353, 372, 37s; i\

551, 589; dun i Skapte Hyle, in Thrace, mini's of, ii. 129. ged by Demetriot Polioi 1 1 tes, iv. 290- U Skarpheia, battle of, iv. 460-61. 91 ; iii the Third Macedoni in w, 12 Skiathos, ally of Athens, iv, 46 note, ita school of eloquei Skillous, .ii-. of Kli i. 425; iii. 517. Rhoontopatea. satrap, ii sl) Skione, lown in Pallene, iii. 279 Roxana, daughter of a Pei ian noble, becomes

Skiron, robber lulled by Theseus, i. 209 and tin- wife of Alexander the Great, iv. 176 216. 218, 220. 267; pul to death bj K.. Skopadai, a family of Krannon, ii. 108. .'7 5.

Skopaa, sculpii.r, iii. 601, 603, 618, 614 and Royalty bens ftbol- 518 Segesta, Sicilian city, asks aid from Athens also , i Belinous, iii 309 Bee Egesta.

..-.... I. Nikator, founder of the Syrian Sabazios. Pli divinity, iii 71,446 Selcukon generals, i* Sabellianii, lb i larchy, one of Ucxander's

.") 22i», is governor v.\ ; made Sacrificcii. in I 1 Eumi pi iteel thi Baguntum. Spanish I i- S-lk.ll IHH',1 r famil} "I \ tk • from Ant

wot ;

i.l. NKK \l. IM'I \.

I Slums robber killed bj Theseus, i 209.

t and returns t,. Sinope, colony of Miletos on the Kuxine, ii.

p pwer, 27 l • I- 'J. Sipbai, town of Boiotia, in 272.

Sisyphos. founder of Corinth, i. 196, 209

-till further rritory, Siris. Italian city, ii. tip"). nJke, the daughter of Sitalkes, king of the Thracian Odrysai, ally of

and quarrels with his father-in- Athens, in 229, 111. iv. 13.

. - > of tin- IJ I letrios of P Skopas. strategos Aitolians, iv. 3-29.

makes him prisoner, Skyllis, sculptor, ii. 75, I ">ss; simachos, ami adds Macedon to his Skyros. island of, ii. 539, j v . 109. |

(1 bj Ptolemy Smyrna, n 119, 241; iv. 155.

>—1. Sogdiana, occupied by Alexander, i\. 177 -

Selge 1'isidia. ii 125. Sogdianos, Persian king, iii

Selinous, oily of Sicily, ii. 137; during the Sogdian Rock. the. a fortress taken by Alex-

iv. s an expedition, 309, 332, 353; taken bj r, 17 .

— -"> the Carthaginians, 4-7 1 : retaken b Sollion, town of Akarnauia, iii, 223, 281.

nys Solon, descendant of K.odros, Ins life, i. 527-

Sellasia. valley of. i. 436; held by Epameinon- lis legislation, 530- 32 ; u. 208.

attle of. iv 349. Solygeia. near Corinth, i. 280.

Selymbria. town in Thr.i i by Philip Solymoi, ii 125

-I tcedon, \\ Sophists, the, iii. 419-34; their effect on

Bemele, mother of Dionysos, i 170. Athenian morals, 419-21; their doctrines,

Semites, ii. 25. i ; attack upon i hem hy Aristophanes,

Senate (bomle), at Athens, in tin- istitution 12! 32; their usefulness, 133. 13-1

- ">ii7 -.'1-13; on, i 540-3; in the tune of Pericles, Sophokles. ii. : iiL bis victory

• \ischylos at the Greal Dionys that Senate ( S larta, i. A5 1—2. Ins work compared with of Ai-

Senate, the Roman, its dealings with In ;.'7 ; tragedies n«» extant, -37-13

Macedon, iv. 3s]- 167 Sophonetes of Stymphalos, in the pay of the

Seriphos, island of. i. 204. hi king, in 170

s Sestos, el F the Thracian Chersouesos, Sophronistai, in charge of the Epheboi. ii. 5 I

8; i\. !)7. 129 ami Sosikles, ( 'oriuthian.

