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Carotenoids and Its Evaluation in Aquaculture Feed Engineering of tomato for the sustainable production of ketocarotenoids and its evaluation in aquaculture feed Marilise Nogueiraa, Eugenia M. A. Enfissia, Maria E. Martínez Valenzuelab, Guillaume N. Menardc, Richard L. Drillerb, Peter J. Eastmondc, Wolfgang Schuchb, Gerhard Sandmannd, and Paul D. Frasera,1 aSchool of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, United Kingdom; bFraunhofer Chile Research, Las Condes, Santiago 7550296, Chile; cPlant Sciences, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden AL5 2JQ, United Kingdom; and dBiosynthesis Group, Molecular Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60323 Frankfurt, Germany Edited by Natasha V. Raikhel, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Riverside, CA, and approved August 31, 2017 (received for review May 19, 2017) Ketocarotenoids are high-value pigments used commercially across of the total feed costs associated with aquaculture production are due multiple industrial sectors as colorants and supplements. Chemical to the price of the carotenoid feed supplements required. synthesis using petrochemical-derived precursors remains the pro- To date, chemical synthesis has been the production method of duction method of choice. Aquaculture is an example where ketocar- choice. Like many such processes, it is intrinsically linked to the otenoid supplementation of feed is necessary to achieve product chemical refining of fossil fuels, using by-products as precursors. viability. The biosynthesis of ketocarotenoids, such as canthaxanthin, The procedures are expensive, have detrimental environmental phoenicoxanthin, or astaxanthin in plants is rare. In the present study, impact, and lead to a final product that contains reaction con- complex engineering of the carotenoid pathway has been performed taminants and a mixture of stereoisomers of which the nonnatural to produce high-value ketocarotenoids in tomato fruit (3.0 mg/g dry form typically predominates. The consumer’sdemandfor“non- weight). The strategy adopted involved pathway extension beyond artificial” colorants has driven the industry to identify and develop β-carotene through the expression of the β-carotene hydroxylase new sources of carotenoids to replace chemical synthesis (6). For (CrtZ) and oxyxgenase (CrtW) from Brevundimonas sp. in tomato fruit, example, algal platforms have been used but logistical problems followed by β-carotene enhancement through the introgression of linked to their slow growth have inhibited broad implementation β β a lycopene -cyclase ( -Cyc) allele from a Solanum galapagense back- (7). Other microbial sources, such as Xanthophyllomyces dendro- ground. Detailed biochemical analysis, carried out using chromato- rhous (formally Phaffia rodozyma)andParacoccus carotinifaciens graphic, UV/VIS, and MS approaches, identified the predominant (Panaferd-AX), have been and are presently used. However, on a carotenoid as fatty acid (C14:0 and C16:0) esters of phoenicoxanthin, production cost-basis, a plant-based source remains the most eco- present in the S stereoisomer configuration. Under a field-like envi- nomically viable (8, 9). The only plant capable of ketocarotenoid ronment with low resource input, scalability was shown with the (astaxanthin/phoenicoxanthin) formation is Adonis aestivalis,which potential to deliver 23 kg of ketocarotenoid/hectare. To illustrate is not amenable to agricultural production and contains toxic al- the potential of this “generally recognized as safe” material with min- kaloids (10, 11). Thus, a genetic engineering approach of an agri- imal, low-energy bioprocessing, two independent aquaculture trials cultural crop offers a viable alternative. were performed. The plant-based feeds developed were more effi- To date, numerous proof-of-concept studies have been reported cient than the synthetic feed to color trout flesh (up to twofold in- that have shown how complex pathway and cellular engineering crease in the retention of the main ketocarotenoids in the fish fillets). can deliver dramatic changes in desirable compounds. However, This achievement has the potential to create a new paradigm in the renewable production of economically competitive feed additives for the aquaculture industry and beyond. Significance carotenoids | genetic intervention | tomato | aquaculture | Ketocarotenoids are high-value pigments used in the food and industrial biotechnology feed industry to confer color. Aquaculture is a good example, where the addition of carotenoids to the feed is essential for the arotenoids represent one of the largest classes of pigments coloration of trout or salmon flesh, and thus product viability. In Cfound in nature (1); however, only a small number are used this study, complex engineering has been carried out to produce commercially. Ketocarotenoids, such as astaxanthin or cantha- a renewable source of ketocarotenoids for use as feed additives. Production in tomato fruit has enabled the testing of this “gen- xanthin, are among the highest-value carotenoid pigments on the erally recognized as safe” material with low-energy minimal