OF EDUCATION WILLIAM JOHN COOPER.Commisaioner , ,Ks"

Home , Ministry of Justice

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENTOF THE INTERIOR RAY LYMAN 'WILBUR,Secretary OFFICE OF EDUCATION WILLIAM JOHN COOPER.Commisaioner , ,ks":-. . . Jr% '

a. !IN;"air NM" en. BULLETIN, 1930,No. 12 4

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NATIONALMINISTME 0 a. OF EDUCATION %''

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s lb 4 .6 By ;

a JAMES F. AgEis. V Chief, Division ofForeign School Systems Office of Education

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UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTINGOFFICE a. o WiSHINGTON:1930 .4' 41, . Farsale by the Superintendentof Doomed.. Washington, a , 0 . h hitS'D casts TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pagp Letter of transmittal vii

OM AM NM OD Gm 011. 00 Foreword.,______WI ..... Ob OP OD ...... a. im mor ... ia ...... 4... dim Am mo ix National ministriesof education ix

Purpose of thestedy____. .... IX Nature of the data______...... _ ix Chapter 1.A brief historyof the devélopmentof national ministries of . education 1 General statement 1

The Eastern Hemispherein the eighteenth, nineteentholindtwentieth . _ centuries_ __, _ _.,_, ,...... IW MP NO 1

The WesternHemisphere_ _ .....,.. ____10.-,04. .. .0 la a. we ow 5 The character of theministryasshown by its title 5 Countries withoutnational ministries of education, _ ... , ...... __ 6 Chapter II.Generalcharacteristics of theoffice of minister and of the ministry of education.. . ______-...... -----.. -.- ..... -11M,4. 7 Types of nAtional goirernmentin which the ministries function.____ 7 The office of ministeltapartisan political office . 9 Professional qualificationsof the minister______...... ______4 9 The term of office______.10 Limits of authorityasto kinds of schools, andasto 'areas_ _ ___ 12 The internal organizationof the ministry in Italy,Belgium, Persia, and Uruguay 13 Organizations advisoryto the ministry in Hungary, laelgium, Spain, , _ England, New Zealand,and Bulgaria__MO MD ow dmaOD ______,... mae. 17 Chapt;rIII.Pop*tion,cultural, economiik and otherconditions affect-

ing the wórk ofthe ministry of education adli 25 - '"- - - - - Populations andtheir cultural status.,__ . ___1 WM 25

Cbmpulsory educationand illiteracy___ GO IMO 41. MI _ am 4w. Ma AID ______ow 40 IIO dm.IM 4. 26 Public opiniontoward education______...... _ 27 Population in school.;percapita wealth and other economicconditions 28 Changes in,nationalthought 29 National disasters 31 . Chapter I.V..--Generalfunctions of the ministry ofeducation_11______MD IM 32

Administrative-executivefunctionsam MD a, ...... 40 ea .. OW ...... Imo 00 mo 32 Legislative functions 34 Advisory-consultative dutiesand school inspection - 35 _ Research ..... ___1116-111.mapm-11100.14101140111 ..... 36 . , Judicial functions______up ..... I M. aP sow as. ...IM ...... ODa. mi. ...os 37 `Recordingand publishing activities 38 Chapter V:Therelation of the national ministryto elementary iducation 11 ,

Introcructioñ 49...... 4lb IMP 'MP Mb be Mib 41 Examples in*Honduras,New Zealand, BIlgium, ArgeAtina,Sweden, _ Bulgaria, andSiam ...... 411 42 /.ae.neral.principles...... 11111111M...... 111 ...... 110140401060 59 : . 74 . Iv TABLE OFCONTENTS

ChapterVI.The relation ofthe national ministry Page .to secondary education 62 Gefteralnature of the relationship 62 Principles and practices in secondaryeducation_ i ma ant DIM IIMmla MID MO 62 I. The secondaryschoolanational school 64 Definition ofthe secondaryschoolthe threetypes 64 The Latin language type: Spain,Portugal, andRumania:__ Man. 67 , The Germanicplah: Yugoslavia,Denmark, and Hungary______.: 72 The Englishlanguage countries:Irish Free State,New Zealand, England, andWales______O.,,,,,. On 75 Chapter VII.;Therelation of thenational ministryto higher education.. 79

Introduction__ _ _ Min - - _ MO 4M1 __ _ _ -.- _ _ _ _ - -_ .. _L_ _ _ MID - -_- -_-- 79 Freedomfrom nationalcontrol in tht BritishCommonwealth of Nations, theUnion of SouthAfrica, and Argentina 80 Close nationalcontrol in Spainand Péru 84 The relationshipin FLIngaryand Finland ______...... _ 88 Chapter VIII.The Boardof Education ofEngland and Wales______-..- 90 Generalcharacter and legalstatus_ 90 Units of administration ma aim ... NO a a 92 Fowers oflocal authoritiesand of the board;the inspector...te______92 Provision ofnational funds 95 The board'sregulations; curriculaof the_ schools 95 The hoard'scontrol of teachertraining, employment,qualification, _ _ and salariem_ M. MD MD mo IMM MD MIwe MMA 411M Ma. DD. map. .110 01111maam. OM MED ADIND dM am . MD 411M 96 ,rrhehoard's relationto the universities _ _ 97

m. Exa.minations d n. MO am. a ma axe MD M. ME, a 98

Private sclmols__ DO. _ . _ _ _ aew MI* 98

Childhealth__ - _ MP MID 99

Organizationof the ministry;advisory bodies,research_ _ _ _ _ 99 Statisticalmeasuresof the board'sresponsibility;expenditures__ _ __- 101 ChapterIX.--7-The Ministryof PublicInstruction and FineArtsin _ France_ _ _._ 41M. dab MI aofan am e. 103 The Imperial University; the mD ministry______.. _ _ _ 103 Civil andeducationaladministration______103 The minister; the inspectorsgeneral; the centraloffice. .. m. Om ______104 The superior council and otherconsultative bodies__ MN. mb an. 105 The 411M rector and the 4IM DM IMP MID MO MID DID SIM MIN. 11. am DNB. academy inspectors ...... , 105 Departmentalcouncils, primaryschools, and schoolinspectors_ __ 106 Municipalschool commissiotisand committees ófpatronage______107 , ,,,f Primary school teachers______Amp MDDM.M IUDow ..... eMI 1111110 e eam.O. Oa 109 ,Secondaryeducation andteachers...... 109 Technical education; thesubsecretariat fQr physicaeducation... 40111. OD 110 Finearts *ma IN 11. 4IND 112 Higher education 111 113,

Private 411D schools_ M eeeeeeeeealloae mies..0 4memal Oa el Mommmin. 114 Statistics...... 11 Chapter Secretariat of PublicEducation inMexito.I. NDGm _Mi. MD 11 f 11 The Mexican r OM MAID Op Republic______- ...ND vimin; nil. DD AM, DID ow DOD i 41. 11 4 The NationalUniversity 4------1 ...... ,*. .Secondary _ a'_-_a education _ , _ ...1'...... O. M 119 ,,'Primary .. and normalinstruction , 41...... ,...... 0 ...a,. a MO Om el.. elm Wm. all 120 ,. Technical,industrial, andcommercia61education______fin 121 L . J.. Rtiral schoolsand outlying primaryschools, and the incorporationof . E:- . , . tht indigenousculture h.soasgm. amo do. a. no e me So Je II o coa, 122 , : ... .:\;'h..'-...... 41.. ,. '. I": . . ,..,,:.';. -,. ", ' . ,N*MiL4! ' .' 1 . . ,.. sr .- ...... 'Nk...... ',- : ',4,. -1 ,... . r 41,0,0 . -1 .." - : 4.. .,, T. , :,! A 774'4.24-d'tfl Y.;---:: P2 ..--.2Li= ..".:M;V: *: ; .::..:2C .----, TABLE OF CONTENTS V ; Chapter XContinued. Page Psychopedagogy and hygiene______-----% 123 Fine arts and other sections__ __ am, ...... alk._.._ _ . __ _ _ _ .. ... 123 The secretary 's report ...... ,M 124 APPENDIX I.Questionnaire sent through theDepartment of State to American consular offices abroad 125 APPENDIX II.Table showing. theapproximate population of each of the 73 main political divisions of the world'_ ..... 127 APPENDIX III.Theorganizatioit6ofthe ministry of sciences and ofarts of Belgium _ 129 APPEN0Ix IV.A brief statement ofthe history andvresent legalstatus of the national ministry of educationin each country______135

Bibliography .... 4m. . OW 11. mt am ow am mt 41= me am. ma am...... me* 151

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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL &*

DEPARTMENTOF THEINTERIOR,

OFFICEOFEDpCATION, . 'Washington, D. C., June,1930.

SIR:From timeto time during thepast 100years oividualsor organizations have 'suggested,orseriously 'proposed, the establishment ofaFederal department ofeducation.Immediately after theCivil War the earlyadvocates, led by Henry I3arnard,alm9st succeeded in their. plan.In 1867abill creatinga,department of education, introduced into theHouse by James A. Garkld,becatne law.The head of thisnewandverysmall " department,"however, was acommissioner andnotasecretary withaCabinet seat.The - followingyearthe lawwasaniended in sucha way.ast9 establish "An Office ofEducation in the DeArtment of the Interior."Dur- ing the'yearssince the WorldWa which brought forciblytoour attention certain defects whichmanybelieve only educationcan re- mov.e, the\agitation foradepartment of education hasAnvery vigorous, ahd theoppositionto it has been pronounced and insome instances bitterenough to assail the mòtivesof the propone4s. A strongaspect of titicontroveriyis theextent of the Argument and the paucity of-realfactsonwhichto baseapolicy.It is likely thatmost authoritie§on ourConstitution wouldagreethat the establish*ntofareal administrativedepartment ofeducationwould . mean afundainentalchange inourscheme ofgovernment, and that

any.act crea*gadepartment with .enlargedpowersof research II Would merely" glorify " thepresent "office of Education "--:--ages- ture,soto speak, to those who ask foiftareal departmentor afirst ..step in thattrectiori.CertainlynoAmerican willdeny toanyorie his righttourge achange in.government'byconstitutional amendment.Sinceevery oneis calledupon toexkress hidesire, hemust have facts. Thismanuscriptc(;nsistrqof chapters takenfrom the thesisof JamesF. AIM, chief ofourdivision of for. Di schoolsystems, whichwas e submittedhi partill fulfillment ofthe requirements for th'e degreeof doctor 4of philosophyatGeorgeWashington Uni- versity. Itoffers *briefcompass a surveyof ministriesof education inother countriesandabibliography forthose whocareto . investigatethe subject firther. '° In brderto provide real data for those whocare _ . to study.seriously e the.place ofeducationaladministriloftinoui schemeofgovernment, : I recommendthat it be publishédas abulletinof this office. s

._. .. ,, Respectfullysubmitted. . 1 , ...... , Wm. JOHN COOPER, . - i

The .SECRETARY .;JJ or THEINTERIOR. CO1flM88ieiter. . 1 - 4 ' r: -.C.;-.$) e.-4- r `-.. . , It'.--, Aft-g t- -.... Ti...... ----4...,..?.A..... UI . ,, ,,.." .. ..,.. . . Avit ....'s,,J::, . .- . , - ,...., ..- t .....-:,, ...... , -c----.-'-:---,=::-,-,-.4.,,,,,,,,..- -;-- ii.,....,,,,,b-klit-.14-..._. ..__ ...... -....:-.:_._-1,.....:_..4;,!.....,....-,-_::t.,-....,.4.14_1:,_...,,,,:tb..--A.., la L

FOREWORD

.dt Yationalininidrk)s , of edtteati--A ministry,dflpartment,secretariat,orboard of educationis f themain divisions -i,of thecentral executiveauthority in55 of the73 independentnationalentities intowhich thepeople ofthe worldaregrouped for purposes.of government. By virtueof the factthat in thosecougntries it isa: milgtry, theministry .ofeacationis presumablycoordinatewith the other maindivisionsof theexecutivebranck-of thegovernment, suchasthose 'that directforeign,financial,commercial,colonial, defense, andothermatters ofnationaloconcern;and the ministeris one'of theimmediateaides ofthe chiefexecutive,whether thatlie king, primeminister,president,orcommittee.Natiomil directioh and administratibnof education,apolicy tinthas madeitsway slowlyin thepoliticaldevelopmentsof mankind,now expresses itself throughtkeagencyof ceneralministeriaroffices,whose duties yelate chieflyto general educati4n,provided foreitherdirectlyor indirectlyin thenationalconstitutionsamongsome 907,380,000 "people:--about50per cent of the world'spopulationoccupying approximately13,699,000squaremilesorone-fourthof the world's inhabited land arét.t. Purpose ofthe study.Thepurposeof thisstudy isto repmt somewhatin detailonthestatus, functions, andActivities ofthe nationalministries ofeducationastheyare now.It isnotahis- toricalaccountexcept. insofar,asthe factsof historyare necessary forabetter undtinitandingof thepresent situation.No ministryof .education tbatis less thannational inits lekaland functionalchar- acteristics isincluded.This excludessuch organizations'as the ministry of s'cience, , art, and Oucationin Pru§,sia,-the commissariatof , publiceduci4ion in the itussianSocialist % FederatedRepublic, thci -1 departmeniof- publicinstruction in- New , SouthWales, theUni- -versity ofthe State ofNew York,and others.They , :. areimportant v administrativebodies butthey donot lbgically,poinewifhin thescope of thisinquiry. ? The n;ihtre 'VA' 4 of thedatq.The datapittettO: arechosen from publicationsof different kinds, , mainly official Zehgenerallydirect- g from ihevuntry with which they i deal.Wheneverpossible,,citizens offoreigncountriesorAmerican educatoyswho hadteavelled much weresinterviewedin regarditothe .aaministration of educationix. . abroad.The quqstionn'aire givenin AppendixIwas sent through p theDepartment ofStateto theAniericanconsular officesin nearly all oftheforeign.* The repliesfúrnishedsgood guide I

lines forfuither study. . - , . . , . . . 1 rc ,.,...... ,...... _.....,.....: _ J...t ,-?.. Af' ;,i e.

NATIONALMINIStRIES,OF'EDUCATION e

CHAPTER I -1

A Brier Historyof theDevelopment ofNational Mihistriesof Education ,

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Anaccount of thegrowth ofministries ofeducation, is mainly that ofaphase of thegrowth ofthe ministerialexcutiveauthority that isapart of practicallyeverymodern centralgovernment and is reflected in thelarger politicalsubdivisions ofmanynations. The establishment ofministries ofeducationrepresents in generalchanges inanintolerablestate of affairsandattempts to betterthrough education thecondition ofthegreatmassof thepeople andto train them in abilitytomanagetheirmatters of'common'concern.Very frequently Ininistries of educationcameinto beingimmediately after I great national, orinternationaldisasters. .. co, The traditipn "ofa i nationalofficeconcerned-witheducationextends in Chinabacksome41 centuriesto the time whenthe ruler Shun appointedHsieh ministerof educationto teach -thepeople the duties ofthe fivehuman relationships.Other ancientorientalna- I tionsmayhave hadsimilarofficers.The notableexample ofa minister ofeducation inthe earlyChristianEra is Alcuinwho, from 781 A.D.to his death,'wasconfidential advisorto Charlemagnein . that monarch'sschemes ofeducation. J. The Eciatern,Hemisphere inthe eighteenthcentwry.---On theEast- ernHemispherebefore1800, the suppressionof theJesuit Order in 1773furnishedthe occasionin Austria forthe establishmentofa central schoolcommissidnto have authorityoverall the schbols;and in Polandonmotion befotethe Dietby the vicechancellor of Lithuania,aebis -ouof educationwascreated thathadcontrol of publiceducatiss and latertookovertousefor public initruction all thelandedproperty [mild other wealthconfiscatedfromthe Jesuits. Thecommissionplanned andpartiallycarriedout, before thedivision of Polandin 1795,aremarkable system of primary, ¿econdary,and .. higher institutions.-....Thatcommission isconsideredto be the firstof themodernEuropean ministries of . public instruction. : TheEastern.Hemispherein Mgnineteedlieentury.----Sween, , Norway,France,Greece,Egypt, Italy,Ilungary,Denmark,and Austriainturn developednational. educationalministriesin the years between 1800 and1850. Sweden lostFinlandto Russia in .a. war of 1808,adisastertbatwasfollowed el by a. revolution r I , and the . tk . A ,. _ - % t-.. . .1. e .4 , . . . ._ - . . I 7 :,-.:. DJ. a $ . 2 :.ts,-,.., .': ., ' : 64 ._; '..... ' .....--,.....r, 61-6 t ; v : : .. "k..:V P4:- .'i.:':4..i...*: *t; ' s i7!... r:;7:: 111:4' ; ,:1171.:P4:';-tt;41:; ::i.Vie-.,:04'./.,r Imr.:?1'f':7;t:_;,]..i":,7,,Z111#!474.07,?2;14,41.:V:!-.:Uldie&-*A.,2i.ra.!VAL opjWA41. --. . 2 NATIONAL311144ISTRIESOF EDUCAtION

a adoption oil ther5thof July, 1809, ofa,newconstitAtionunder which t4e depaitmeilt-of education itialecclesiastical affairswasbegun. Thepeople of Norway, thoroughlyroused by the actionof the Coil- gessof Vienna whichtransferred them from Danishto Swedish tule, héldaconventionat Eidsvold andonMay 17,1814, adopted aconstitution framedonthose of America,FFance of1791, and Spain of 1812.Sweden and Norwaywereunited until 1995but the g, Norviegian constitutionremained iiiforce and shortlyafter its adoption the royal eccle.siasticaland. educational departmentwas instituted. Thestory of the development of the niinistryof France is fairly

well known.'Cournot makesaninteresiingcommentonit in his. note: s The memoirs ofChlikeaubriandtellusof the negotiationsbetween Richelieu and Corbière who refused- obstinatelyto enter the cabinet if hewas not given the presidency ofpubliCinstruction.The tenacity ofamediocre Bretonat- torney, supported by a poet whowasplacing his brilliant palette itthe service of politics, inoneof thoserare moments when the poetwasin'favorat court, itwastlfat whichgave to France a ministry of public instruction.' The uprisings of1820 against thereturn to medievalism arranged by the Congress of Viennaled to the independence of Greeceand its establishment in1833as akingdom.Its leaders lookedto education as a meansof strengthenin* the Greekpeople and early in itsstruggle for independence (18'21.to '1829)anational educational officewas authorized.The ministry of Egyptwasstarteaby the impetuous Mohammed`Ali duringhis struggle with Turkey when he wishedto bringwestern European culture into Egypt andtomaintainasystem of schools modeled after those ofFrance.The vigorous revolution- ary movement that sweptoverEurope in 1848 leftsomeof its.traces in national ministriesof educationsetupin Italy in 1847, Hungary and Denmark in1848, and Austria in 1849. Turkey in 1857; Rumania, 1864;Japan, 1871; New Zealand,1877; Belgium, 1878; Bulgaria,1878; Serbia, 1882; Portugal,1890; and Siam, 1898, made ministriesof educationpart of theirnlitionalgov-