Seuthes, king of the Thracian Odrysai, rein Sosistratos, tyrant of Syracuse, i\ 506-7.

s *.. i by the Ten Thousand, in I Sosthenes. expels the Kelt- from Macedon.

Seuthes, Tin u Ins hostilities with iv 306

-71 Sounion. promontory and demos on the

Seven before Thebes. The. tragedj Utika, i 130, I 14; its famous temples,

iii. 107 and uoi

Sicily Sparta, i 438; before Lykonrgos, I3>

expedition, iii. ; under Lykourg

der il See also Aga sway in the Pcloponv

thoklea. Dion Dionysios. Syracuse with Athene iinder tl

Side i. u 125. 9 . during the Mediae strug-

Sigeion. city of the Troad, ii - gle with Athens in the Pelopo

Sikcloi. lir-t inhabit \ taiuoi.

Sikyon. earl) 31 ; her dcelm

i 1.'. 1 153 . in the Spata, miMlern \ 1 50, 154,

ied bj 1 56.

heios, river of I

Silenoa. Bpoalroa of Olbia. Stoic philosopher, ii

. Sim-. i Sphaktcria. island off thi Stmonidea of Keo* .

GENERAL INDEX. 595

;. Sphettos. demos of Attika, i. 515. 278, leon, 500-506 ; return of anarchy and of Sphodrias, a Spartan banuost, in 536 : his tyranny, 506-14; falls under the power of attempt upon Peiraieus, 549 50 Home, 514. Spina, at the mouth of the Po, ii. 591. Syrakosios, the demagogue, iii. 6S ; proposes Spitamenes, a Sogdian chief, las treachery. a law against the comic poets, 72. iv. 174, 179. Syria, i, 150.

Sporades, islands, i l-2'i. Stadion, at Alliens, on the right bank of the

iii. llissos, 106-7. rnAG-OS, name of the Thessalian dictator, ii. -»- Stageira, in Chalkidike, birthplace of Aris- 108

. in 275 ; taken by Plulip of Macedon. Tainaron, Cape, i. 129.

iv. 74. Tauagra, citj of Boiotia, ii. 90, 553.

Stateira, wife of Darius, i\ . 71. 1 IS—9. Tanais, river, ii, 175. Stateira, daughter of Darius and wife of Alex- Tantalos, king of Phrygia, i. 237 ander, iv. 203 and note, 218, 220. Sec Tarentum (Taras), city of Italy, ii 143, 296. also Barsine. Tarsos, city of Kilikia, ii. 125, 182 ; iii. 471.

Stenyklaros, Messenian town, i. 277, 345, Tartessos. Spanish city, ii. 153.

478, 198 Taucheira, in Kyrenaika, ii. 157 Stesichoros, Sicilian, inventor of comedv, ii. Tauris (the Crimea), ii. 174-

in. 303. 207 . Tauromenion, city in Sicily, iv. 490.

Stesilaos, Athenian general at Marathon, ii. Tauros, mountain range in Kilikia, iv. 141.

415 Taxila, city of India, iv. 189.

Sthenelaidas, iii cphor. 211. Taygetos, Mount, i. 131, 431, 477-S. Strategos, general of the army at Athens, ti Tegea, citj of Arkadia, i. 423, 477, 49S-500 168 note; supreme magistrate in Achaia, iv. ii. 53 ; its temple of Athene, iii. Ill, 154 334; military and civil chief officer in during the Peloponnesian war, 291, 297

."'II s 27-8. ; occupied by Eparaeinondas, 591-3

Stratokles, Athenian strategos, killed at threatened by Aratos, iv. 343; taken by

Cliaironeia, i\. 105 Antig is, 347.

Stratonike, daughter ol Demetrios, becomes Teiresias, the soothsayer, i. 222-3, 293

the wife of Seleukos, n 297 Telamou, father of Aias, i. 21 I,

Stratos. capital of Akarnania. in. 237 Telchines, fabulous earlj inhabitants of Rhodes,

Stryraon. river of Mao don, ii HI, 536. i 163, 171.