market (2). These carotenoids possess a characteristic chemical ′ β bioprocessing in aquaculture trials to demonstrate production, keto moiety on the 4 or 4 position on the -ionone ring and can technical, and economic feasibility of the system. This achieve- ′ also exhibit hydroxyl groups on the 3 and 3 positions (Fig. 1). ment represents a potential paradigm in the bioproduction of The decoration of the β-ionone ring present in cyclic carotenoids specialty and bulk chemicals without our reliance on fossil fuel- can only be performed by a limited number of enzymes. These derived chemical processes. enzymes are promiscuous, and thus a myriad of intermediates/ products can arise. The best-characterized ketocarotenoid-forming Author contributions: M.N., E.M.A.E., R.L.D., W.S., G.S., and P.D.F. designed research; M.N., E.M.A.E., M.E.M.V., and G.N.M. performed research; P.J.E., W.S., G.S., and P.D.F. enzymes are those from marine bacteria (3). contributed new reagents/analytic tools; M.N. analyzed data; P.D.F., W.S., and G.S. se- The predominant commercial uses of ketocarotenoids are as cured funding; and M.N., E.M.A.E., and P.D.F. wrote the paper. feed supplements in the aquaculture and poultry industry to con- The authors declare no conflict of interest. vey aesthetic color and nutritional benefit. Without these supple- This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. ments, adequate coloration of fish flesh cannot be achieved and an Freely available online through the PNAS open access option. economically viable product cannot be obtained (4). In addition, 1To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: [email protected]. the pigments also confer beneficial animal husbandry aspects that This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10. enable intensification of the industry (5). It is estimated that 15–25% 1073/pnas.1708349114/-/DCSupplemental. 10876–10881 | PNAS | October 10, 2017 | vol. 114 | no. 41 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1708349114 Downloaded by guest on September 25, 2021 Endogenous pathway O HC HC 3 3 HC3 HC3 CH3 CH CH HC CH CH CH HC CH CH CH 3 3 CRTW 3 3 3 3 CRTW 3 3 3 3 CH CH 3 3 HC3 CH3 CH3 CH3 HC CH CH CH HC CH CH CH 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 CH3 -Carotene O CRTZ Echinenone O Canthaxanthin CRTR-B1 CRTZ HC3 HC3 CH3 CH3 CH3 O CH3 CH3 HC CH HC3 HO CH 3 3 HC HC CH CH CH 3 3 3 3 3 3 HC3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CRTW O 3-OH-Echinenone CRTW and/or HC3 OH HC3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 HC CH CH CH HC CH HO CH 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 HO CH3 O -Cryptoxanthin CH CH Phoenicoxanthin 3 3 HC3 CH3 CH3 O 3́-OH-Echinenone CRTR-B1 CRTZ CRTZ O HC OH HC3 OH 3 HC3 OH HC CH CH CH HC CH CH CH HC CH CH CH 3 3 3 3 CRTW 3 3 3 3 CRTW 3 3 3 3 CH CH HC CH CH3 CH3 HC CH CH CH HC CH 3 3 3 3 HO 3 3 3 3 3 3 HO CH3 HO CH3 Zeaxanthin O Adonixanthin O Astaxanthin Fig. 1. Representative scheme of the ketocarotenoid pathway introduced in plant. Enzyme names are as follow: CRTR-B1, plant carotene β-hydroxylase 1; CRTW, bacterial carotene ketolase; and CRTZ, bacterial carotene hydroxylase. The purple and blue shadings depict the position of the newly added functional group (hydroxyl or ketone, respectively). very few reports exist that actually show the effectiveness of the of lycopene (77% of total carotenoids) and a small level of keto- approaches under “real-life” scenarios. In the present article, carotenoids (2%) (SI Appendix,TableS1). ZWØRIØ were red natural variation in combination with complex engineering has tomatoes predominantly accumulating lycopene (68% of total been performed to create a plant-based renewable source of carotenoids), ZWØRI tomatoes had an orange color representa- ketocarotenoids. The production, technical, and economic fea- tive of their β-carotene content (66%), and the ZWRI tomatoes sibility of the material has been demonstrated in comparison with had a deep red color reflecting the presence of the ketocarotenoids existing products presently used in the aquaculture industry. The (87%) (SI Appendix, Fig. S1 and Table S1). Chromatographic data generated have generic implications for the production of analysis of the ZWRI line revealed a complex ketocarotenoid high-value specialty and bulk chemical production for renewable SCIENCES sources. profile (Fig. 2). The main ketocarotenoids found were phoeni- coxanthin (in its free and esterified forms, ∼45%) and cantha- APPLIED BIOLOGICAL Results xanthin (∼35%) (SI Appendix,TableS1). The stereoisomer of Generation of a High Ketocarotenoid Tomato Line (ZWRI). Astable phoenicoxanthin was determined as an S configuration (Fig. 2). ZWRI tomato line was generated from the genetic crossing of ZW High-resolution MS/MS was used to identify phoenicoxanthin es- and RI tomato. ZW lines overexpress the bacterial genes carotene ters (C14:0 and C16:0). No statistically significant differences of hydroxylase (CrtZ) and carotene ketolase (CrtW), which are es- total fatty acid content of the tomatoes were observed (SI Ap- sential for the production of ketocarotenoids from endogenous pendix,Fig.S2).
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