ernments during the halfcentury from 1850 to 1900. Thesevere ' crisis through whichTurkey passed. about 1830to 1840 necmitated attempting to 'remodel the government. 'Year the close ofMuhammed Ws reign (1839) ministrieswereinstituted andacouncil of ministers begun.Folloviingthe treaty of Paris by which Turkeywasadmitted to the family of nations, reforms that didnot endureweredarted and . :atthat timeaministry of public instruction.wasestablished.The - I Bolan, Ferdinand nard.Nouveau Dietionnairede Missal& et d'Instruotiof . Muir*Paris,LtbniriEsebette et Cie., 1911. Courpot Antoine AugnAtin.Des institutions &instruction publispieenTram* Palk

lAbratile: d L. Boehm.et Oic1864. I. - Ner ;."7"-?-- "v.- a. Vag a 11, NATIONALMINISTRIES OPEDUCATION 3 breakingupof Turkishpowerin EuropegaveRumania,Bulgaria, and serbia theirindependence.The ''',umanianswith theirdistinctly Latin languageand culturewereearlyinfluenced byFrenchideals and itwasnatural thatafter theunion ofWallachiaand Moldavia, thesrshouldsetup aschoolsystem much likethat in Francewith aminiqerat its head. ThevirileBulgarians,whose rapid cóming into national 41. strengthandpowerhasnoparallel inEurope, mildeau educational ministrypart of thegovernment shortlyafter itbecame autonomous in1878.Followingthetreaty of Berlin whichrécognized the independenceof Serbia,ajawwaspassedreorganizingpublic instructionunderaministry. The firstministriesin Belgiumand Portugalrepresentedtemporary victoriesofrepublicanand liberalelementsoverchurch and monarchialgroups.Bothwereshortlysuppressed butreestablished in lateryears. Japan beganits rapidchange fromfeudalismtoamodern civilizationin1868 andEmperor Meijiimmediatelyplacedgreat emphasisoneducationas oneof themost effectivemeansof bringing about thattransition.He appointedaneducationalofficerand. beganestablishingvarious kindsof sdhools.Threeyearslatera departmentof educationwas setupfor thecontrol ofeducational affairs inthe whole.country.In the latereighties andthe- early nineties theoutlook forSiamwasbrighteninggredtly;the boundary disputes aildwarsthat hadbeen goingonfor centurieswereinafair way tobe settledandinternally thecountrywas at peace. The Anglo-Frenchcohvention of1896 definitelyfixed thestatus of the country.During thisperiodeducational bettermentswereprojected and -a ministryof educatibnestablished.. The earlycolonialsettlements of New&glandwereorganized intoProvinces in1852 and eachdeveloped itsown,flgthools.The Provinceswereabolished in1876;educationwasmadeanational businesswith teachingfree,secular, andcompulsory;andits administrationwasvested inaministry ofeducation.In England, the BoyalCommissiononSecondary Educgion,of whichLord Brycewaschairman, reportedin 1895.It reviewed tilework of the

charity . I. commissioners, thedepartment ofscience andart, the .4 educationdepartment, and theboard ofagriculture, allof which werecentral authoritiesconnected withsecondaryeducationand wrote: I We conceive,in short thatdomecenii4k#uthor1tyis required,not in order to dontrol, butrather to supervise thesecondaryeducation .of thecountry, not to overrideorsupervise local action,but to endeavorto bring aboutamong the 1 various agencies whithprovide pat educationa harmonY and cociperation ... . , . thatan now wanting. .a,_ , ..1.-1-: . : . . . ,.. . I . P :.7. .6 t.:, :...:4-ftkt ; 4 .: . 1 " - e 4.. i a Z.-. t. ::.'1 % I ...... V % V . .; 1 i . , !V . ..- , 1 66g-4 *-1 461...... ,- ja N.... . ; I I I' . ,... ., tr: .4s:,:ut,4t.:, .:i.' -A- : . *.s " t; .. t...; e . . p:.' .¿ i.....4 i I . .4' ...... *- t; . " * ''' -4 e , ,"..: ." :- 7t," -...... ,,,,. . ) ' 1 - . t . . . I .., - . 4.* **'''... '41* _____...... ___...... ,,,...... , i ..- -* F ..,____.4._ --.-191 . -.IN,: ...... ,/,..::.,...y..ti._ _ :1..:12?,,%14ii*-h.....f.,r,"...... _.a..._t_ 4...... 1-.11,...t..%;: 4.: 1,..i...3...-_:,....1.---,-:',:',..: t r 4 NATIONALMINISTRIFIt OFEDUCATION v.

The cent L authority oughtto consist ofa department, of theexecutive government, pr...Idedover by a minister responsibleto parliament,who would obviouslybe the s. lie1. minister to whopikthecha.rgeof eleinenraryeducation is Intrusted. ..4Fouryearslater therecommendatfonsof thecommissionwere translatedinto reality,and theboard ofeducation becameamisnistry. TheEasternil1nti8p1terein the twentiethcentury.In thepre- war yearsof thetwentiethcentury Spain, Liberia,Finland, Pers`ia, the Unionof SouthAfrica,and Albaniaestablishedmihistries of education, andthat ofPortugal,whenareKblican form ofgovern- mentwasadopted,becamea permanent institution.Internal dis- satisfactionin Spainwith theoutcome of theSpanish-American , War by whichthatcountry lost thelast of itsimportant colonies, the heavyindebtedness,the highrate of illiteracy, andthe general economic andsocialdisorganiziationforced theGovernmentto make some attempts at reform,andamongthemwastile creation ofa ministry r , to inquireinto andbetter thecondition ofthe schools throughoutSpain.The strikeof theFinns in1905 against the intense Slavophilpolicy ofAlexanderIII of Russiaforced therestoration ofthe oldFinnishwnstitution and,that livingbeen gained, the Diet ofFinlandproceeded in1906 to revise theconstitutionso that theexecutivecónsistedofaminister-secretary ofstate and membersof the'senate, in effectministers responsibleto the Diet. One ofthemwastheadministrativeofficer foreducational and relig- iousaffairs..Thisrevolt inItiissiahadanecho in Persia,where in1906 theShahwascompelledto issuearescript calling forthe formationofanational council.'An ordinanceof thatyear states thepowers and duties ofthecouncil,orparliament, and ofthe ministerswhoareresponsibleto it for thegovernment of the nation. An educationministryis included. In SouthAfricabeforethe unionof1910, the University ofthe Cape ofGoodHopehad beenanexamining anddegree-granting institutionfor allthecolonies andhenceakind of unifyingorgani- zation.Partlybecause ofthis theUnionParliament assumedcon- trol of higheréclubationand grantedto the provincialcouncils the administrationof onlyeducationother thanhigher. Thedepart- ment of educationof Liberia witsthe result ofaquiet, sincereattempt to bettereducationalconditionsin the Republic. Out ofthe treatiesthat closedthe WorldWarcamethe reestab- lishinentof Poland;thecompleteindepndenceof Finland,Estonia, Davis),Lithuania,the FreeCity ofDanzig,Czechoslovakia,Yugo- slavia, and AlbañiaCandlater ther'ecognitionofAfghanistan and Irmasnationalentities.Each of themmadeaminstry ofeducation part of thenationalexecutiveauthority.The treaties emselves, inyolvingas . they didsolemncommitmentstoreco -toerights of

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NATIONALMINISTRIESOF EDIJOATIO7 411.N. 5 minoritiesto theuseof, andeducationin, theirmothertongues, and the embodiment ofthoseobligationsin thenewconstitutionsprac- tically forced thenationalgovernmentsto take control ofeducation, and handle itthroughacentral office.The nation,not its subedivi- sions,wasbytreaty andconstitutionmade responsible%for freedom of educationalprivileges.3 Later the IrishFreeState gainedthestatus ofaself-governing dominion inthe Britishcommonwealthof nationsand followedthe exarnpleof theother newlyestLblishednationalgovernments. The creation ofaministry ofeducation,science, andart in 1918 inthe Netherland'scame asapart of the.changes thatthe Dutchpeople weremaking inthe Governmentevenduring thedifficult periodof thewar. The -WesternHemisphere.--Historicalaccounts ofeducationin . the LatinAmericancountriesarefew andas arule briefand in- complete.Exceptionstotilllitterstatementare a 2-volume history ! of primaiyinstruction inArgentinaissuedin1910 by theNational Council ofEducation andOrestesAraujo'sHistory ofth6 Uru- guayanSchooLs issuedby thedirectiongeneral ofprimaryinstruc-- tion in1911. TheLatinAmericanpeoples gainedtheirfreedom from a Spain intheyears1800 to1830 andgraduallyestablishedmore or less stalalegovernments underconstitutionssimilar to.thatof the United Statesof America.By 1900all of therepublicsthen exist- ingwith theexception ofUruguayhad cabinetoffices forthe administrationof education.In thatcountry the directiongeneral ofpublic instructionhadfunctionedwell ineither theministry ofhome affairsorof publicdevelopmentand itwas not until about 1908 that itbecameapart of the ministryof industry,labor, andpublic instruction,noruntil1918 that ptiblicinstructionwasthe exclusive work ofoneraiiiistry.In 1905the secretariatof publicinstruction and finearts in Mexicowascreated froma partof theformer office ofjustice andpublicinstruction.Panama andCubabothset upcabinetoffices foreducationshortly afterthey becameindependent' andestablishedtheirown governments. The character ofthe min4trya.9shown by itstitle. -'hetitle of theministry,tosome extent,indicate;its character.in Belgium, Cuba,Danzig,Ecuad9r, theNetherlands,Persia, andSpain either thewords"sciences "or"finearts "orbothareincludedto indicate thattheministry isconcerned with-.culturalactivitiesother than instructionin organizedschools.In 15countries theoffice ofpub- licinsttuctionis combinedwithsomeothernotsoclosely allied with strictlyeducatiwalworkas arethe finearts and thesciences. In

- - us- _ _ g. FI *Fora pore extendeddiscussion of this,see Major Trends of Educationin Other Cbuni. tries.By JamesF. Abel.Bureau of Education Bulletin,1928, Nos18,Washington, : 1;;:: GOvernmentPrinting Odic%192& " . . , . . ? . is . !., " . . . ,.... tqt" .. -- 4'a ca. 4.krte "*.ts *415'''' -4=-2 =1111. "' ..-!" 6 NATIONALMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION

Latin America,the departmentofeducation is unitedwith justice in Argentina,,the DominicanRepublic,Paraguay,Peru, and Salva- dor;with agriculturein Bolivia; withposts and telegraph inEcua- dor ; withcharity andprisons inPeru; andwith foreignrelations, charity, andpublic healthin Salvador. Religionand publicinstructiOn havebeena verycommoncombi- nation and itstill persistsin Finland,Greece, Norway,Persia, Po- land, andSweden. Theofficewasknown in Francefrom its inception in 1824to July, 1830theperiod ofrestorationas theministry of eccelesiasticalaffairs andpublic instruction.For the following twoyearsitwasthe ministryof publicinstruction andcultsand resumed thatnameforaperiod Qf15yearsafteraninterim of 16 inwhich itwasthe ministryof publicinstruction.Again in 1868 it becamethe ministryof publicinstruction andcontinuedso until 1870when it tookthe title ofministry ofpublicinstructiori, cults, and finearts; in 1879 thenameof ministryof public instruciien and fineartswasassumed and,except for shortperiods, hassince been used.Religionwasseparated frompublic educationin the ministry inAustria in1918, Denmark in1916,. Yugoslaviain 1926, and in Ecuadorabout1885.Thepresent telidakyin allcountries is towardacombin4ion ofeducation, finearts, and publichel1th.4 Couarieswithoutnational mini8trimof afration.The18coun- tries each ofwhich doesnot haveanational Tiiinistryof educatión are,in the orderof population,the largestnamed first:India and its dependencies,Union atSovietRepublics,United Statesof Amer- ica, GermanReich, UnitedStates of .Brazil,Empireof Abyssinia, Dominionof Canada,Arabia, Empireof Morocco,Kingdom of- Nepal,Commonwealthof Australia,SwissConfederation,New- foundlarkiand Laborador,Grand Duchy ofLuxemburg, Stateof Bhutan, Principalityof Monaco,Republic ofSan Marino,and Prifi- cipality ofLiechtenstein.They haveacombinedpopulation of about 720,000,000andoccupy an area of 25,610,00Iksquaremiles. '- 4 Readerswho wiiihmore detaile4 data about the historicals of tbeestablishment of ministries ofeducationwill find briefaccounts for eachcountry in APpendlx IV,mi. 185-150. Theexactname of each ministry, in the Ifeliguageof thecountry, is given ifit could be secured.

' A 1.4 . 7 CHAPTER II

General Characteristics of theOffice of Ministerand of the Ministry of Education 1 Type8 of nationalgokvernmonet imwhich the minieriesfunction: Thenature ofanyparticular nationalministry of educationdepends muchonthetype of government of whichit isa part.Of the5t countries with suchministries,19aremonarchies, 29arerepublics, 4 arefederal unions,2areself-governing dominions,and 1 is botha federal union andself-governingdominion.The monarchiesin EuropeareNorway, Sweden,Denmark, theNetherlands, Belgium, England, Hungary,Rumania, Yugoslavia,Albania, Bulgaria,Spain, and Italy.Those in the FarEast and theNear EasCareJapan, Siam, Afghanistan,Persia, Iraq, andEgypt. In allthese, with the exceptions of Siamand possibly Afghanistan,the form ofgovernment is parliamentary;the executive authorityis wieldednot by the monarch butbyacabinet of ministers,or" government"whose personnel isdetermined by thepoliticalparty inpower.When .the ministry incontrolcan nolongercarryitsmeasure.%'through the parliamentoritsparty is defeatedatanelection, the leaderof the opposition ¡s, invitedby the monarchto become prime minister,select the othermembers of thecabinet, andcarry onthe affairs of .the nation accordingto theprogramof the majorityparty br 'of'sucha coalition ofpartiesaswill constituteamajority.In this parliamentary form ofgovernment thetenure of office of the ministersis uncertainthe ministerscustomarilyaremembers of theparliament, with theusual speakingand voting privileges;and theyaredirectly 'responsibleto it.While administeringthe affairs of theexecutive branchof thegovernment, theymust at thesametime direct the course.of legislationand help maintaintheparty organization. The EuropeanRépublicsareFinland, Estonia,Latvia-,44Lithuania, the FreeCity of Danzig, Poland,Qechoslovakia, Greece,France, and Portugal.Excepting for themoment Danzig and Estonia,these republicsare'parliamentary; thepresident electedforaset term isnot the responsibleexecutiire.Administration isby .a ministry b that falls its party loses itsmajority.Estonia hastakenan additionalstein populargovernment and leftout entirely the 114766-40-0-2 7 4k, 8 NATIONALMINISTRIESOFEDUCATION

A o a office ofpresident. Theprimeminister isstate head. Thepresident of thesenate in the FreeCity ofDanzigdirects andsupervisesthe *holeroutine ofadministrationand iselected forfouryears. Sixteen oftheremainingrepubricsareLatinAmericanand inthem the " presidential"type ofgovernment,similarto that in theUnited States ofAmerica,prevails.The willof thepeople waitsonthe calendar.ThePresident iselected foradefiniteterm of officeand his partyis"in controlof theadministrationfor thatperiodeventhoiigh itmay be inthe minoritymuch ofthat time.ThePresident isboth chiefexecutive andhead .of hisparty. Hechooses hiscabinet from its leaders andacabinetmembermay not beamemberof thecongress or, if heis, hismembershipin thelatterbody issuspended duringhisministry.Except inChile,where custom, notlaw, de- It crees it, thecabinetneednot resignif itsmeasuresfail inthe Congress. In two importantrespects thegovernments intheserepublicsire unlikethat ofthe UnitedStates andsimilarto those ofEurope: (0 The Presidenthas widelegislativepowersin thematter ofissuing decreesand orders that havethe forceoflaw;and (2)he igmvi- olableto the extetit that allhis decreesmust be signedby theappro- priate.ministerorministers,who thenareheldresponsible. ¡ GovernmentinUruguayis unusualin thatthere isavertical cleavageof theexecutiveauthority.ThePresidentis electedfor four yearsand isintrustedwithmanypowersthatare commonly termed the " political"functions ofthe executivé.He selectsand removes the ministersofforeignaffairs,warandnavy,andthe interior..Anationalcouncil ofadministrationconsistingof nine 'member§elected bypopular vóteforxyears, one-third retiring every two years, administers allmattersnot expresslyreservedto the Presidentorotherauthorities.Thesiincludépublicinstruction, finances, publicworks,labor,industries,andagriculture,charities,

a,nd . sanitation.Theministers ofthesedepartmentsareappointed by thenational.councilandareresponsibleto it. d. Of the remiiiningrepublics,Turkey hastheparliamentaryform of government andthe trendin China isin thatdirection.The Gov- ernment ofLibeiiais of thestrictlypresidentialtype. a Five federalunionshavenationalministries ofeducation.They *are Argentina, Mexico,Venezuela,Austria,and theUnion ofSouth Africa(also Et' self-governingdoniinion).In thefirst threethegov- ernment is of thefixed-term,presidentialform:, inAustria itispar- liamentarywith the exception,unusual. in Europe,thatamínister may not beamember ofthelaw-making bodiandmay appear before itoritscommitteesonlyoninvitation . of themain 4: .-- 1 4 committee.The V VI : .;4 itknONALMINISTRIES ,0111 EDUCATION 9 I. Governments of New Zealand, the IrishFree State, and the Unionof South Africa follow the Englishparliamentary plan. Theofficeof minigterapartisanpolitical office.Withthisgen- eral characterization ofthestatus, pf the " government,"ministry,or cabinet in the executivebrandiesof present-daynatiAaladminis- tration, it iseasyto understand thatthe office óf ministerof education is in mostcasesdistinctlypartisan politicaland the ministerwill be chosenmorefor his politicalaffiliations and activitiesthan for . other considerations.Someexceptions.occur.In Sweden theoffice is définitelynonpolitical;partisan politicsareexcluded from theed- ucationalprogramin Estonia;and in the FreeCity of Danzigeduca- tion is in practicelargely free ofparty connectionsand influence.In Colombia andAlbania theoffice ispresumablynonpolitical, and the tendeficy in CostaRica is to'make itsóby appointingeducators. It is nonpoliticalin Siamwhere thereare nopolitical parties. Profeseionalqualificationsof theminister.Thatthe office is " in Iì politics " doesnot prevent publicsentiment and" good "politics in aconsiderablenumber ofcountries frominfluencing theappointment of ministerin the directionof successful,experiencededucators. In Denmark andSweden theminister iginvariablyasuccessfuledu- cator.He is usuallysoin Albania,Colombia,Costa Rica,Czecho- slovakia, Danzig,Estonia,Latvia, Poland,Japan, Panama,and Sal- vador.Distinguishededucatorsareappointed inthe IrishFree State. Six of the firsteight ministersin Belgiumwereuniversityprofessors. The appointeein Rumaniais commonlypromoted fromoneof thé lower butprominentpositions inthe ministry.ofeducation.The ministerin Finlandis commonlychosen frompersonsengaged in educational,scientific,orcultural pursuits.In Uruguay andin Cuba heis supposedto have had experiencein education.A lawyer isgenerallychosen inPeru; apublicist whoisauniversity graduate in Argentina;and in Mexico,a manwho has beenengaged insome kind ofprofessionalwork. I.iPortugal theminister isalways named forpoliticalreasons,but duringthemanycabinet changesin the w last fewyears persons with successfuleducationalexperience have beenselected forthepost.Thestrongest of Bulgaria'seducators, authors,and learnedmenhave held theposition in thatcountry. The policyin Englandis rather againstthan for thatof appoint inganeducatorto be president of theboard of education.Thecase of theHon. H. A.L. Fisher,who had beena universityteacher and i? ',Administratorañd wholater becamewarden ofNew Coliegein Ox- ford,wasexceptional.The office inFrance is consideredto bea . petit-ininistry,that is,onè to whichyoungerandless-experienced politiciansareappointed and in whichtheymaygain experienceto ¡ prepare them for other andpresumablymoreresponsible plaòea. 1.