Stymphalos, Lake, i L32. Telekloa, king of Sparta, i. 139, 176,197.

Stymphalos, town in Arkad Telemachoa, son of ' Idj isi us, i. 263, 267, 383.

Styx, the river, i. 132 Telephanes, 9eulptor, iii 194 note.

Suppliants, th L6 Telesilla of Argos, poetess, i. 502; iii. 157-

Susa. capita] ol :upied by Alexander, Teleutias, Spartan general, iii. 537.

iii. 585 : Temenion, town near Argos, i, 280.

"' 1-5 Temenos, i. Sybaris. city I of the Herakleids, 277- ;

the citj ofThourion b torn a Tempe. valley of, i. 129, 272-3.

island I Syennesis 171 Tenedos, of, ii. 1 15, i" . iii. 16 nole, 1 12. island, Sykophantai. informers in Atbciu ii 603 I Tenos, iv. 37-

'•, Sykourion , h 111 TeoB, I. .man city, ii. 1 19; iii 352, 380.

Bymmories. Tereus, Tbracian king, i. 161 and note.

'. 1. TVi pandros, I ii. .'"I Teiikros. 8yraciiH< (01 ; brothel of Aid

before the Athi i lion into Teuta, queen of Ii 171-5

rul under Hicron, 30 Thais, betnira, with Mi war torioui 167 Mileton, ami dition, Tbales of mathematician ,

', popular party in. g i

iv ; Thali ta in pa t, i i 18,

; i Tllll'l Til unyi is I i ic i an. i 161. 1

GENERAL INDEX.

Thapaakos. ford of the Euphrates, iv 161. Theoxene. Thessalian woman of rank, iv. 417-8.

- Ther.i i Thargelia. betaira of Miletos, iii L99, 200. 154 Thargelion, Athenian festival of the month, Theramenes, Atheuiau, in :!'J6.

in. Theias, Spartan, i I 10.

i Thasos, island off the coasl of Thrace, i 1 12; Thermodon, river of Pontos, 210

iii iv. i Thermopylai, the gate of Greece, i 273; ii. ii. 188, I" ; 276 ;

I I 1 i ii< , di fended he Persians >y Theagenes. tyrant . 86

Theano. priestess, iii. Leonidas and three hundred Spartans

Theatre, the Athenian, iii. 1-85. iccupied by Philip of Macedon, i

I of, iv Thebe. fl lander of md battle

<>l iv. iv. Thermos, capital Aitolia, 356.

Thebes. !05 ; ii. 19, 41 Thersandros, son of Polyneikes, i 223.

iii. duringthe Pelopon Thersites, killed by Achilleus, i. 801, 520; 157 i

Theseion. i32 iii. 99. . its importance temple in Al j i war, 219, 290, W2

in (,: "1 of supre- Theseus, legendary hero, i. 209 11, 273, 376,

defeated at Chaironeia, iv. 509 Thesmophoria, a great festival and Mysteries I ; sacked bj All

irati d in in of Demeter, Thebes, citj ol Thessaly, i\ Athens honor

Themis, oracle of, i. 192. 19-50 Themistokles. his lurth and parentag Thesmothetai, Athenian archons, i. 518.

city, i ii 445, his , comparison of his Thespiai. Boiotian 272; 90,

|i.l .">'>.'!. .")"i7. character with that of Aristeides, l-'"> 6j . in 290, called father of Greek , Thespis. the lij s to strengthen the power <>f Athenian,

Athens, 127 8; explains the oracle concern tragedy, ii -'7n-71 iv. » — Thessalians. the, i. ; iii. 296, 510; ing Salamis, 149 j 1 I measnres to bring

aboul the battle of Salamis, 151-3, I H four districts of Thes- his victory, 171-:!; negotiates secretly with Thessaliotis. one of the

3 Indros, 177 saly, ii 10? ; | Thessalonike. sister ol Alexander the Great, type ol the Greek race, 501 . ne for the benefit of Athens, 502; envoy at Sparta, u 21*,

his plan ol Thessalos, son of Peisistratos, ii 17-

liberal measures be is Thessalos, soil of Khnon, in. 323 I n. 1" Thessaly, i in. L58, unpopular in Athens, 523- 1 ; acci L2S LSI, 278;