4 . 4411" 4 . . _ ; -` t 4- " .".-4 111/4fV'...1 .4: ije nkftfit.:*41 di#:%21-Ca"..L.4. V,. -"Z.V('--1-'-4`," .__ rsc. # Yjr.4F' lo NATIONALMCINIST]1E8.OF 41. EDUCATION M.Raymond Poincariheld it fromAprilto Decemberin 1898and again from Januaryto Novemberin1895. M.AristideBriandwas minister ofpublic instruction*fromMarch,1906,to January,1908. All ministers inYugoslavia,includingthe minister.ofeducation,are selectedon the basisof theirpoliticalinfluence andthe mimberof votes in theParliamentthat theyareableto bringto the of the support cabinét.Thereanytechnicalqualificationsthataminister may have forhis positionareof purelysecondaryimportance.The sameis true for practicallyall of thecounteiesnot mentionedin thisand: thepreek,dingparagraph. Womenareseldomappointed,but inDenmark Mrs.NinaBang held theoffice forsometime, andMadamAdnam, ofConstantiriople, 4vasminister ofeducationof Turkeyin 1926. Theterm of office.Theterm of office forthe ministerof education is uncertain,primarilybecause theappointingpowerpartyatanytime removehim.Ifanyconsiderationexists thatfrequentchanges/in theeducationalministryareundesirable,or anymoreundesirable than inotherministries,there islittle evidenceof it.Further, ',in thosecountrieswithparliamentarygovernments changesare very frequent.Iuthfollowing tablearedata withrespect to theterms of officein fourEuropeancountries:

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vigt. '1- or"

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t., I " T 4 a ^ . stt; - TABLE 1 .Terms of office of the ministers of education in four European countries, -ermer-e- IM 11" A Number Terms of- Oft Country. Period of time 41.a. Dates appointments of Nabersonspointed ap-of per- Longest term1 appointment on Longest termof 1 person Less than1 month LesAan6 months 6 monthsto 1 year years1 to 2 years2 to 3 3 yearsto 4 4 yearsMorethan ,L, =011 1 4 4 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 f'111 =mole ZIPIP So do I s . SO yeari Noy.30,Nov.30, 1847- 1928. 73 :b5 4 years 2 montbs28 days. 8 months years 15 5 26 20 17 1 6 3 Prance_ _ea...i.e.._ 83 years 4 , 'Aug. 28, 1824- 77 65, fi'years 10 montbs 6 days. years 1010 7 32 19 12 6 3 8 4,1908. 10 days. , MI MI 41.- months Jan. months . Greece 1 _ _ 47 days.months years 52 Jan.Mar.10, 1880. 5, 1833- 70 3 years 29 days.._._ 4 monthsdays. years 25.11 l0 34 e. 17 11 I 6 0 Pr'rr-.4. Bulgaria J... ID MINI 46 months.days. years 6 , Jan.July 5, 1879- 5, 192e. 3!" 24 . 6 years 8 months29 i:lays. 6 days.monthsdays. years 29 8 I 8 19 8 2 4 2 a , d s Chassiotis, Georges. - L'Instruction Publique elm les Grees depuis la prise de Constantinople par les jusqu'a nos jours. Paris, Ernest Leroux, Librairie-tditeur, 1881. it:,1 . .* 650 p.4 2 Data for the prime minister; probably tbe minister of &ducat ion, retired, also. l'urcs 4 '11 ' =g ----- . _ , 12 NATIONALMINIMUMS OPEDUCATION Cournotpsaysof theearly ministriesin France: if In thecourse of 40years that have passedsince thedeath ofLotiigVIII, we havehacta succession of 30 mil:Asters.ledvingout entirely thoseprovisional ministers thathadan existence of onlyafew days,or even pfa few hours, seem4nglybecause theyhad notbeen born witha chance to live.Guizot, Salvandy,Villemain, Giraud,having occupied tittwo differenttimes themin- , istry of publicinstruction,one may, ifone wishes, countonlyasuccessimi 26 ministers of in the timeindicated(1824 to '1864).Six of theappointeesmay be consideredascoming fromthe universityranks: Guizot,Villemain,Cousin, Giraud, Fortoul,and Duruy. Tstelveministersof educationwereappointed inEngland inthe yearsfrom 1900to 1927.Thelongestterm, 5yearsand10 months, washeld byMr. Fisher. In thepresidential/typeofgovernmentcommon on the Western Continent,till ministerof educationwill, if heis acceptableto the Preident,presumablyhold officefor 4yearsin13 of the Latin Americancountries,6yearsin 4 ofthem, 5yearsin 1, and7years in another.But theexecutiveauthorities ofthe LatinAmerican countries havechanged withgreat frequency andit is probablethat ministersof educationonthe WesternContinenthaveontheaver- ageretained theirpositionsjiò longer thun thosein theEastern Hemispherewhere thenature ot the regulargovernment makesthen? subjecttoi-mmediateretirement. This uncertaintenure of office istosomeextent compensated for by the factthat inmanycountries thee'ministry ofeducation hasa permanent head officialwho isastrictlyprofessionaleducator, is appointed undercivil-serviceregulations andcarriesonthe work without being too greatly disturbed bychanges in ministers. . Limits ofauthority,a8to kind8 of 8Ch0018.---Mostministries of educationarelimited in theirdirect authorityto institutions ofgen- oral culture.Specialtypes of edudation of allkinds, asagri- cultural, trade, vocational,commercial,military, naval, and technicil, are,if theyarelunder,nationalcontrolat all, dependentofi ministries other than'that of publicinstruction, usuallytheonesthat have jurisdiction in thoserespective fields.Control ofeducation iscom- monly believedto be natibnallyveryhighly centralizedin France, but Camille Richardbegan his 'standardworkoneducation.in that couitrywith thesentence, " 11 n'ya pas enMincede Ministère de l' Education.Nationtile." M.Richardmeant andwentonto explain thatmanyof the 'publiceducational institutionsin France 'aread- ministerednot by the ministry ofpublic instructionand fine arts but by otherbranches of the exectitis;eituthority.. In fact, the ministries ofagriculture,commerce,and industry,labor andhygiene, tt.t . . "

.10

1 ' 6 r NATIONAL*MINISTRIES OFEDUCATION 13

publicworks,war,marine, thecolonies,foreign affairs,and thesubsecretariat ofmerchant marineand fisheriesall havecharge of the iypesof educationthat pertain totheirparticular fields.Austria has schoolsunderthe federalministries of publicinstruction,social welfare,tradeandcommerce,agriculture, andwar. The conditionsin Franceand Austria arefairly-representativeof all thelarger nations.In bothcountries efforts Arebeing made to combine the mai4kinds of educationunderoneministryof public instruction.Such-aplanwastried forashort time inBulgaria and givenupin 1923. Byroyaldécree No. 1314 ofJune 17, 1928,the agricultural,commercial,industrial, andmining schools inItaly thatwerefòrmerly under theministry of national economy-were transferred to theministry of publicinstruction. Nearly allkinds of schoolsinCzechoslovaki4aredependentontheoneministry. Changes inthe directionof making all typesof school trainingde- pendentonthe ministryof education willprobablycomeslowly if theycometoany&eat extent.Other ministries havedeveloped and wish to direct thetraining ofworkers in their specialfields,an 'leaders in technical educationaregenerally unwillingtxi commit

A.. theirprogramstoaministrywhose4/61iiefconcernis general education. Areal limits ofauthority.----Thearea overwhich the ministry of education hasjurisdiction is usuallycoterminous with the nation boundaries but thereareatleast three kinds ofexceptions to is rule.Firstl educationin the çolonies,if the country hasan;is under the generalcontrol of theministry of colonial affa' ;the public instructionministry has littleornothing to s with it. Second, the ministry Qfeducationmayhave fulla inistratiVe- executive authorityover apart ofthe nationalareaand be merely anadvisory andpromotional organizationfor the remainder.Not- ably, the secretariatof public educationin Mexico administersthe schools of the Federaldistrictand.the Territories of QuintipiaRoo and Baja California.Within the States. where Stateofficialsregu- late education, thesecretariat advisesabout and promotes public eductitiófi and in doingsoestablishes and directsacomparatively limited number of normal andmodel schools tvid cultural mimions. Essentially thesamecondition exists in Argentina.Foratime the ministry in China haddirect controlover noschools but kthose ofelie city of Peking.Finally, the ministrymay gobeyoxia the national boundaries to the extent thatit maintaihs and directs schools in other countries for the children of its nationalsresicient abroad. The inte7441 organization of theminietry.--The partisan political" part of the ministryof education consists of theminister andsome 4 V t r.. I;

If 14 'NATIONALMINISTRIESOFBDITCATION halfa dozenponsthat enjoyhis confidence,ashisimmediate aides, together withthenecessary -clerical staff.Thissmallgroup, sometimes knownasthe "secietariat,"" theministerialoffice,"" the presidial bureau,"or" theminister'soffice," willincludeone or two persons as parliamentaryvice ministersorpar1iam4ntarysecretaries, the minister's privatesecretary, andpossiblyasmallcounciloftwo orthree pergOnsto advisewith theminister.Thebusinessof the groupis to maintaincontacts withtheparliamentand theprime minister, keep informedasto the political sieuation,and, ingeneral, to actas liaisonofficersbetweenthe ministry,thegovernment,and theparty.Usuallythegroupretires withtheminister. n itgeprofessional side,the internalorganizationof nearlyevery ministryof educationis basicallyarrangedor centers aroundascheme thatcorresponds to the three lvvelsofinstruction:Primary,secondary, and collegeoruniversity.If theministry isthat ofasmall country andconsequentlywith fewemployees,thetendency,particularly inLatin-Americancountries,is tòunitesecondaryand universityeducationinonesection.Teachertraining forprimary sthool teachersis usuallyin theprimaryeducationsection.The finearts and sciencephasesare'commonlyallocated inthe organi,- *zationina separategroup or along with the universities.Religiouszation matters andthosepertainingto justice,ortheattorney general'soffice, inthoseministries inwhichsuchcombinationsexist,arehandled by sections distinctliseparatefrom thosedirectlyconcerned withthe schools.Privateschoolsarenot givena separate section; inthe Latvianministry theminorityschoolsare. Attachedto the basicprofessionalgroupsthatcorrespondto-the levels of instructionarethenecessary sections foiepersonnel;'dis- patchor correspondence; files andarchives;material,purchase, and supplies; thebudget and . accounts; andpublications.The professional part of theministry inits entirepersonnelis usuallyOsub- jecttosomekind of civil-serviceregulationsand doesnot change withchanges ofadministration.Its headis chosenfor hisprofes- sional fitness;histenure of office isdependentupongoodservice and properconduct,not politicalarrangements. The .details of internal°organizationvarygreatlyFit4 a inatteeof course.Among theverysmall ministriesis thatof Guatemalawhich consistedafewyears agoof theminister,an assistantsecretary,a chief clerk, andsevénoreight otherclerks.No divisioninto sections wasneededor was made. Among the largerandmore elaborate miniaries,onethat aoesnot invólve theadministrationof justice orofreligious affairs,is ¡that ofItaly.In itsgreater units it is organizedas follows: .PP 4 1 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION 15 The minister The subsecretary . Cabinet of the minister(11persons; Secretariat of thesubsecretary (3 persons) Minister's council of idministration(8 persons) Committee oil personneldiscipline (9persons) . Council of administrationfor subalternpersonnel (4persons) Superior council of publicInstruction (26persons) Commissionon appeals of elementary teachers (8persons) Commissiononappeals of secondaryteachers .(8 persons) Superior council of antiquitiesand fine arts(20 persons) (4 sections) Central commission of libraries(8 persons) National committee for the history ofthe renaissanceof Italy (26 persons) Central office of personnel(40 persons)

'Directiongeneral of elementary instruction(80persons, 4 divisions) Direction general of secondaryinstruction (105persons, 4 divisions) Direction general of higher instruction(45persons, 2 -divisions)

Direction general of academiesand libraries (26persons, 2 difisions) I. Direction general ofantiquities and tinearts (69persons,3 divisions) Emp1oyee4 of the central officein other officesor on missions (22 persons) Transitory personnel in otheroffices (8 persons) Central accounting ogee (58persons, 3 divisions) Service personnel (104persons) Here isastaff of almost 700people inorimmediately connected with the centraloffice .of the ministry.Thehrrangement provides , roughly for fivemain offibes assignedto the three levels of instruction, academies and libraries,ftand antiquitiea and finearts. They constitute the professional, activedivisionsto which the others, suchas the councilsand boards, the committees-of appeals and discipline,. and theaccounting office,arejoinedasadvisors and coworkers. Outside of this central office,Italy is divided forpurposesof educationaladministration into19 regions.The organization forall of theseisonthesameplan;the number ofcircumscriptions into which the regionis divided and hence thenumber of employeesdiffers. In 1928 for the first ofthese regions thearrangementwas: Royal supervisor of education His staff (14, persons) Eioardof secondary education (4persons) School council (6 persons) Council of discipline (4persons) Elementary school directionand Inspection (One for each circumscription,in thisease8 persons) Circle of governing educationaldirection I"' (One for each ci ption)

\ f

.11 n II 4 't bby:;:el 16 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION Another ministry withalarge staff,manyand complicated duties, and its organization worked out in much detail is thatof sciences and arts of Belgium:. In the main it is organizedasfollows: The minister -The general secretariat Adminktration of general affairs (within the ministry) Secretariat of public instruction Adnlinistratton of primary education Administration of normal, education Administration of middle school instruction Administration of higher education Administration of fine arts, letters, and public librarie-; Administratron of pensions Honorary officials and unattached This organization need not be discussed, further here. A detailed statement translated from the Almanach Royal ofBelgiumftis Appendix III, and isincludedas anexample ofatype of organization inuseinacountry that hasmade muchprogressin education and the fine.arts. The scheme in Persia provides for five main divisions of the ministry, two of whicharedirectly connected with the schools,onewith religious matters,onewithaccounts, andoneisanadvisory board. These divisions with the respective dutiesare:

A. General instruction office: .- 1. Directs instruction in elementary and intermediate schools. 2. Secures information from all schools. 3. Prepares reportsonthe condition of the schools and their needs. 4. Limits the number of schools and their pupiN. 5. Secures teachers and assigns them their 'work. 6. Prepares classes for adults. 7. Prepares freeschool4.*fororphans., B. Education office: 1. Directs higher education. 2. Founds libraries,museums,scientificandlliterarysocieties. 3. Has charge of antiquities and excavations. 4. Prevents loss anddestructionof antiques. 5.liascareof holy places and objects ofart. C. Pious foundations office: 1. Lists all pious foundations regardless of theirpurpose. 2. Inspects and protects the above. 3. Makes weekly,monthly,and yearly reportsonschools, pious founds.. dons,progressofjnstruction, and the condition of the officesof the ministry. D. Acounts office: 1, Accounts of: salaries, Income, andexpensesof education and of pious . foundations. 2. Monthly report to the council of education. 3. Publishes semiannual report 4fir. NATIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDUCATION . 17

E. Councilof education: ND. 1. Considers problems of generaleducation. 2. Endeavors to raise the standards ofthe schools. 3. Acceptsorrejects school books. go. 4. Determinesfilemethod of expending special fundsorgifts. 0 5. Advises the minister inany question referred to it. .F.Isanadvisory body chosen by the minister fromamong the, clergy, influenti and educated men, principals, and schoolteachers.

411. The ministry in Uruguay isaloosely bound organization of number of almost autonomoits bádies4rcouncils that liave diret sppdivision o;mreach branch of educationandarelocated at Mon videkMost important of these is thenational council of primary and normal education, the legal'successor to the former general di- 'rection of publiciristruction whichadministered elementary education from 1877to 1918. The council consists ofadirector general and six members, all appointed by thenational council of administra-. tion.One-third of the membersgoout 9f office eachyear.It has (ifiarge of allmatters affecting elementary education and the training of teachers.It has 16 divisions.Inasimilarwaythere isa central council for university education whichhas subordinated to itanumber of other councils includingonefor each faculty and onefor secondary ectucation.Other institutions suchasthe teachers normal institute, the nationarinstitutes for deaf and dumb boys and girls -also have their cohncils and there is considerable questionasto how far thecentral office of the ministry hasauthorityoverthem.

Oranizatiorut acki4orytothe mini4ry.Along with theadnAnis- . tritiveorganization, examples of which have just been present41, runs agroupof advisory organizations/ thatarein certain respects themoreimportintpart of the ministries. Theyneedto be considered insomedetail.In several countries, notably Hungary, France, .Belgium,Spain. England, New Zealand, Persia, and Bulgaria, there exists within the ministry of educationorparallelto itacouncil of, education whoseduty is in broad termito investigateanyaspects of Il educationand report its findingsto., the minister for hisuse.These councilsmust not be confused with the national, councils of education in Argentina,Uruguay,Gr.eece,and other countries where theyare integral pithsof the ministry andareadministratiye bodies. Those thatare nowbeing consideredareorganizations iomewhatapart fromthe ministry, although theminister is usually the presiding officer;their membership is made tii)morefromp.ersonooutside the ministrythan from its personnel; their regulaisessions usuallyoccur onlyannually; the general membershipis not paid for its services, thoughasmall permanefit commit a aybe; and theyareexpected to deal mith broadprin and larger questionsof educational

74'. "..r;. 18 NATIONAL ranusTants OF EDUCATION policy. They representakind of .direct contactgroupsbetween the ministries and the peoples of their respective countries.

. The story of the origin and development of the superior council of instruction in Hungary is valuable in that it shows thesteps by which that council attained statusas aresponsible advisory body after having been drawn into and later relieving itself of .administrative &ties. 4 Men after the reestablishment of the constitution in Hungary, the minister of public instruction began the work of organizing national education in 1867, he found itnecessaryta createacouncH that would be in part the authorized interpreter of the desires and opinionsof specialists and also the consultativeorganof thegovernment for public instruction.He instiiuted in 1871, with the approval of the King, thesuperior council of instruction which has changedmuch but is still in operation and has left markedtracesonthe intellectual life of Hungary. At first the councilwascomposed ofrepresentatives of the different kinds of schools withpart ofits members named by the minister and the others elected.The election -ideawasdis- carded in 1875 and the memberswereappointed nof by classes of schools but branches of science, suchasmathematics, natural sciences, etc.The council hadsomepermanent members to forma" petty council " to which propositionswerefirst submitted and then, incase of need,todiemain body. That plan lasted for15yearsand in that time the council elaborated plans andcoursesof studies for secondary schools and considered all questions placed before it in theprocessof passing the laof 1883Onsecondary education'.Itwasmade the officialcensorof school books and its viewsonpurely administrative matterswereoften sought. The censorship of schoolbooksand the rapidly growing system of education overcrowded thepetty council with work until itwas delaying, not helping, theprogressof the schools. The thirdsystem, that of 1890, divided thepermanentmeinbersintotwo scientificsec- tions----historical-philological and m4hematics-natiiralsciences; and into two school sections, second and p*nary, insuCha wa asto unite the specialists in sectionscompetent to handle theirle:: five questions. In place ofthepermanent members therewere."perma- nentregherg,"which tendedtoassurethat each section wotild deal only with its specialmatters. The censorship of schoolbookswas dividedamongth# sections and thecouncil authorizedto distribute itamong" members selected by need."Moreover, members of the councilwere.assigned the mission of visiting the schoolsaccording toaduly arranged plan. The councilwas moreandmorebeing drawn ihto school inspection andsupervision andawayfrimn its real duties, NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 7 19 A fourthplainwasadapted in 1895.The censorshiP of school- books and the administrativedutieswereentirely removed and the afrangementwasthat each question should be handled by Compe- tentspecialists. Accordingto the plan tollowed since 1895, the work of the council is to inquire into the scientific and pedagogic spirit of public education in Hungary andAto give the minister its views on anyphase submittedto it by himorwhich itmaytakeupof its 4.es owninitiative.Its splitre of action ,bì'acesall .questions of principle concerning the schools thatare4.4erthe direction of the minister.It reports directlyto him and does not communicate with the other school authorities. In organization it includes the ministerasits president,asecond president,avice president,asecretary, 10 to 12 reporter councillors, andamaximum of 50_ councillors.The second president and the vick presidentareappointed by the king; thereporters and councill9rs by the minister foraperiod of five yeai.Personsmaybe delegated from the minister's staffto assist but they have onlyaconsultative voice.The president has theriAtto invite outsideexPertsto assistat the sessions andtotakik:charge of certainwork. The vice president and the repokersarepaid; the councillorsareremunerated for the rifteetingsat whichiheyarepresent.Thesecretary is*chosen fromsomeof the public institutionsand is delegated for the service. The presidents, ther,eporters,. and the secretaries form thepermit- nentcommittee.,hichdeliberates under thepresidency of thevice president., the.secretary being charged with preparing theprogram. The vice pksident,iL ger*ral, fixes the dutiesof the staff,arranges commiteef:of inve.stigation, and attends tithework of thereporters. Thepermanent committee has the following duties:(1) Attendto matters submittedto it by the minister; (2)proposeeachyear a plaD for visitation:of schools and preseritthe annualreportson visits;(3) submitto the minister byreasonof its observations,propositions relativeto improving public education; .and (4)sttidyques- fiati;submittedto the plenary sessionsotthe council andto carr-v:out the plalisadopted by those sessions. The regularplenary sessions of the entire bodyoccur onçe a year but theministermaycallameeting atanytime.Hefixes'ihe order of the day andpresides at; the meetings. Thereport ofthe.proceed- ingsis givento him and .from him ordersgoto the permanentcome mitteeto execute the resolutions of the council. The educationalsystemsofBelgium is replete withcouncils.Four of theimportantones areallottedoneeach to thethree.levels of instruciionandoneto instruction in arts and drawing. These four 'AI are very similar%inpurpow,composition, and.nature., Each beari .the title " Council forthe improvement of (conseil deper. 4 4h. e4(a . t p I - ,!" . b: ;e;3.7.944,11 tM411,. - .; 20 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION

fectionnementde l'enseignement );is presidedoverby the minister, who fixesthe order of *theday, andmeets at*hisrequest; considersanyquestions subniittedto it by him andmayinitiate propositions ofitsown;hasadefinite orginizationtocarry onits Work; and is alniostwhollyanadvisory body.Members ofthe ministerial staffmayand do attend themeetings of thesecouncils find assist inthe deliberationsbut they havenovote.Otherper- sonsoutside of theschoolsystemmaybe called into give .adviceor take chargeof definite piecesof work. The council fprthe improvement dfnormal and primary education (conseilde perfectionnementde Penseignementnormalet pri- niaire),created by law ofJuly 1, 1879, with25 members, is the larg- est of thesegroups.Its work is important;anymember who is ab- sent. without goodcausefor three successivemeetings is considered delinquent andremoved. The councilcomprises foursections: (1) Kindergarteneducation, which dealswith questionsconcerning the preparationof kindergarten teachers; (2) primary education;(3) primary normaleducation; and (4) thesection of secondarynormal insteuction.Thesemeet at the call ofthe ministerand delikprate incommon orseparately. The council, deliberatingin Plenarysessionorby sections, is legallycon- stituted if halfor moreof the membersof the wholebodyorthe section,asthecase maybe,arepresent.Resolutionsareadopted by majorityvote; incaseof tie thepresiAntcasts the decidipgvote. The council givesits viewsonkindergarten, kindergartennormal, primary,primary normal,orsecondary normalinstruction andques- tions pertainingto themonall subjects thatthe ministersubmits to it.Itmay, moreover,consideranyproposition thatis submittedto it byoneof its membersandexpressits views forpresentationto the minister.Finally itmay prepareannuallyalist of booksto be reçommendedto the libraries of thenormal schoolsand the cantonal libraries for teachers.The-competent sections examinethe reports onthe condition ofprimary and kindergarteneducation addressed .annuallyto the minister by the principalinspectors of primary instruction.It préparesto be inserted in thetriennialreportsan ex- posé of its workandarésumé of thereports of the inspectors of

primary instruction.The councilis assisted by. twosecreiaries appointed by royaldecreeto report the proceedings ofthe sessions. It has,in .addition,arecords clerk namedby royal decreeanda helper designated.by the minister.The ministerMay, when he deems itimpedient,* charge lily ofthe memberswith certaintempo- rary and special inspections. t. The .council forthe improvementof highereducation instituted. . byalaw of July.15, 1849, find -Organizedat present under royal ''at:

: _;,t4 NATIOÑALMIN-ISTRMSOF EDUCATION 21 arrêté of March 20, 1924, is composedof 10 professorsfrom the -public universities (1 for eachfaculty andaprofessor fromthe special schools of civilengineering apd ofarts and manufactures annexed to the Univetsity of dient),2 professors of theFree Uni- versity,of Brussels, and2 from the CatholicUniversity of Louvain (chosen in sucha way asto represent the differenti, faculties),a professor of the School of Minesand Metallurgy (technicalfaculty of Hainault),at Mons. Theyarenamed by the kingfor-year terms. The director general ofhigher instructionand sciences, thedirector general, and thesecretary of public instructionaswellasall other personsthat the ministerdesignates, assist in thesessions withcon- sultative voice. The council for theimprovement ofsecondary education,authorized by section33 of the law of 1850onsecondary education,created by royal arriité ofFebruary16z 1852, andnowfunctioning under arrêté of January31, 1920, has,0members and givesits vieWson programsof studies,examines booksused in instructionorgivenas prizes in the secondaryschools,proposesinstructions for theinspectors of secondary schools,examines theirreports, and deliberateson tillmatters ccincerning theprogressof studies. The councilfor theimprovement of instructioninarts and drawing has12 mefnbers, ofwhichat least 7arenamed by theteaching personnel of theacademies of finearts and the schools of drawing. Membersareappointed for threeyears.Itmeets in ordiRaty session eachyear atEaster andmaybe convoked in extraordinarysession by the minister.It gives itsviewsonquestions submitted%by the government. Each membermaycallto the attention of theminister any matter within hiscompetence andmaytake the initiativeina measure to be submittedto the Governméntorinaview to be expressedto it. In Spainacoun61 of publicinstruction (consejode instrucción pública),-composed of professors,authors,-and other distingtiished personsnominated bythe Government,intervenes consultativelyin all questionsin which theGovernment desirestoexpressitself,on casesof doubtoririvortance.This councilis ruled byregulations of August12, 1912, androyal decrees ofJanuary 18,1911, October 20,1911, November7, 1913, andFebruary '7, 1914.It hastwoperma- nent commissions;oneof 10 membersandasecretary, andone special with5 members for primaryeducation. ne fullcouncil, about45persons, must be consulted inthe for- mationorreform ofplans and regulationsof studies; in theregu- . lationsfoeexaminations,degrees and '. id!nisgsioninto professorships, ... and theprovision of professorialpositions; thn thecreationor suppression ofofficial establishmentsof instructionofanykindor t7. . f, ,4

111

. Ov: ' i.1,; ...... ° .til^g1^ - . .-:'% 4.11-1 &)- !1: At.4114 22 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION

degree; hi the provision.of professorshipscreatedanewand in the doctorate of the faculties;in th6 expediency ofwithdrawingor continuing holders of professorship's,professors, and teachers;in naming the judges Qfcompetitions and in all thecaseswhich include anyalteration in the régimeof education. Necessarilythe sections should be consultedalways incasesof dispute, bothprotest and reclamation; in the creationorsuppression of schools; inthose/of constructionorrepair against dispositionsdictated by themini;firy; in the formation ofquestionnaires and selections ofbooks; andthe budgets of the judges ofcompetitions. The functionsof the larger permanent commissionare :Toprepareinformationoilmatters that should be submittedto the fullcountrilandnot those thatbecause:of their specialnature shouldgofor previous consultationwith thesec- tions; review proceedingsvnotcontested; changes andcompetitions in -professorships andtheir helpers; matter'sof correction ofteachers,and authorizations for theexercise of the professionsand the evaluations of studies in. foreigncountries, i After having advised thecreation ofaministry of education,the ryceCol:omission in England(seep.3) stated: lerewillbe some mutters, however, in whichthe counselofpersons ¡ ppeclly conversant with educationand holdinganin--dependentposition,may beso'belpful,and there will besome dUties in their naturesodistinctly judicial rather thanexecutive,as to make it desirable tosecurefor the minister the advice ofpersons not under his officialdirection,There willmoreover be somework to be done in thecentral educationaldepartment,sopurelypro- fessional,as to belong rather to an independent body than toa department of state.For thesepurposes we propose that there be createdaneducational

council, whichmayadvise the ministerin the firstmentioned classof matters 1 and In appeals, while suchaprofessional functionasthe registration ofteachers miglit be entirely committedto it.We do not advocate suchacouncilon the grountthatit will relieveaminister of responsibility,forwe conceive that the responsibility both for general policyand for the control of administrative details ought to be his and his alone; butwebelieve that the unwillingness/ which doubtless exists insome quarters to entrust to the executiveany powers at all in this branch of education would be sensibly diminishedwerehis position atoncestrengthenedRind gutirdedby the addition ofa numberof independent advisers.' The commission recommendedas.mall councilof notto exceed 12

. members, one-third chosen. by four ofthe universities,and the , reniainder selecteaby the other mpnbeis of the council,The term of -0 officewasrecommendedassixyearswith onlypart of the members retiririgatany onetime.The council shouldbe grantedpowerto co-opt suchmem6ers.asitsawfit.. .

Accordingly, section 4 of the boardof edwationact, 1899 (6 : 1d 68 Viet., 4. 88),authorizect-thequeen o esb by order inco 1 -.. s Great Britain. :RoyalCortnissionon. secondary dueat1op.Report of ths Co .

. skaters. . Vol. I.London, His Majesty's Stationery Office, 189 451pp. I . .-1:

, NATIONALMINISTRIES OF EDUCATION AO f aconsultativedommitteeconsisting, "asto not less than two-thirds, ofpersonsqualifiedto represent the views of unversities and other bodies interested in education " for thepurposeof(a) framing regulations foraregistry of teacliers and (b) advising the boardof educationon anymatter referred to the committee by the board. An

order in council of Augugt 1, 1900, created the committee Of18mem- eft bers,named the first members, and .fixedthe term of officeat 6years with one-third retiringeverytwoyearsbut eligible to reappointment. Succeeding memberswereto be appointed by the president of the board. 4 . During the WorldWar the con'suliative committee ceasedto exist, because its membersweretoo actively engaged in other things to attend to the duties of thecommittee. Accordingly, itwasrecreated by order in council No.1582&July'22, 1921,toconsist of 21mem- bers, for thesameternis and eligibilityasthose fixed in the order of August7,1900. A commission.oneducation in New Zealand, appointedin 1912to inquire into the educationalsystem of that country, recommended, amongother things, thatacouncil of national educationbe established to reportto the minister,oneducation in other countriesor on anyquestion relatingto national education and its administration in New Zealand,andtoprepareguiding principles relatingto school curricula, attendance, staffing,classification of teachers,erection and equipment of schools,conveyanceand board of pupils, scholarships and free Oaces,maintenance of highereduc4ion, and othermatters

relating to theschools.As recommended,the council wouldcon: . sist of15 members, with thé ministeraschairman, the directorof ducationand the supervisor of technicaleducationasmembersex officio,2 representatives ofthe producing industries ofthe Dominion, and10 other members electedby and chosen from differentbranches of the professionaleducationalgroups. The educationact of 1914 accordingly createdageneral council of education of17 membersconsisting of3 officers from the educatión department--2appointed by the ministorto represent industrial and *technical interests,and 1to represent the interests of theeducation of girls;2 each elected, bythe members of the educationboards in NorthIsland and in SputhIsland; and1 each gected by thécer- tificatedmenaachersand the certificatedwomenViachers ofNoah .*Islandand of South Island;1 eachb¡themenandwomenteaCher3 in secondaryand technicaj schools;andamember from theUniver- sity of NewZealandchosen by itssenate. The term of office..is three years. The council meets an4ually inJune. .. Its dutyisto report.iothe minister ofeducationon:)(a) The. Ti hodsordevelopments innational education whichin iopinion

11.4766-80-8 ,

a. - =7,01 e. -

- . 24 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION

it is desirableto introduce into NewZealand;(b)any matterscon- cerning the provisionof facilitiesfor educationin NewZealand.br inanydistrict thereof,and upon thecoordination ofthe workcarried onby the variousbodies controllingeducation; and(c)anyother matters incoNectionwith educationreferred tóit by theminister. The law establishesalso similaradvisory committeesto aid the education boardsin the nineeducationdistricts intowhich the Dominion is dividedfor Purposesof educationaladministration. This nationalcounciloneducationin Bulgafia consistsof about80 members,many exofficio and otherselective.It is convokedby the minister, andconsiders suchimportantmattersasprojects,programs, regulations, and changesin the laws.Its membershipincludesrem: sentatives of theteachers, of public schools,of the professors,of the church, of the chiefinspectors, therector of the university, thedirectors of the nationalmuseum,national library, andnational theafer, and othergroupsand bodies activelyengaged inorconcerned with education.6

6 Fora discussion of the superior council of public instruction inFrance,see p.105.

11,

41.

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41. ,, 4 t. 1 a A

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OP os s . ale . , . . . 1 7-7 S '' L.

CHAPTER III Population, Cultural, Economic, and Other Conditions Affecting the Work t e of the Ministry' of Education

s s a

Population.--As. to responsibility involved" when measured in termof the population andareaof the country; the work of the national ministries of educátionrangegfrom thatliecessaryto administer the schools in Costa Ricawith,fewer than halfamillion people, notmorethan 110,000 of whomareof elementary school age,living inan areaabout the size of the State of West Virginia, to the stupendous task of providing educational facilitiesnChina for 400,000,000,at least 80,000,000 of whomareof elementary school age,crowded into and scatteredover an areaof aboutoneaindone- seventh timésth-eentire United States includingits outlyingparts. In rough quantitative terms the latter is-anunderta .ngeight hun- dredor more'timesgreater than the former.. gg. It is wellto set aside occasionally all diffrencesjn culturalstatus and educationalprogress amongthe pations anconsider briefl and sharply the purely quantitative side of theppvers,duties, and responsibilities of thenational%ministries of educatiton.Too -Gften. this is overlooked.7Only four nations of the worldChina,India, the Union of Soviet Republics, and the United Statesof America have eachmorethan 100,000,000 of people living in contiguous territory.Of the four, only China is attemptingto maintaina

national ministry whose sole yuties shall be educationaland in which*114r the main administration of all the country's educationalactivities shall be centered. Each of 42 of the 55 countrieswe arestudying has fewer than 10,000,000 peoplethe total combined population of the 42 is less than one-third that of China. In strictly numericalterms, to attain equivalent résults the ministries of the 42 combined needput forth much less effort, spend les§money,and employ fewer people than the oneministry sofeducation of China. By thatonecriterion the educa- tionklinstitutions ofCtnamust bemorethan double those of, all America,both North and Soitth, if the Chinese childrenareto be supplied with edtcational materialand personnel equalin quality to

I , tik Hetof the 7Semain politiCal divisions of theworld with the approximate population6: andarea of each is givenasAppendix II. 4 ea Att. ;- '-*** 4:1: . I : 7 111..