580-89 . iv, 64, B3. treason, 525 . takes refuge with Ad

i four M i 26 and Thetes, persons composing the lasl of the kinir of thi i Solon, if irtaxerxes, where he die classes established at Athens bj

in M ignesia, -ti'' Thetis, nymph, mother of Achilleus, i a Theodoros, hierophant, iii Thibron, Spartan, seeks to establish kingdom

Theodoros of Samoa, engraver, h In k\ renaika, ii i 1 Thoudippos, to death with Pho- TheodoBi i Tauric Chcrsoiie: condemned Thaognla kion

Thourion (Thyrii), in Italy, ii 148; built

iii • npon the site of Sybaris, 591 ; Theogony, the I

Theoklcs (OS in Sicily, ii Thrace, 170, !19. Theoklos, Ml Thracians, estimate of them bj Si

Theokritot iii 158. ,0

Mil>-. Li. Theophrastos, |>li ! Tiii.iByboulos, tyranl of

pompoa, Tiii.myboiilos. brother "i Hieron, iii

Thr-' ii innually to Tin.isyboiilos, Athenian, iii

Tli'

TllUHVUcil ' '• of Ch.ilkrdmi Tli' : i Q the Thi.mymachoa GENERAL INDEX. 59

Three Thousand, the, Athenian citizens desig- Triballians, tribe conquered by Alexander,

nated by the Thirty and invested with privi- iv. 122.

leges, iii. 400, 402-5. Tribes at Athens, i. 510.

Thucydides (Thoukydides), historian, son of Tributes, paid to Athens by the allies, ii.

Oloros, his birth, iii. So : his property in 603.

Thrace, 87 note ; his History of the Pelopon- Trierarchy, the most expensive leitouryia at s aesiun War, 7-91 ; is exiled from Athens Athens, ii 470, 604. after the loss of Amphipolis, 276. Triparadeisos, city of Ccele-Syria, where Al-

Thyestes, brother of Atreus, i 214. 241. exander's generals met and divided among

Thymbron, Spartan, iii. 500. 503. themselves the empire, iv. 250 arid note. Thymoites, descendant of Triphylia, Theseus, i. 516. a district of Elis, i. 4S7 ; ii. 54 ; iv.

Thyrea, city of Kynouria, i. 500. 3S9.

Tigris, river of western Asia, crossed by Alex- Triptolemos, inventor of agriculture, i. 503, ander, iv. 161.

Timagoras of Chalkis, painter, iii 153. Triptolemos, a lost tragedy by Sophokles, iii.

Timaios, work by Plato, iii. 624 22.

Timanthes, painter, iii. 193. Tritaia, one of the four cities at first uniting in

Timesilaos, tyrant of Stnope, ii. 590. the Achaian League, iv. 317.

Timokles of Sikyon, iv. 1517. Tritons, i 349.

Timokreon of Rhodes, poet, ii. 521 Troad, the, region of Amu Minor, i. 174.

Timoleon, sent bj t lorinth to enfranchise S\ rsi- Trogilos, port of, iii. 330.

iv. institutes ense, 500; reforms in the city Troizen, city of Argolis, i. 277, 279, 424 ; ii.

and defeats the Carthaginians, 50] : over- 59 60, .'Ml.

throws the Sicilian tyrants, 502; resigns Trophouios. rave of, at Lrbadeia, its Mysteries,

his authority and lives as - lizen in 321-6.

Syracuse. 502-5 ; his death and funeral Tros, king of [lion, i. 211.

honors. 505—6. Troy (Hum), citj of Asia Minor, i. 152 and

Timomachos of Byzantion, painter, iii note : war of, 232-112.