, 4. ...AI,. 26 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

thaitnowbeing used for the children of the English-speaking peoples of North America. Each of 28 of the countries with nation41 ministries oftitiucation has fewer than5,000,000 population theircombiriçdtotal ii..approximately 60,000,000,orabout equal to the central islands of Japan. in other Words the schoolsystem of Japan must enroll andlieepin attendance aboutas manychildrenasall the schools in Bolivia, Bul- ghlia, Chile, Cuba. Denmark, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, Guatemal Haiti, the Irish Free State, Latvia, Liberia, Lithuania,New Zealan Norway, Paraguay, Salvador, Uruguay,Venezuela, Iraq, Albania, Costa Rica, Danzig, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua,.: and Panama. Japan's human trainingproblem numerically isprac- tically equivalenttoacombination of those in France and England. France, Great Britain, andItalyarefairly comparable in Topula- tionlabout40,000,000 apiece. Poland with twenty-eight, Spain with twefty-two,and Rumania withseventeen millions form another groupwith its members of approximatelythesamepopulationmag- nitude.Afghanistan, Czechoslovakia, Egypt;Mexico, Turkey, and Jugoslaviaareall in the twelvetofourtee.nmillion class,orone-third and one-half, respictively. of theaverageof those in the twogroups already named. Inanyinquiry into thenature and functions of the national ministries of education,these sizeelementsnAu.st, be kept in s. mind. Theyareessential factors that havehadanimportantpartin making dach ministry what it is. Theydetermine largely itspresent strength and have muchto do whh fixing its limits in the future. Culture statuR.Tke aetjvitiesof the ministriesof educationvary greatly with the tTlativec'ulturalstatus of the people of theirrespective countries and theadequacy of theirpresent school systems.

Only crude . measuresof thatstatus and that adequacyareobtain- able.For the few criteria of nationalintellectual attainmentupon which gatherers ofdataáreagreed, national statistics thatwill admit of international comparisonareavailable onlytoalimited extent and they havenot been assembled, though the International Insti- tute of Statistics isnowpromotingaplan tosecurethem from all countries, and the RousseauInstitute and theInternational Bureau of Education . areworldngon someaspect§ of international educational statistiés.Pending thesuccessof theseefforts1e.few indi- cators of comparative cultural Otancementmayhe used for the countries under consideration. .° Compulsoryedueation.-:With the exceptions of China, Colombia, Iraq, and Persia,all have either constitutionalorstabitorliman-

. 410,orboth, that primary educktionshall be compulsory...and . . , :. free of tuitioncharges,exceptin Belgium, Japan, Lithuania, and the Netherlands whereit is inpart free. Theage rangeof 'hod ,,attendancecoversat the least, 4yearsand it themost, 10; with7 .1 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION 21- and 8years asthe mostcoinmonly acceptedterm of training that everycitizen is legally. boundto have. The beginning of thatterm is not below the fifthyearofage,usually the sixth, andnot above thesixteenth,usually the fourteenth.In these laws, whether'bbeyed ornot, is sét the primal duty ofthe national ministry ofeducation, that of seeing to it thatthe nition's citizenryis uniformly furnished with the tool subject'sfor acquiring knowledge.How far the ministries have succeededill this firstimportant taskmaybe judged tosomeextent from the statisticsof illiteracy.8 Illiteracy.Using theterm illiteracytomeaninability.toread and write in.anylanguageamong persons10yearsofageandover, Austria, Belgium,Czechoslovakia, Danzig,Denwrk, Engjand, and Wales, France, IrishFree State, Japtinthe Netherlands, New. Zealand, Norway, Sw6den,and the Europiansin the Union of South Africaareless than 10percent illiterate. In Derimark,Norway, and Sweden illiteracyis probablyevenless than1percent. For the othercountries under considerationthe dataare itsfol- lows: 10 tiò19percent, Estoiiia and Hungary;20 to 29percent, Argentina,Italy, and Latvia;30 to 39percent, Costa Rica, Cuba, Vinland, Lithiiania,Poland, Uruguay,and Yugoslavia;40 to 49 percent, Bulgaria, Chile,Panama,t Paraguay,°Rumania, Spain; .50to 59percent, Colombia, Mexico, ándGreece; GOto 69percent, Nicaragua,Portugal, andVenezuela; 70to .79percent, Albania,° DominicanRepublic, Bolivia, Eguador,9Honduras, Peru,°Salvador,9 Siam, and Turke.y;80 to 89peredit,Guatemala,Haiti,9Iraq,9 Liberia,9Persia, and Afghanistan;90percent andmore,Egypt; the Bantusin the Union ofSouth Africti,and China. .1! By these datathe ministriesofeducation inPoland, Rumania, and Spain,not widely variant intotal population,areworking'withl peoplesonapproximatelyequal culturallevels.That of Czechoslo- vakia hasa moreadvanced task thanthe ministrydf Yugoslavia,and botharedealing withpeoples far better.equipped inthearts of readingand writing t.hanthose of Afghanistan, MexicO,Egypt, and Turkey,all countries of aboutthesamepopulationstrength. Publicopinion towardeducation.Thedifferent attitudesof the .people of differentcountries towardilliteracyand compulsorSTedu- cationexpresswell the varyingnature of theconditionswith which ministriesof education.must deal.Illiteracyin Denmarkis alma nil;acompulsory educationlaw has beenin effectsince 1814;the Daneshabituilly keep theirchildren inschoolasalnatter 01course. In Swedenattendanceat elementary schools,',at least, issomuCha matter of publicsentiment thatsomepeople inthat co'untryfavor *Abel, JamesF., andBond, Norman J.Illite6eyin the Several Connhiesof the World% 01 JD 'Bureau of , Education Bulletin,1929, No. 4. . Washington.Government PrintingNice, 1929. e . Estimated._ . ; I . - , . - , - .. . - r.14:. - - I "-'.. -11 . . . . .1... T 1 "... . - . , - - - :t`" ;-':; , 4Z4-r. - -1:t ' j Ç "" tr-"I :900-4:4 28 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION longer needed. .repealing the compulsory education lawasbeingno ,-In several countriesstatistics of illiteracyarenot gathered at the #*. regular decennialcensusbeciuse illiteratesare sofew in number that theexpenseof gathering the data is unwarranted whenso many other important items should be placed in thecensusschedules. Contrast this with conditions in Iraqor someof the other countries in which thereare nocompulsory education Jaws partly because public sentiment does not favor them andmorebecause notschools . enoughCanbe provided to make the law effective.In certaincorn- . munities of northwest India themenbelong toawarrior class and willnotadmit ability to read and write,eventhough they have it, becauseamongthem reading and writingareconsidered to be effeminate pastimes. -.., Population inschool,percapita wealth.---Tocarrythe compari- sonsfurther rl bring in other elements that mustaffect and help to determineire- work of the ministries,usethese items: Percent in school of the total population;percent of ilhleracy;andper capita wè'alth. The followingtable gives them for 18 of thecoun- tieswe arestudying.These countriesareselected partly because for them the dataareavailable, and partly because' they represent rather extremecases,Foroivposehere' there isnospecial reasonfor dealing with thefive-m.1rdconditionsorfor attempting to be particularlymoderate in shing variations. TABLE 2.Per cent of populationin R71ooi3, those illiterate,and per capita wealth, by country

- Per cent of total Per cent Country popula- of illit- Per capita tion in °racya wealth 'schoolI

a 4

4.11i

_ Argentina .s 18 24 $1, 408.80 Bolivia 4' 83 576.90 Belgium 15* 7 1, 357.70 Colombia 7 63 803. 20 Czechoslovakia... _ .... _ ...... _ ..... 14 680.30 Denmark 16 1 1, 532. 70 England 18 1 2, 677.70 "Groom 11 57 AP394.40 Italy (DONIIIMID 11 28 520.90 e Japan 20 5-- 818. 10 Mexico 10 62 449. 00 Netherlands '20 1 1,083.10 New Zealand 21 4 3, 029. 00 Peru a 60 338, 00 Rumania_ 9 60 654.50 Vain 12 42 1,875.90 . 4 ruguay 35 1,480.00 Venezueia a 72 404.70

...... cal.sora . *. :Pt. PI Z. I Epstein, M. ea. Tbe Stataman's Year.book, 1928. ,London, Macmillan &Co. (Ltd.), 1928. I' i A, s . . , i:..: United States Department of Commerce. Commerce Yearbook, 1928.Vol, It Foreign countries. F ---.' Washington, Government PrintingAlffice,1928..:..2.-et- ',A. i -"United States Department of tbertiftior.Bureau of Education Hulletin 1929, No. 4, Illiteracy In . ..-;.: '..:, , the immoral countriesof the World.Washington_,_Government Printing Office,1929. , . ... ri.N;;2.1--1.- .-e' s World loonomio Chart une. New York, Redmond & Co., 1918...... , , ,-_....I . 14-47@?...--::,:)--,-.---i..-:-.,--!...,- ..--».!..,y;.....:::.-1,-:-.-,....-..:.....,-,.-. . '-,... ,11..s.t.i..,;:._,_:AA.:..i.,.., -,i -.; -2-:"yr... -.-,';, '.;;.. e ...* -,76-:'-':c..1.;:fg_6:-,.-Cf..-', ,--.::.; . f: :u''..: ". .. . --4-1. -_,-f, -______.6..,*-4" L:d. *._-&- . J- ,i.' , e: qert.i.7 n_AS- 1..#1 ,1` '114:- -=''. 1,"'-' "- : t / ----=-'-^----=-4--4-110--"--'1-&---vg.7-t*°:-& . -.11m Frodi'r NATIONALMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION 29 In New Zealand educationis supportedentirely bythe national government and the lumberof indigenouspeopleto be trained is comparatively small. Of ihetotal populatipn of1,407,000atleast 21percent is in school, illitoracyis 4percentorless, andthepar capita wealth is $3,029.The ministryof education-ofNew Zealand hasa veryfavorablesituation withwhichto deal when viewedin the light of conditionsin Venezuela,for example,where of thetotal population of3,027,000 about3percentarein sthool,illiteracy is 72percent, thepercapita wealthis $404.70,the Government* is not stronglycentralized,there isalarge indigenouspopulation, and the compulsoryeducation lawsare noteasily, ifat all, enforced. Or England,with 18out ofevery100personsin school,about 1percent illiteracy,a percapita wealth of$2;667.70out of which to payfor schools,andapopulation fairlyhomogeneous,must and does conductaneducationsyst,e 'different fromthat of Mexico, with 10 inevery100 in school,62percent illiteraçy, thelowper capita wealthof $449, andadecidedlyheterogeneous people.Again, to select two countriesthatare nearileighborsand bothareLatin- speaking peoples,Spain, witha percapita wealth ofmorethan three times thatof Italy,should easilymaintainamuch better. sch-oo-I system, other thingsbeinWequal,than the. ministryof educationin Italycanhopeto evolve andcarry on; Othereconomicconditions.Thepercapita wealthrepresents, of course, onlyoneitem of theecononiicconditions that the riational educationalofficemusk be takinginto accountat all times. Western Europe isanindustAl,tradingareaof *theworld.Its peopleare inconstant, sharp,competitivecontact with others.Theymust haVe knowledgeand continueto increase theirstore of it if theyare to maintaintheir relativeplaces inhuman advancement.Driven _by necessity, theywillmore orless forceamiriistry ofeducationto be alert,active, andresourceful.Conditionsin thehighlands of America,where folk.are ratherawayfrom thémainstream of in-. dústrialand commercialactivities, havein themn(isuch drivingele- ments to compelpeopleto live attheir bestandto be always widen- ingtheircontrol ofnatural forces.Hereamiiiistry ofeducation a.; mayby choicetakeapositions.'öfleadership;it will probablynot be compelledtoassumeguidance byapeople thathas establishedit forsucha purposeand lookuponitasha.vingfailed ifit doesnot represent themopt advanced thoughtoneducation. Changeo in iationalthought.Again,changesin nationalthou& aresometimestranslated tit°action andachievement-rather sud- F .4 denly.The changeinthinkingmayhave .beenslow; apoliticalde- velopmentoffered theopportunity;and theministry ofeducation; was enabled torearrangeits aiirasAnd methodsinashort itime.

,4- 7ri . 15t .4e ...... - . - . 0... ..o ,:. ir - 4. I. , r ' "?'' g.. . t v.4: . t "t . i , r » t.349.* '14 -;* " - :*:%" " - "t' ;7.'it_t...4ftgkttt w 30 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

7 ,v Many mi4istries of educationcameinto beingas aresult of such national tipheavals. A fewinstances of radical changes in the nature of ministries already establishedareworthy of consideration.. For about63yearsafter the Cast ILti Act of1859,theministry of education inItaly moved along rather slowly inafairly fixed direction in conditions under whichaschool system had been fostered thatwassingularly devoid ofadeeply religious, national, and human ideal») In 1923, Giovanni gentile, whohad for 20years or morebeen writing and lecturing against the educationalsystem,wascalledto- the ministry of educationbythe'Fascist régime and given by the Chamber of Deputies unconditionalpowersto reform the schools. With the idea that the e§sential characteristicsof nationalityare a commonhnguage,commonreligious beliefs and organizations,nat- uralbou.ndaries,anda commonculture, he took this opporttinityto organize âsystem of education designed to strengthen nationality through fosteringa commonculture.The details. of the changes he Made neednot be given: Theywere manyand thorough and

the ministry .of education, somewhat altered in compositionand organization, is much.morealtered in outlook,purposes", and position *of importance in the national scheme ofgovernment. With the coming intopowerof the- Agrarian Union in Bulgaria early in 1920, Homarchefsky topk the position ofminister of education.His changes in the policies of the' mihistryand in education in general in Bulgaria-ikre noless remarkable than those of Gentile in Italy.Believing that education in hiseguntry *As too intellectual, too far removed frcini life,too littleacbessibleto and unfitted for the rural people,too much imbued with the spirit of communism, and generally-inadequateboth in quality and quantity, he 'summarily dismissed radical ,teae4ers,attempted torestores discipline and order in the schocils, developedIzscationafeducation andarespectfor labor, -and under his leadershiplifter eight moriths of c.ardulconsideration by the people and the national assemblya neyteducation codewas passed.Here againaministry of educable%was reversed in its outlook byanational social movement. Other examples bfmore orless pronounced changes in national ministries include that of Spain under thedictatorship of Rivera, the Fisher.bill of England in1918, theneweduNitionaloutlook in Turkey under theRepúblicpaiticularlythe changeto. theLati'n alphabetthe effects of the Kuo MinTangonthe ministry in China, the changes thatcamewith the accessión and abdicationof Amanul-

..,:a:-:ro,Howard A. NatisyWism inItalianEducation.New York City,Italian DigestandNews Service, 1927. . 7.-- P: NATIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDUCATION 31; 6 lah Khan inAfghanistan,nd the assumption ofpowerby King Alexander iji Jugoslavia. National di8a8ter8.Further,national disastersmaycurtailor ac- celerate the activities of theministry of educatioa.After thegreat earthquake in Japan thatcountrywasforced into cAsiderablebor- rowings for rehabilitationand febuilding andconsiderableamounts wereused torestore the destroyed schools.In Cuba particularly, since the disastrous hurricaneof 1928, the ministry hashad to work hardat reestablishing destroyed schools.The fall in the priceof nitrates after thewarseriously affected theschools of Chile, andthe -economicpostwar decline in British Guiana preventedany improvement ofanextremely inefficient schoolsystem. It isnot assumed, ofcourse,that the conditionsrecounttd he notaftectnational ministriès other thanthat of educationin&la:Wit; greatermeasure.They do; butwe aredealing with theonenatiohal office and its relationto the cultural and educationalphases of national life. -,4.

Nft. at-

Alb

oe.

. MP CHAPTER IV General Functions of theMinistry of Education

The ministry of educationiq primarilyanadministrative-execiutive organization concernedwith making effective theconstitutionalman- dates and national laws relátingto education.Beyond that it has legislative, advisory-consultative,inspectorial, resoarch, and judicial functions. In theprocessof performing thesefunCtionsand making them knownto the people of theriationitmaypublishordirect the. publication of educationalwritings of various kinds.Which of these activities predominates in.anyindivi4ual ministrydepends largely onthe forin of thegovernment of which that ministry isapart and onthe historicaldevelopment bf education inthat country. Admini8frative-exi!cutivefunciiow.Jfir extent'to which its administrative-execut4e.authority reitches intothe details of public and privateschool control varies gresatlyin the differentnations. Itspowers,partially summarized forall nations, include thedeter- mination of the number, locatioh,and kind of schoolsthatare.maintained;theamount, allocation, and expenditureof national educational funds;the subjects thatshall be taught inthe schools and how and whenthey shall be taught;,the training,licensing, selection, .promotion, anddismissal of schoolofficers andteachers; thepromo- tion of pupilsand the granting ofdiplomas anddegrees; thepro- . vision of schoolbuildings andplants and theiradequacy;and,toa lesser degree, the entorcementof compulsoryschool lawsand the careof child health.This executiveside of theministry isvery pronounced in Siam,Afghanistan, Japaii,Persia, Rumania,Yugo- slavia; Italy,Spain, and Peru.It is much less inevidence inthose of England andWales, Portugal, Norway,Denmark, &nUruguay. Between theextremes represented by thesetwo group of countries are manygradations ofadministrative responsibility. Besides the dutiesjust enumeratedthat pertaindirectlyto the schoolsaministries ofeducation inone or more countriesareintrusted with othermatters of importance.'Department III (finearts) and Department IIIB(sciences) inthe ministry ofHungaryo haveOn- trol of the following-listedaffairs: Artexhibitions,purchasingworks ofart, scholarship andart associations, NationalFine Arts Council, industrialarts, licensing andsuperviOngmusi$ schools,subsidies:1 82 r NATIONALMINISTRIES °OFEDUCATI,ON 33 fte P iorart,orchestras, concerts, Royal Hungarian HighSchool of Fine Art,Training SchoOl for Master ational Industrial Decorative ArtSchool, National Academy of Music,'ational Acad- emy1Scenic Art,Royal Hungvian OperaHo.use,national and chamber theaters, theater licenses, private scenicschdols, national art 'relics,. motion pictures, National Motion Picture,Board of Peda- gogical andEducational Films, film actors'training schools, film censorcommittees, publication of literaryproducts, copyrights,sub- sidips for writers,National Council of Literaturefor Children, editing t4eofficial gazetteand (sciences)all scientific matters,scien- tificc'òllections,foreign scholarships and connections,international mfeetings,foreign scientific institutions,Thereianum Acad- scientific . em,\ ind participation in foreignscientificmovemebts. This fine arts andsciences phase of the ministryis welI-arranged and.strong in Austria,Bulgaria, Cuba,Czechoslovakia, Danzig, Den- mark, Estonia, Finland,France, Hungary, theIrish Free State, Japan,fiexico, Norway,Portugal, Yugoslavia,Spain, and Sweden, and is plannedirnTurkey. Nor does thelist. of general cultural and scientific activities given forHungary exhaust the thingsof this naturethatarewithin the purview of ministriesof education.' Among othersare:The meteorologicalwork of the nation; the entire geologicalsurvey;archeological activities, excavations,and the preservation of national monuments;astronomical observatories; 4)_ museumsand particularly the national museum ;academies of art and sciepce andesPecially the national academies; bibliographicalinsti- tutes"thenational library and otherlibraries; the national-.archiires aswellasthose for eduCation;national sports and olympicgames; students abroad, travel andmaintenance subsidies forinvestigittions abroad;cultural relations with`other countries; and the status ofthe national language and cultureof thecouaryof the ministry in other

countries. . SectiOn. 1, the churchsection, 9f the ministry ofNorway, deals with ohurch constitutionand legislation;public worship;division of the country intoecclesiastical districts; thechurches, churchyards,cre- mation;dissenters (in part);missions, clericalappoifitments;mat-. tine laws (in part);and ecclesiasticalpróperty.Other countries that havearesponsibility for reFgiousel aftersvested toaconsider- ableextent in theministry ofeducationareAustria, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Persia, Japan, Peru, and Sweden.

s Insome casesthe ministry of education isthe editing and publish ing house not only for itsownmaterial but for that ofll theothei government departmentsaswell.That of ;Siam hasateitbobk...,

bureau that compiles, publishes, and.. sells school texts. A fewpurdi chase anddistributeall school supplies.the Eaiadoreanwiniativy 000.04 P 0. . . " 41 rt' ;

. for. A .

" I..: 141 :74;.;" ;¡*".a:.;77, 47:1.:a;:g4111-1 41;'.15 34 NVIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDUOATION r:g..

has supervisionovermails, telegraphs, telephones, and wirelesssta- tions.In the field of justicesomeministries have charge of children's courts, reform schools,andeventhe general penitentiaries. Legislative fuinetions.,----In additionto beinganadministrativior- ganization the ministry is charaCteristicallyalegislative body,In

II all forms ofgovernment it is requiredto initiate financial legislation .pertaining to the schoolsto the extent that it makesupthe annualor biennial budget for educationalappropriations andpresents it either to the cabinetas awholeor tothe ministry of finance,orboth, for approval. In the parliimentarytype governments the minister 7ill help topassthat budgetthrough the legislative bodyand further he is bound tousethe debating and votingppvileges of his membership in the liament to defendand explain the educational policiesof the g* ment and toproposeitsnew programs. IAsaeximple, Sir CharlesTrevelyan,nowpresident of the board of education of England,isamember of Parliament for .,Newcastle Central, itfid a is undertaking the task ofmaking effective the promises of theLabor Partyto raise the compulsory school agefrom 14to 15, andto providemore nurseryschools.Tak- ing at randomsomeof the questions thathad been submittedto him im# andto which he replied in the Houseof CommonsonJuly 5, 1929, the interrogationsincluded:His policy towardthe regulations in force for givinggrants to pupils between theagesof 12 and14 plus; the additionalcost to the Governmentto add anotheryearof school- ing for 450,000 children;the proportion ofchildrento the total population thatenter secondary schools in thecounty'ofKent and in England and Walesas awhòle; the total number ofelementary schools and of scholarsregistered in them; and thenumber of local authorities thathave adopted by-laws!as,required in the education act. On all these matters hewasbound toanswer asaccuratelyas possible. The discussionin the Senate ofFrance thatarose onthe 24th and 26th of December,1928,overthe education budget, includedaswide a rangeof topicsasthe unity school and itsmerits; mixed classes (coeducation) incommuneswith fewer than 600 inhabitants,. the yelation of the educationalbudget to the total of governmentalex- penditures; thestraitened financial conditions ofthe universities;a defense of classicalculture;adiscussion by M. L4on .litirard, former minister of publicinstruction of the secondary school reforms of 1923; the cinemaas aneducator; the salaries of primary inspectors; *school iocation timesin differentareasof France; and the provision of residences for teachers. ..111 the presidential typegóvernmentsthe ministry of education has

inuch less of this-kind of legislativeresponsibility.The minister of:

.4 1). A I . ?Is; - -- s b. . . . t R- - . *lb L'C - . " .= .. -7.4 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OP' EDUCATION 35 education, notallowedto beamember of the parliament &zit* his ministiy,mayattend its sessions and speak butnot vote,or may even be denied the privilege of appearing before it Wsanyof itscom- mittees.Oneorthe otherorboth branches of thecongress may call him infor questioning and explanation, and he is requiredto renderanannualorbiennialreportonthe activities of his department.Beyond that his influence.onthe legislatiftp branch of the governmentis suchashe 'can wieldonits members outside of the legislative halls. Another and perhapseven moreimportant legislative function of theministryof education lies in itspowerto issue orders, decrees, orarrêtés that have the effect of law and frequently relate to subjects thatmayproperlycomewithin thescopeof legislative action. A large part of the world's eduCational legislation is in the form of ministerial decrees and orders,not in statutes. Advisory-consultative dutie8.--The advisory and consultative duties of the ministry in its relationsto the cabinetas awholeorto the chief executiveareconsiaerableineverycountry.In its relations to theeducational authorities in the political subdivisions of the country theyareimportant and the tendency isto increase them andto lessenthe administrativepowers.In other words, national control of education is restingmore onexpert knowledge and advice and lessonthemererightto command. This advisory, consultative side of the ministry is highly developed in Englandand Wales, and Denmark.It is being increased rapidly" in Mexico and Argentina. TtieBoard of Education ofEnglandand Wales hasastaff .of trained, experienced educators whose business is almost entirelythat of inspecting schools and giving adviceasto their betterment.The Danish people have long and consistently heldto the principle of considerable localautonomy in public education and of the right to establish and maintain private schools.The ministry of education there ismore.advisory and supervisory than administrative iiiits nature.National, control of education inArgentina and .Mexico has territorial limitations within thosecountries; national 'encourage-. ment, promotion, and advice havenosuch limits, and since both countriesaremoving ahead rather rapidly inaneducationalway, their ministriesof educationarecwnperiedto used advisory,con- 1 sultative methods rather thanthose ofanexecutive lature. .70

School inepeotion.,--Thepowerof school inspection is withinthe . s7 purview ofmost educational ministriesand4Pplies4general1yeven to those schools, both public and private,overwhich the ministry hasnodirect administrative authority.The Aatiolialgovernwnt, having decidedthatacertain amount of educationmust be made available toeverychild, and inmanycountries having issuedorders I i!tik

V b ;: :e. 's or ". a. 44,4b*:Sirlt. Pb P w . I : % Si. 4 .1" 4.- :rs:°'` *ft A r&..f " 1'7 4" -r. / 36 NATIONAL Mr4TISTRIESOrEDUCATION giving insomedetail what that trainingshall be, is logically forced to inspect the schools withaview to determining whether the laws relatingto educationarebeing made effective.Particularly is this true in those anintries wherethe .language and religious rights of minority peoplesareguaranteed byeaties and constitutionalpro- visions. The inspectorialstaff forpri aryeducation alone of the miiiistry in Belgiumnumbers about 25Òpersonsand includes three general classes: Inspectors ofreligious istruction, of primaryeducation in general,and of training for rls.Further, if national fundsaregiven insupportoraid of edu4tion the ministryis' Iiild to inspect the schools andseethat themonyis wellspent. In addition, the feeling of nationalismusually reqtires that privateschools, especially those established andmaintained\byaliens in thecountry, be inspected with relationto theirteachiAgof history, language, and religion. .Re8earch.AcceptingProfessor Ogg'sstatement that in the main manadds to his knowledge by definite,deliberate inquiry,"bycom- ingupagainstaquestionor aproblem and castingabout foran answer orsolution, and that this conscious,premeditated inquiryis research, about onb-fourth of thenational ministries ofeducation areeither actively engaged insomeform of research activityor are sumiorting and promotingit.This appliesnot merely to research in the principles andpractices of education butto other fields of scientific inquiry. One oftheyery commpnforms of research is the study of science and educationin other countries.Since the beginningOfthe Meiji Era Japan hasbeen consistently and strongly active in thisway.Its department ofeducation has students and research workers in considerablenumbers always in foreignfields and definitelysupports and directsmanyliliesof research in the homeland.The Board of Education of Englandand Wales has been forced byits advisory, consultativenature to doalarge amount of resetrch wqrk, mostly throughconsultative committees,andsom of itsreportsare veryvaluable documents. Theuniversitiesa libraries of Francecarry onmuch research inmanyfields, andto "lb theextent that thoseinstitution'smaybé consideredapart of the ministryifisaresearch body. b The ministries of Estonia, Poland,and Hungarysupport atd direct research in institutions organized forthatpurpose.Those of the Netherlands and Bulgariamake investigations of methods of . study and teaching.Costa Rica is usingall of the schools for research and maintainsaspecial department of educational reséarch I in the normalschoolat Heredia.nMexico thenow veryactive As =rn u OmFrederic Austin.Research in the Humanisticand Social Sciences.New York, Century co., 1928. A ., _. _,_ ., ,\ .------,. , .,

\, NATIONAL MIN TRIESOF EDUCATION '1 37 . \ , , secretariat of public educationis\parryingoi manyexperiments and research studies in education anais promotingresearch in other fields through the university,the nationalrniseum,and the board of anthropology. The ministryof Czecholovaliahasastanding committee for the study of educationalre and the Comenius Institute of Pedagogywasestablished foreucatsial research and inquiry. When the first. ministerof educaionitu. Austria, under the republicangovernment, undertook int19 to\ eform the elementary school system he placed the work in the hans oareform section and began andcarriedonexfseriritetal and demonstration classes of variousaids. ,. 1 ..1 JI Judicial fumetions.Sinc"hetninistryof education isapart of the ladministratiVe-executivebranch of thegvernment, it isnever

primarilyajudicial body.In general its tctionsaresubject to .. appeal to and review by thecourts.Neverlieless,in carryingout its administrative work,manyof the thin0 it doesarepartly. judicial in character and insomeinstances it haspowers thatare ,

strictly 'judicial;part of the ministry sitsasla court, usuallyon au .

appeal.Frequently it is thecourt, of last rsoit in thematter of , . establishingnewelementary schools and in dIscontinuingorchang-- ing the location ofanyschools thatarein pperation. Often also , it is the final authority in thematter of the dismissalorpunishment

of teachers. , Thesecretary of public instruction and iearts in Cuba, in accordance with regulations approved byth'esident of the Re- public, iscompetent to resolve all of the !appesmade against -44, resolutions of the board of superintendentziboar of education, and the officials in charge of institutions ana specialhools.His judgments in suchcases arefinal and bindingThesupe orcouncil of public instruction in France is bothanadrpinistrativec cil and atribunal.It sits in appeal and in last resorton manydisp and - disciplinarymatters, particularly matterspe4ainingtothe estabh - , jwent, and maintenance of private schools.A. number of .4pstions raatedto the mainténanceof communal primary schools, tfie dis- , missal ofteachers, and the language ofins4mctionin Belgm are:

' by law vested for final decision in the king, but the monarchn- doubtedlyacts through the mini§tryof scielces andarts.In I ly similar question§inaybe decided by the mi Iister of national edu . tion, after consultatiori with theproperadviorycommittee. , The council of public instruction in Spair has essentially judi ial .e.7 powersin matters qffecting the creationosuppression ofplic . educational institutions ofanyClassor gra ,the creation of iew ...

professorships in the univoirsities,andk.inI the decisions ofwes .

whichin* aul5id4alterationin the régimef education. ....1 , , . 1 .:' :.:. Ji

_s-r! w r 38 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDÚCATION

d' Graduation fromsecondary schools and theawarding of thecer- . ti.ficate of maturity whichadmits to.uni;ersity-coursesisamatter ofsomuch importance in Europeancountries that theexaqiinations areusually conducted byabody either termeda" jury "or resem- blingajury, madeupofpersonsappointed by the ministerof educ&- tion,orpresidedmoverby his yepreseritative.The examiningcommission sits in judgmentonthe applicants' ability, kn6wledge,and skill, and insomecountrids the awardorrefusal is recotded in nura-` ber ofyotes for and against rather than inascatrof marks. Spmö-. what similar practicesprevail inmost of the Latin-Americancoun- tries. The ministrya8 arecording and publication agency.The votume of educational material issuedannually by the ministries ofeducation is great inamount and widely diversified in character. Through their official publicationsorthepublicationasof private organizi'. tions, which -theyusefor officialpurpos(is they make availableto the world tt' record of their actions, their'work, and their theoiies that is of surptissing value.Much.lo6,littleuseis made of it, princi-

pally because distribution and exchangearenot yet adequately1 arranged. A comprehensive review of 'theeducational material issued by the ministries wekuld in itselfbeavolume ofnosmall portions. We shall call attentiontoafewatthemoleimportfant. First in order of importance is the recordof the lawspassedyby the legislative bodies of the different nations.Inmanycountries thesearemade intoacollectionsepatitefron the other laws;- and published by the mbriktry of education.When it is donsidered that in most instances those lqwsareinitiated by the ministryorbyone of its important advisory bodies, thit theyareintrodpced ipto the law-making body only after cdreful consideration 'bya-rpfitir of experienced, trainedexperts in education, .and often only'aftertome experiment, and that in the law-making.body they havebeen sub-, jectedto rigidanalysis,onerealizes that the collection of educational , laws of other countries*rppresentsmanyof the keen nationalstrug- gles and aspirations, and 'that in them is embodiedmuch fine think- ing and the results ofyearsof experienceorexperimenton a national scale. .. '

4 . With the laws usuallygothe ministerial orders, tierces, arrAtiis, circulars,etc., by which the former are.made effective.Insofar

asthese relate to the naming of individuals for positions,tife fixing ,

:, ofasalary hereorthere, the gianting ofapension,orthevalidathig

4 ofadegree, c',:-i-e.-:0,tareof little iseto thestudent of education other._ ., . thanasmaterial illustrative of thepowersand duties of 'theminiary ::. . eny' thewayin which its members e.their tithe.But that part of

.!..: ' them which outlines in detail thecoursesof study forsomelevel of

40 r ., a ..i:.1 .'. 1 * 0 t i !..4,k1.) ,4 1 4 . . . . . ,. .;..0.1 4 " - ..%:.. .:-. .,. .. . , . .. -. . : t-4:7 t .: . 1--;V.- : '. ". V L '.. 4; . -. . 3 L .. . i. : ...: , 14'1;7 :-.%1-=::.1.:'.;11:14. 17% ftqA.,___"-LrI; t; .! *; .. ...:1_ ,L., l:t'--".r' NATIONAL MINISTRIES OP EDUCATION 39 ..t. instru4ionor someclass of schools, is ofgreat import.It represents the professional and national expression of the conception of the kind.of human training neededto make that nationa success.Those coursesreflect the historical, ecoomic, cultural, andinternational aspectsofihecountry whose ministry of education issues them 'and usually theyareworthy of careful study.. Again, inmanycountries, the ministry of educationis required to report at setintervals to the legislitive bodyorthe chief executi70. The orders, decrees, etc., mentioned in the previous paragraphsare its c-ommunicatiop.s to the school authorities andinstructionalper- sonnel with whidi it deals.The reportsarecommonly its geneml communicationto the nationthroug4its officials.Necessarily ihey arewritten mdually inmorepopular style andare abroadervo.rd of I. eventsorever.'ajustification of policies. Theymust be read in the light 'of the political activitie:: of that time.NÖr shoulddiestudent, of ducatioll beinclinaedto give them scant consideration becauseof that.For strong politicalmovements inanycountry will "bere- flected in the educationalsystem of the country whether that §ystem be natiQnallyorIdeally .administered, andit is -of valueto note how f.political and economic wnditionsaffect schemes of human training. .Further, if the ministry maintainsanykind of iesearchorganiza- lion it publishes the results ofits investigations.Takin.éthe world 4:- at large, not much of this has been done by netiorialministries, but the trend is in that direction,andwe mayexpect that grsearches and experiments in increased numberand importance willsoonbe carried onby the central offices ofeducation. ITOcifdafew examples otthe kinds of educatiónalpublications just mentioned:The national council ofprimary andnormal in struction of Thuguay has issuicteight volumesof the Legislación Escplar Vigente, eachvolume beingachronologicalrecapitulation ofihedecisions, cir6lars, decrees,laws,programs, and regulations relativeto public primary instruction.They rela4,respectively,to tikiperiods 1877to 1880, 1881 to 091, 1.882to 1895, 1896 to 1897, 1$98 to. 1903, 1904to 1905, 1906 to 19178, and1918 to 1921. Fromt4m an account of the development. of primaryschool legaition.in Uruguaycould eaidly be written.The BulletinAdministratifdu Ministèrede l'Instruction Publiqueof France, theBollettino .Uffi- dale_of the ministry ofnational educationof Italy,the Botétin7P Oficialdel Ministerio deInstrucci4nPalletyBella§ Artesof Spain, and the Bulletindu Ministèredes Scienceset des Arts.,of Belgium areof thesamenature, in that theyatedevoted strictlyto the laws, .orders, (Items,etc.,affectingeducation- inthose countries.They containor Arethe legal documentation. 4,4 Obb- 11471

.41 yp. v 4 4.0 N., NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF tDUOATION