157. Trytties, divisions of Attic tribes, i. 510.

Timotheos, SOU of Kouon, Athenian admiral, Tydeus, lather of Diomedes, i. 215.

titans, iii. 555, 556 ; accused Tymphrestos. Mount, in Aitolia, i. 130

by the Athenians, he i

557,558, 658; agai ives command of Tyndareus, king rta, i. 214, 436-7. Tyras, the Athenian fleet, iv. 35 ; again condemned, river (the Dniester), ii. 173-4.

exiles himself t" ( Ihalkis Tyre, ii. 109 ; taken by Alexander, iv. 149-

Tiribazo8. satrap ol Armenia, iii 181 51. Tyrtaios, . i. Tiryns, city of Argolis, 501 poet, 460, 488 and note, 492 ; ii. ;

ii •jus 59 ; destroyed bj I Ik \

Tisamenos. of Oil tes, i. 277, 137.

TiaamenoB, the soothsayer, made a citizi

Bparta, i H7 TTICTORY, the Wingless {Nike Apteroi), V Tisiphonos, one "I inder ' mpli of, in Athens, ii 101, los 9 and

Pherai, i\

Tiaaaphernes. tatrap ol I

>oe.

Titana, tfai TTTALLS, iIm Long connecting Athens with

Tltbraaatea Peiraieui, begun by Tl ii told ii aid Tolmidc« note : continued by Kimon 5 W

Torch-race, [i heir demolition required b) Bpai la, iii

i. built bj km,-, i ,i

Torone, Uaccd n bj Waapa, the, i I\ "i An lophanea iii 65,

ll bi Woman, ndition in thi i

Trachiiii.ui W<,m. "', ,i D ipho ."i .. ii. I Jparl 3 . in

At I.' ;

: \r.i;\I. INDEX.

"^7" ANTHIPPE. il and Zankle. Bee Messina.

Zeno, philosopher, ii. 225. 560; iii. 158. Xanthippos 19] 1JI. Zeugitai, members of the third of the classes

of i iti/.eus institnted \>j Solon at Athens.

' Xanthippe- nkles. iii i-> I i "jiio.

Xanthippos, S Zeus. of the ( llympians, father of gods and men, sends the deluge of Deukalion,

Sardis. historian, i 861 : in 167 i. 192 Xauthos of ; father ol the Hellenic race, 194 father of Poljdeukes, '>li>; interposes in the Xanthos 36] war, 246, 249; giver of the Palladion

Xeuokles iii llii t" Tt d the world,

Xenon tyrant •>! Hermionc, iv. 334. identified with the Roman Jupiter,

Xenophanes, philos I ; iii. 314; husband of Here. 31J : worshipped in

II". in the form of a stone, 320 of Pelas- ;

Xenophon. son of Gryllos, philosopher and gic origin, 321-2 ; son ol Kmnos and Hheia,

. pie "I Sokrates, i. 153, 125 . Ml Homeric idea of, 343,350; Pauhelle-

tu u: -. leads the retreat of lithets applied to hilt),

I military many father 178-83 ; service assumed forms, 353;

\-ii under Tissaphernes, 508; Gg 160; Hesiodic idea of, 363-8;

-i y iblishes himself at Elis, 517; lodaimon, 4 ; avenger of injustice,

his estimate of the result of the battle of 411-13 ; worshipped in Krete, ii. i'M<

• *- literary w irk, t — ". Zeus iii 4'.)1 his visited 6 Ammon, ; temple by

Xerxes, kin:: of Persia, his expedition into inder the (ireat. iv I

1 L5 ; u. 132-500. Zeus Eleutherios. u 13.

Xouthos, legendary hero. sou of llellen. i Zeus Ithomatos, worshipped at Kessene, i.

i 183-4 .

Zeus Lykaios, worshipped in Arcadia, ii. 49.

AKYNTHOS. ii. iii. aO iii. ; oTT z island, 5iW ; 837, Zeus Olympios. ii 19 : statue of, by Pheidias, s Zaieukos, lawgiver of the Lokrians, ii 1 t in 107-8, 195, 196-9, 139, 153

note; iii 158. Zeuxis, painter, iii 157,190; ii 16

Zalmojris, divinity ol the Getai, i L61-S. Zopyros of Herakleia, u 15.

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