Reports of themorepopular, descriptive,rstatistical.character Are well illu4ratedby thereport of the brd of educationfor England and.Wales .forany. year.This givthe statisticaldata in thewayof registrationof pupils,expenditures,numberof teachers employed,and like items, akwellas an accountof theedu- cationalprogressand mfiin.events. du`ring thetime.The Memoria presented Cothe Congress. ofArgentina bythe ministerof justice and publicinstruction isusually in tivovolumes,onefor justice,the ,other foreducation.The latter isailaccount indetailof the workof the ministry,and isanunusuallyinteresting, valuablereport.The Mettioria ofthe ministryof nationaleducation. ofCorambiaIs usuallya,compilationof thereports from the-differentdepartments. Thesearevaluable, butnotsoreadily usedas agood denerarsurvey ofeducation forthe entirecountry. The annualreport of the minister ofstate for educationin Japan isalmostwholly.-statistical.It .r containsatleast theEnglisheditionlittle inthewayof deaip- fiveorinterpretivewriting, andfor thatreasonis difficult faRthe readerunversediniheJapanese schoolsystem to understand. The'Meth'de laSecretaria deEduc.ación Públicaof Mexicoap- pearsniAthlyand includestexts of laws,rkordsofachievement, articlesonprinciples ofeducation, andstatistical data.Inmany waysit isoneof .themost valuableolficialpublicationsissued bygny ministfybecauseofth-evariety ofitscontent and the connected .natulkorits data.El Monitorde laEducación Común,the official organ of thenationalcouncil of educationof Argentinais alsoa pedagogi.cul,administrative,and statisticaljournal of.considerable value becauseof thedifferentkinds ofmaterial it iniSludesin its numbers. , , , One nf themost noteworthy.series ofresearch studies,everpub- lished byanyministry ofeducation isthe specialreports iri educational subjectsissued bythe boardof educationaf EnglOd.and Wales. Theywerepreparedby the officeof specialinquiries and Keports, includemoreth volumes, Anddeal withmany .aspeOs of educatioilinalar of countriesof theworld." ,A1

u For otherpublicationactivitie the Boardof Education,see Ch. VIII. k.

s a

CHAPTER V

The Relation of the National MinistrytoElementary Education

Introduction.No other relationshipof the ministry of education issointricate and many-sided,somuchanexpression of the ethos öf the people,socloselywoveninto the fabric of its social and political lifeasthat with the elementaryschbols. On this level of instruction,morethanoneither of thetwo others, theministiy dealswith large numbers of people in all kindsof vocations and of arll social strata, reaches into remoteareasandminglesein the affairs of the locality, takespart in intimate matters of the home suchastlie lan guagethat is spoken thereand how it is spoken, how thechild is fed and clothed and spendsphistime, his parents' outlookonlife and what they hopefor him, his quality ofmind and its susceptibility of training forgra-productiveness,andevenhis religious beliefs. gaturallythe history andcharacter of the peopk willlargely cleat termine the kind 'wadextent oftheserelationships and naturallyalso they will differ Muchamongcountries. Because oftheir multiplicity and inany variationsand further becausetheyareonly meagerlyex- pressable inlaws, regulations,andreportsno matter how volumi- nousthe studentoi thisphaseotthe ministry'sactivities willalmost sOrely leaveit witha sensethat itisvery complex, and. oftenintin- gible andvague but for all thatprobably the vital,fundamental,. strong eipression ofthe nation'sattitude towardhuman training. Torecount for each of55 countriesthe details ofthecontacts between thenational ministrya'nd theseparate units in which elementaryinstruction isgiven, wouldmeanmuch repetitionanda greittamount of delving intolaws and regulationsmanyof whichare transitory.The laborandexpenseof securifigthem fromsomeof the orientalcountries andinterpreting themin Englishis prohibi- tive foranything lessthanawell-financed andconsiderablecorpsof workersversed both in thoselanguagies and inthe science ofeduca7 tion.In thesubs.equent ChaptersVIII, IX,and X, dealingwith theministries ofEngland, France,and Mexico, willtefound dataon thisphase of theministry's dutiesin each of thosecountries. Here the relationof thenational ininistryto -the elementary schoolsis dismissedfor Honduras, New Zealand,Belgium, Argentina,Swecin, . Bii1gari4;and Siam. Noclaim is made.that these ministriesare typical ofany groupof countries.Therwere selectedbecauserecent

11. le . .. : ffsw. l. . ::.,,,,. , 4 ....-.. a 41 .a

b el 42 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION is. datawereavailable for themand theirgeneral natural, political,and economic conditionspresent extreme differences. Harauras.Honduras withan areaof -44,275squaremiles anda population of774,000 isacentralized republicdivided forpurposes :of civiladministration into17departmenisand' 1 territory.The head of eachdepartment is appointedand removed by thenational president.The departwentsaredivided intomunicipalities eachof which has considerablelocalautonomy and carriesout its administri- tion throiigh electedcouncils and officersof itsownchoosing. The units of schooladministrationaregenerallycoterminouriiththose of the civiladministration. Edupation in allits branches isorganized by theterms ofan .elaborate code oflaws (executivedecree No. 79 of June25, 1923) and the generalregulations forelementary instruction (Acuerdonúmero. 718 of April 25, 1928)issued by thesec.retary of state for public

instruction.The Governmentorganizes and directsallpublic ' schools 'and inthen;instructionmust. be lay, and for the elemental grades, obligatoryAnd free.The law divides public iristructioninto four classes:Elementary, normal,secondary, and professional. Elementary instructionis administered bytwo parallel series of authdities;the direction andthe inspection, bothcentering in that division of the ministryofeducationknownasthe direction and inspection generalof elementaryinstruction (La DireccióneInspec- ción General de EnsetianzaPrimaria). (Seep.43.)The .chiefo6, s cersand assistants in bothsériesmust be certificated teachers with successful experience.The direction is occupiedmostly with the externa; the inspection with theinterna of school affairs.In each seriesarethreesteps between the minister's office andthe schoolroom and eachstep isaprofessionalnotalay body. The directionbegins with the director.general of elementaryeducation assisted bythe nationa council consistingof the directorgerieralas.president,two activemebers andtwo substitute members appointedby theexecutive.Subordinateto this bodyarethe departmental directorsaided by the departmentalcouncils,oneof each in eachdepartment.. De-.

part-mental directorsarechosen by theexecutive; thetwo active and 1 'lwosubstitute members of.the'departmental councilsareappointed by; thenation'al council. Nextin linearethe local directorsand local councils in eachmunicipality. Thelocal directoimay It be the mayot .or aFipecig appointee ofthe departmentaldirector;the four members of the kal council11;3chosen by thedepartmental council.In each . of these threebodies thedirector nominatesthe members of the council.- -4 Inspection is headed bythe inspectorgeneral whomaybe thei director general alsoand subordinateto hip?. the at7- .e an departmentalifl Ì

J .; -4,1% .1 *NATIONAL kt6-1!STEM.01? EDUCATION

spectors, usuallyonefor eachdepartment. Finally,each municipality hasits local inspectorwhomay or may not be themayor.The distribution of the authorities andduties betweenthe twoparallelver- tical divisionsof the administrationand the threeparallel horizontal divisions is setout in great detail inthe laws andregulations.If the councilsareconsideredas a separate seriesthe regulationsreally make them suchtherearethree ratherthantwo parallel vertical &visions. The schememaybe graphedroughlyasfollows:

THE NATION(ALEXECUTIVE

41P

THE SECRETARIATOF STATL In dispatchof PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

THE GENERALDIRECTION ANDINSPECTION AP OF ELEM ENTARYEDUCATION consisting of the

Mho

_ DIRECTOR GENERAL NATIONALCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION INSPECTORGENERALI u$4,

.1 DEPARTM ENTAL DEPARTMENTAL DEPARTMENTAL 1 DIRECTOR COUNCIL INSPECTOR MEIN 4 I 4' LOCAL DIRECTOR LOCAL COUNCIL HLOCAL INSPECTORI

11'

e THE SCHOOLS

The chiefcharacteristics. of this òrganizationaretheextreme amount of administrativemachinery forasmall schoolsystem---Iipn- duras had in 1927-28only95,188 childrenbetween 7and15yearsof age and of them gnly36,489wereIn school; theunusualnumber of . steps especiallyforacentralizedgovernment, betweenthe nationil office and theschools; thelack oflay participationinanyof thead-, ministration except when themayoris inspectorand hisdutiesare , thencarefully.limit theattemptto workout in theseseries of ofi-f° ficesfinedistinctionsbetweenprofessional admiriistrationand prof6s- sionalsupervisionand inpractice keepthoseactivitiesseparate; the widepowers given theeducationalauthoritiesto imposepenalties and levyfinesonlaymenAswellas onthe educationalpersonnel; ,.:. . , 44 NATIONALMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION

placing.theenforcementof thecompulsoryeducation lawin school rather thanin civilauthorities; andthe manifestindicationthat here isan attempt to buildaschoolsystem by using thepower of the centralgovernment. Thesystem is not growingfrom thelocality up;thestream of foweris flowine fromthecenter not towardit. The plancontemplatesthat theelementary schoolpupil inHon- duras willattendaschool maintainedby order ofthe ministryof education inaschool building of its planning,usingapparatus and r books of itsselection,pursuinga courseof studyfor thenumber of minutespersubject andhoursperday that itdictates, taughtby personstrained underthe ministry'ssupervision,selected andclassi- fied by it,paidasalary whichit determines,and subjectto direction and supervisionby at leastthree categoriesof the ministry'sperson- nel.The child'sparents participate inthe schoolto the extent of helpingto support it by payingtaxes but they havenoauthoritative voice in themanagement though theymaybe urgedby employees of the ministryto assist in sucheducationalorganizationsasparents' societies andschool cooperatives. New Zealand.Severalconditions make therelationshipbetween the nationalministry and elementary educationin NewZealand [ i.elativelysimple, direct,and well defined.The populationis about 1,500,000, and withthe exception ofafew Maoris,homogepteoug; usingonelanguage and havingcommoncultural ideals.The Na- tional Governmentprovides allthe school fundsthatcomefrom publicsources.The locality leviesnoschooltaxes; itmay accept and administergifts. The organizationmaybe graphedasfollows:

.40 EXECUTIVEGOVERNMENT r 3

irr DEPARTMENT OFEDUCATION COUNCIL OF consisting of EDUCATION M INISTER OF EDUCATION and Staff

0 Fe] DISTRICT ADVISORS, EDUCATION BOARDS COMMITTEES (Nine,onefor each 1 SENIOR INSPECTOR education district) and .ASSISTANTS

1Pr TI IMP SCHOOL COMMITTEES (One for each school district)

SCHOOLS (4, NATIONALMINISTRIES DPEDUCATION 45 New Zealand is dividedinto nineeducation districts wh6seboun- dariesweredeterminedby thegeneral councilof education.(See p.23.)Each districthasaneducation boardof sixmembers for ruralareasandtwo forevery60,000 orpar,t thereof inurbanareas, . elected by the schoolcommittees.Theterm of office is fouryears with eligibility forreelection;from one-thirdto'one-halfthe è mem- bersre.tire biennially.The boardisabodycokporate withperpetual succession,aseal, and thegeneral rightsof bodiescorporate.It selects itsownofficers, holdsregular meetings,and determinesits rules of procedure. It establishes,main ains,and directs thepublic schoolswithin the district; appointsthteachers nfterconsultation withthe school committee; allotssclarships;arrangesfor theconveyanceof children to and fromschool;establishes schooldistricts andschool libraries;arrangesthe school calendar ;*administersall the fundsthat become theproperty of the board;andreports annuallyto the minister. Each schooldistrictsetupby the educationboard hasanelected schoel committeeof fiveto nine membersthat in rural,districts hold office foroneand in urbandistricts fortwoyears.Subjectto the generalsupervision andcontrol of theeducation board,the school committeemust keep the schoolplant in goodrepair and orderand 'insanitarycondition;appoint teachersof sewinginanyschool in which thereis nota womanteacher; expendthe fundsfor incidental purposes in accord with theby-laws ofthe board;establish school and classlibraries andsavings banksfor the children;fix school holidays;keepaccounts, and renderanann'ualreport to the board. This isthe lay manhgement of the' schoolin whichthe ministry .61 4, inervenes testablish district4dvisory committeesw enitseesfit (seep.24); irerep returns, and informationfrom the educationboards; 1,- efunds both gjneraland specialand approve their expenditure;decide in thefinal issueonthe establish- mentordiscontinuanceofaschool district;sanction themaintenance of specialclasses fordefective children;makeanypublic schoola Modelschool farpractice teachingpurposes; act through its senior inspectorasconsultant in theappointmentof teachers;and decide incertaincases as toallowing theexpensesof removalwhenateacher istransferredfromonepositionto another. .fihelaw providesthat elementaryinstructionmust include certain subjects,andmust be free, secular,and,compulsory for-children betweentheagesof 7 and15years.Teachersarecivilservants and -tenureissecureif the teacheris reasonablyefficient.Aegulations

forthe organization, . examination, andinspection of publicschools and thesyllabus of instructionaswellasregulations forteacher training, ., certification, salaries,andmanyother conditionsofeme . . 4 " . . . h v ;%4 . I . .4',,;rf° !, .7;t ...... I*-LC A31

46 BrATIONAL MINISTIiIES OF EDUCATION ;-ft,

ploymentaredrawnupiii the ministry of education and issuedas orders in council by the'governor general. For the professional management of the schools, the permanent staff of the ministry consists ofadirector of education,anassistant director, andsome50 inspectors. AgroupIA inspectors undera senior inspector is stationed in each of the nine educational districts and works in close association with the education boards.Ingen- eral each public school must be visited byaninspector at leastonce annually who furnishes the head teacherabrief confidential criticism of the school, takes such notesaswill enable himto grade the teacher with confidence, and either with special commendationoradverse criticism brings the conditionof the school plantto the notice of those Concerned.He must presentaninspection report to the board. -The character of the inspection and report and the general spirit of the workareexpressed in the following excerpts from the regulations issued in 1922: 8. (1) The inspection report shallconsist ofastatement in general terms regarding the efficiency of the school as a whole, andshall relate to theorgan-, izatiou and management of thesichool;the order, discipline, and tone; the regularity of the attendance ; the general efficiency of the teaching ; the instruction and training of the pupil-teachers andprobationers; the accommodation; the state ofthe buildings, grounds, and fences ;the provisions made for ventilation,warming,and cleaning; special cirvmstances affecting the efficiency of the school ; andaniother matters which. in the opinion of the inspector, should be broughtunder the notice of the board aud the school committee. (2) Aft »;chvisit the inspector shall furnish the teacher in charge with a brief confidential criticism of the details of the work of the school andwith notes for his guidance. Suchdetailed notes shall relate toany orall of the following matters: (a) The organization of the school as arranged by the head teacherwitti, respect to (I) the manner inwhich the staff hasbeeh distributedinaccordae with the accommodation, the size of the different classes, the abilities of the teachers, and the salaries they are receiving; (ii) the general scheme of instrac- tion;(lii) the arrangement of the time-tables ;(iv) the instruction and training of the pupil-teachers and probationers; (v) the arrangements forplayground

supervision, for keeping the grounds tidy and.. attractive, and for physical instruction, organizedgames,and the like. (b) The head teacher's management of the school with respect to hisdire& tion of the work of his staff, and the extent and manner In which he makeshis influence felt throughout the.school, particularly in the development ofa,.good ¡ tone, of corporate. life, and of the patriotic sentiment, his relations withhis staff and with the parents of his pupils, and the discretion he displays in the detremination of the promotion ofptipilsfrom class to class: (e) -The efficiency of each assistant teacherwith respect to his development

of the same of work outlined by the head teacher, his method andpowerof 1

finpartinginstruction, his influenceoverhis pupilsasshown by . his ability to securetheir cooperation in the Work of Instruction, inOlas8government, it

keeping their classroom lidy and attractive, and Ino titling playgroundi 44 activities. V' I * "" . (4) Any othy matter the inspectormay seefitto commOnton. 17; 4 :.; . . .4. - );,t 1 .. -% . ;] 2 r LI - . NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUOATiOl! 47

Mime (5) Theinspector's investigatiom.should be made onthe broadest lines possible,and he should guard againstestimating the efficiency of aschoolor a solely .in accordance withmeasureable results, irrespective both of the teacher 11* mannerin which these results have beenproducedand the effect the produc- tion ofsuch results may have had on the mental andspiritual development of the pupil as evidenced byhis intelligen.ce, his spontaneity, his interestin his work, andhis general .alacrity.Inevery case morecreditshouldbe given to ateacher whorelies with successon somesystem of autoeducation than to one who relies on the morerigid drill methods of instruction.Everiencouragement should be givento teachers to investigate and experiment withthenewermethods of imparting instruction and tomodify their methods in accordance therewith. The syllabus of instructionissued by the ministry isintended merelyas aguide by which teacbers andpriinjijiMs°may'make.out

their Òwn schemes. . New Zealandwasmadeupof independent provinces with their ownschools before itwas aDominion. The education systemgrew from the localityup;and after having been partiallyformedwas* centralized in the Dominion.Gov(4nment.It representsa'pooling of interests and authority rather thanadivision&Them.In growth and general organization it is like the county-unit plan in tht United.

States. . . 4t. The people of the locality haveavoice in the management of the , schoól through the committee which they elect, apd the committees choose from their membership the personnel of the education board to form the -corporate body that controls thebusiness.affairs of the

education district, and that board is the only step.:in authority be- , tween the ministry and the local school.On the professionalor supervisory side of the school workeventhat step iselinlinated,the school is in directcontact with the ministry in.. the form of its inspector.The relation is close, and while not defined at goat length

. in the laws and regulations, it is broadly carried out along lines that willconservehuman life and promote human welfare. . . , In general, We'chila-welfarebranch.Ofthe education department'- deals with all children who need-specialcare orwhoaxenot fitted to attend public klidolorremain' at home withthei;parents.It deals with the maladjusted child in hisownhomeasfaras* prac- ticable; supervises children thatarein employmélit beforeorafter school hours;caresfoi infantsthat'are'maintainedapartfrom their .,. parents and forillegitimatechildren. . Bysomestatistical criteria the school system is doing well.In 1916 of the,persons5yearsofageandover(nofincluding the .... aaoris) percent were' abre to read.and write.Foratotal opulation of1,344,384in 1927, the 2,601iublicelementary schools O 1dan averageattendance of 192,284 and that attendancewas89.2 ' , per centof theaverageFeekly roll number. The expenditures for

elementary educatioh, expensesfor generaladsminis- ,...... z.,.:i.4.- .. including . not , ...... : ;,..; ,),t%' .. , v..ra . . ., - . s. . . .. 4C,6,:- :1.;./. ..1 tration 22,464,367...... `4:(1. 4 .. .. were . ' ,r: : .. 1. .4, ...... - . : - '' 6./s%° ...Lk .:11. .: 6-*/, i Z :. , %1X:-Ti -._._j., %y ' ..k. Z' t :14 1,".4i'... = -t-:.r`: `,:..' '; ' -6-'-'1=.4.....--==!.! .41rid;::- .!-¡:- Z14A .2':::1L.-+ fs.41. '14---If2'' 1..:Z3' -IL WL: 12:tii.)::1 S.1,6',.&, -Zyi,i"A IS-fkt-klf;4W5iktea .-230V'tn 48 NATIONALMINISTRIESOFEDUCATION Belgium.---Belgium is divided&intonineProvincesand thesein turn into 2,636communes. Anothercivildivision, thecanton, which includesseveral communes,is' takenintoaccount in theserviceof schoolinspection. Eachprovincial government is heádedbya governor, usuallya political supporter of the iilinistryinpower,appointedby theKing, and with asalary paidby thekingdom.He isassistedbya provincial council of44 to 93membersaccordingto population,elected for4-year terms. Whennot in session,the councilacts througha Permanent deputationof sixmembers.At thehead ofeachcom- inunal government is theburgomasterasrepresentativeof thecrown andappointed bythekingThecommunehas itscommunalcoun- cil of7to 45 members,againdependingonpoPulation,elected for 6 years.Theexecutivecommittee ofthe communalcouncil isthe college ofburgomasterand aldermen,the latter nuneiberingfrom two tosevenand workingwith theburgomasterwho ispresident of both thecollegeand thecouncil. Therelationship ofthe ministryto elementaryeducation including classesforadults, ... kindergartens,. and normalschools fortrain- ing elementhryteachersismoredirect betweenministry andschool than itis in NewZealand andat thesametimemorecomplicated. It ismoredirect inthat forpurposesof administeringelementary 'educationtheintermediaryauthority (theprovincialgovernment) is practicallyshort-circuitedand the ministry deálsdirectly withthe communalcil officials,notaspecial bodychosen forthe schools. It ismorecomplicatedbecause thecost of the schoolsis distributed amongvation,commune,and province;private schoolsare many andarecarefullysafeguardedin 'theirrights; theremaybe two or more languages of instruction;and religionisasubject of instructionin the publicschools. Elementaryschoolsareeithercommunal,adopted,ooadoptable. Communalschoolsarepublic anddirected by thecommunalcouncils; adoptedschoolsare(winedanddirèctedby private agencies that luiveentered into 4*contractwith thecommunal councilto furni,sh elementaiyeducationto the childrenresident inthe commule. Adoptableschoolsare private primary institutionsof suchquality that they couldbecome adoptedbut havenot doneso. . The communacouncil is thedirective bodyfor thecommimal schools, butitsi)owerofdirection is limitedinmany waysby law and byministerialregulation. Aschoolonceestablishedmaynot be suppressedexcept by authorizationof theking.The ministry issues modelset of regulationsfor theschools, Thelaw fixesa minimumprogramof studiesand carefullysafeguardi3the rights -of teachersin chief(principals),teachers, andspecial teachers *th

. respect. A. to qualifications, 3 I tentie of office,basal minimumsal riot V;44' . 6 . t 'S .4; :;;' . --. -&_i- - e NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION . 49 indemnities for residence, for higher qualifications, and for added experience,salaries of expectation if the position is discontinued, leavesfor ilLtiess, and matters .of discipline. Theuseand the distribution of the school fundsarealmost wholly mattersof law and royal decree.National subsidies.coverallper- sonnelexpenses,provided the number of pupilsperclass does not exceed that fixed by royal decree, and the schools observe the school laws and regulations; theycoveralso extraordinaryexpensessuch asconstruction of buildings, purchase of furniture and teaching supplies, etc., throughasimple credit setupin the annual budget. Provincial subsidies apply by lawto materialfurnithed the pupils andarefixedataminimum (per pupil) by royal decreeand ata maximum by law.Provincial assistance in extraordinaryexpenses is wholly optional and differs in the different provinces. The establishment of kindergartens isin the hands of thecommunal councils, but their suppression, the grantinga national subsidies, and the relationships with the teachersaredetermined by lawor decree in almost exactly thesame way asin the elementary schools. Schools for adultsarealso under the councils, and herethe national 1 authority steps into the extent of regulating disciplinarymatters in the teaching personneland guaranteeihg salaries ofexpectation.

, The nationalbudget includeseachyear acredit for subventioning

s those schools that acCeptthe conditions fixed by the Government.** The particularpartof the school's activitiesoverwhich lay authorities ofanyrank have ptacticallynocontrol istilt;obligatory teaching of religion and morals, considered by lawto be inseparable subjects, in4everycommunal and adopted school. The tenets of the faith professed by the pupilsofamajority of themmust be taughtII, in the firstorlast half hour in themorningorafternoo.n.Butno74 childrenareforced by laworthe school authoritiesto attend the , class in religion theparots must,without solicitation by teacheror communal council, decide whether their children shallbe in the class, and theymaywithdraw the children from itatanytime during the schoolyear.Ifanychildren inaclass do not participate in the religious instruction, the general teaching of thatclass must be free

' fromreligious bias, otherwise all the teachingmay.haveacoraes- sionalcharacter conforming to the view of the parents.' ,., ..,

, Hylaw the clergymen persons . arethe only competent to giveor .. 2

, supervise the religious instruction. Ifthe teacher is willing to do it ,

and I* is invit4dby the clergy, hemaygive it.If neither clergy- ., man norteacher is available, the clergy and the communal council-.-.-, 1. may agreeon someoneelse, and in thiscaseonly is the 'teacher of religion paidasalary by the *council.Iii'anyevent the instruction.....:.. in religionis diricted, controlled, and *inspected by the cleigy, all of whom are --: .. paid and pensioned from national funds. . :: 1 V1 r I e . 1 " e ,...: 111.1 . a . ;t : .. . ' .-...°1. -,.7.I4: . . .4, . . ; . .. ../ ., . . .. :'e. . N - . " " :-' ...... , ..1..": :."2 rl' ?(!.. 1::: 4. .1: . . _ -.. ,:y_ t - -:'. ,...... j',' . _ _ & 6,::: 7*. .70;i --.,. .- 1--I:_L.---7 ---- 7-_L_74.. LL -:. .k,44:-' i'':t÷il_ :i.A1).i.,:",;:11,1-7If..1-4.:;I:CiZiii:_"i çV:'7 i.¡: !5ØP NATIONALMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION

'4 Anotherdifficultphase ofadministration isthe decisionasto language ofinstruction.The generalprinciple is thatin allcom- munal schools,adoptedoradoptable, themothertongue of thechil- drenor amajorityof them isthe vehicularlanguage. Thehead of thefamilydeclares thematernallanguage ofthe pupilbutthe head of theschoolmaygiveadiffetentopinion. Theschoolinspector nalkesthe finaldecision. Incertainspecialareas(Brussels andthe linguisticfrontiers)the ministryof sciencesandartsmayauthorize changesfrom thisrégime, butsuch changesmay notdenyathorough study of the maternallanguage, andtheauthorization is .'rely"an authorization,not acommand. Theschoolauthoritiesneesnot fol: low it.The practicerecommendedis thatrepresentativesof the ministrymeet with thecommunalauthoritiesandagree upona pro- gramwhich islater authorizedby theministry. Or Normalschoolsmaybe establishedby the nation,the province,the.. immune,orprivateagencies.In principle,only thediplomas granted bythe nationalnormal schoolshave4legalvalue.Those of othernormalsmaybe recognizedif theschoctsfollow thenational programsandregulations andsubmitto nationalinspection.These regulations,amongother things,safeguardliberty ofconsciencein regardto religiolisteachings. Onthesameconditions,normal schools other thannationalwhichare,ofcourse,entirelysupportedandcon- trolled bythegovernment,maybe subsidizedby thenation.The salaries ofteachersandmanyscholarshipsarepaid fromnational funds. In thenationalnormal schoolsthe ministrydecideson :The:Ium ber andqualificationsof theadministrativeand teachingpersonnel; theprogramof studies;requirementsfor admission,promotion,and . graduation;pensions andwithdrawals;administraticinandaccount- ing;dormitoryfacilitiesfor.residentstudents;hygienicand medical service; care of Meschool plant;libraryservice;and thetraining school.Salariesareset by royalarrêté. Nationalinspection.Nationalinspectionextendsto all private, adopted, andcommunalelementaryschools,kindergartens,and coursesftir adultssubsidized bythe nation,theprovinces,orthe communes,and theinspectorsmust visit withequalcareeach kind of these schools.Theinspectorsmust, iiì general,reportonthe ccindi- tion of theschools, theirprograms,and activity.Theycontrol the useof thenationalsubsidieg and iheprompt executionof thelaws and regulations.They watchcarefullyovercompulsory education.enforcement, andlegal safeguardsto religiousinstructionand the vehicularlanguage. Theinspectorsmust actuallydeal inpavan . . with membersof thecommunalcouncils and dieteachers,exact fm t them theneededinformation,andCarryoninvestigations.They mayinterrogate thepupils.They */ -1'; .' - must wake o14cial-.reports to tht, . . . NATIONAL MINIMUMOF EDUCATION. 51 Government, and prèsent their opinionson anyquestion submitted tothem. . . Thecorpsof inspectorsincludes2 inspectors general, 80 principal -inspectors, and_ notmorethan 184 cantonal -andassistant cantonal insPectors. Womenmaybe inspectors.Inspectorsareappointed, promoted, and dismissed byroyal arrêtk. ,Theymaybe suspended by the minister of science andarts.Eachéradeof inspectors,except the inspectors general, is difided intothree cla§ses,thesálariti, indemnities, andexpenses arefixed by royalarrêté. The in.spectbrs general coordinatefthe reports whicharemade to them by% the principal inspectors;submitto the minister thepro- gramsof the cantonal conferencesof teachers;renderanannualreport onthe condition of primaryeducationto the council of perfecting primary and normal instruction(seep.4O);andeverythreeyears addressacompletereport to the minister for inclusionin his triennial report.In all thesematters theyarerequiredtoexpresstheir opinions relativeto the elementary educationsituation.With theapproval of the ministertheymayvisit schools and teachers'conferences. The jurisdiction ofeach principal inspectoris détermined by arrêtó.Hemust visit each elementary schoolat leastonce every twoyears,and kindergartensand dchools for adultswhen his duties permit.He shall presideannuallyoverat leastoneteachers'conference.He is the immedite superioroverthe cantonal inspectors and their assistants,receives theirreports, and himself reports annuallyto the ministry. At the head ofeach cantwi isacantonal inspectororassistant inspector butthe ministermay-modify the areal jurisdictionofany of, theo inspectors.They work in cooperationwith the communal authorities, theteachers, and theparents.,Each inspectormust visit everyschool at least twicea yearand makeareport toth6 head of fr the school andthe teacher concerned.He must makeaweekly report inaform prescribed bythe ministryto the principal inspector: Be must conductateachers' conferenceat leastonce atrimester. /The insPectorsgeneral must hold meetingsat leastthreetimesa. yearof the principal inspectorsandcarryouta programset by the minister.Principal inspectors 'must in likemannerhold three meetings yearlyof cantonal and assistant inspectors.In eachcasereports of proceedinmsare. , made to the minister. Inspection of needlework, home economics, childcare,and applied drawing isdone bywomen'inspects:n/8 at least onca year.. By royal arrêtéevery commune, or two ormore communesin union,must maintainafree mdical inspectionservice for tbe kiniA dergartenand elementary schools, communal,adopted, and privately subsidized. Thedetails of the inspection, thereports, andnecessary ,. . equipment V are fixed indieprat& -..i4:41 . . . k- . . = ." J ft.- . .. 1, - . s 'Zr: ti.'"*- " J.211;i: ..-t -V" o 52 NAIMONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION r Normal-school inspectiononthe literary and scientific side iscar-

- riedonbyaninspector general and theee principal inspectors; for the training in gymnastics, drawing, manual work, and music by special in4pectors who do thesamework in the middle schools;and for needle work, domestic science, cooking, and goodmannersby specialwomeninspectors.This service is governed by royal arrité and organized in practically thesame way asthat of the elementary schools. This Belgian system of administration is,sofarasthe externa of the schoolsareconcerned, vested in the local authority which acts in accord with spec* laws thatdetail itspowersand duties and permit the ministry to intervenewily infta few matters and then in the nature ofacourt of last resort.No series of officials has been setupto connectmini..stry and school. On the professionalsuper- visory side the system11§ elaborate and graduated fromministry through the inspectors general,theareasfor each principal inspector, and the cantonalinspectors, to the school. This also isaneducational scheme thatgrewfrom the locality and the private schoolauthoritywasgiven to*the centril government slowly and reluctantly,and is manifestmorestrongly in thepro- fessional phases, for there thelayinan ismoreeasily broughtto yield

to the educator. . Argentina isafederal union of 14 provinces, 10 territories, anda federal dittrict (Buenos Aires). The constitution is almost identical with that of the UnitedStates of America. Each 'province has its electedgovernorand legislature and controls itsownaffairs largely independent of the central government,which administers matters of nationalconcernand the federal district and teiritories. National control ofelementaiy education is limited withrespect to arba to thefederal district, the territories, and those sections of the provinces in which by provincial request it establishes national

. schools.Each province maintains itsownindependent elementary *school system, for which it enacts the laws and furnishes the funds. If those funds amount tomorethan 10percent of thetotal provincial expenditures, the federal government supplements them by subventions. :rt The ministry's active authority for handling the elementary schools under its jurisdiction is vested inarather autonomous body, the national council of education, consisting ofapresident and four other members appointed by the national executive-forAeyears

with the privilege of réappointittent. It isapowerful .administrative organization, thatcomesin direct contact with the kindergartens,

eletnentary schools, schools. for adults, aud ambulating schools in its

. areasthroughanintInction staff for supervisorypurposesin Buenos' r Mres and both administration and supervision elsewhere.Lay,,, . . . .;4 4i4i 1. , - I/ . . pc. EIJ ,.. ; . I A.-% "' , " -4 4il:''"lik.t.5';"- 44' '''. 6. 4 r' . NATIONAL itINISTRIZSOF EDUCATION 53 advice and participation undertheterms of the lawarealmost nil, exceptin the capital. Thepowersand dutiesof the councilare: 1. Direct instruction in the elementary schoolsaccording to thelaws and the regulations for executing them. 2. Administer education in thenormal schools of thecapital, national colonies and territories, and, with the approvalof tiv ministry,elector remove the personnelor grant pensions. 3. Administer the educationaMunds of finyorigin whatsoever. 4. Organize inspection of the schools,the accounting, andthe custody of the funds. 5. Supervise the schoolinspectors, regulate theirfunctions, and directtheir acts. 6. Promptlycarry out the educational laws ofcongress and the lecrees of the executive, whomayby proclamation callonother authoritiesto hOlp. 7. In January of eachyear formulate the educational budget andsend It to congress through the ministry. 8. Hold at least three si.tsgIiinitThvekly. 9. Make itsown internal regulations and assign theduties of its members. 10. Distributeforms formatriculation, registers ofattendance, aud statistics andcensus of school population, anddirect theiruse. 11. Dictatetheprograms in the public schools. 12. Grant teachers'certificateson examinations and proof of legalcapacity to thQse who wishto teach in publicorprivate schools. 13. Revalidatethe diplomas offoreign teachers. 14. Annulsome or other certificates forcauses fixed by the school regulations. 15. Prestribeand adopt thetexts for the public school*,andassuretheir uniform andpemanentuse at a moderate price for not lessthan twoyears. 16. Suspendor dismiss teachers, inspectors,or employees forcause, subject to the aiiprovalof the ministry. 17. Holdteachers'conterencesand reunions ofeducationists atproper times. 18. Promoteand help establishpopular and teachers'.libraries andthose of associationsand cooperativesof public education. -*..

19. Directamonthly publicationon education. . 20. Contractfor special teachers,bath citizenand alied, withthe approval of lb theministry. I. 4 21. Administerthe personal andrealproperty of the schools. . 22. Receiveinheritances,legacies, find donationsfol.education, 23. Authorizethe constructionof school plantsand buy 110din accord with law and with theapproval of the ministry. . 24. Takestepsnecessary to obtain the grounds thatthe public schoolsneed. 25:Carryout in the provincesthe lawon popular Itbraries and those inregard to subveniionsto the provinces, solicitingfrom theexecutivepower the necessary funds." 4.

17 Js Argentina.Laws, statutes,eta.Consejo Nacionalde lklucación.Digestode in: orneciÓn primaria.Leyes, decretosy'resoluciones vigentespara las escuelasy dependencias del Consejo Nacional de leduca16n.Buenos Aires, ImprentaMercatili, 1920. 7 Studentsof educationaladministration whowish to tkace outin all its llnenessesa schoolsystem that is closelyregulatedare referred to this digestas worthy of careful .study.It is in eightparts: The constitutionof Argentina,with the nationallaws and 0,-.decrees;the administrativesection to theAnternal organizationand dutiellbt'the nationalcouncil; 'regulations jait the schools of thefederal district;the national schools in theprovinces; sehoola.in national tirritotiesand colonies; resolutionsrelating to the schoolsin the territories,provinces, and national etilonies; general reso tions for 4. 0 theWend district,provinces, andterritories.; and the. adininistrativegaroshoo endar. .4 "144- .I.: 54 NATIONAL MIRISTRIBS OF EDUCATION N 4 AO The national council created14 school districts in the federal district, and determined their boundaries and appoints for eacha permanent .districtsclioolcouncil of five heads of families. The dis-' irict council isimmediately responsibleto the uational counéll and is expected tomeetonce aweek.Itarrangesitsowninternalorgan- ization and has the folloirihg listedpowersand duties:Havozcare of the hygiene,discipline, and morality of the schools in itsdistrict and to do that, itmayvisit them frequentlylaidatanytime;stimulate byevery meansatteiidgnce'at theschooli and for thatpurpose mayfurnish clothingto indigentssetupnight schools andcourses for adults;promote the formation of cooperative. societies andpop.... ular libraries;openAnna the book of registration and receive-the taxes of the district, proceeds of registration, and private donations and subventions,report. them to the national council and employ thosemoneysfor theprirposesset; punish parents for infractions., of the compulso.ry education laworother laws, and refer its decision to the .national council for final determination;proposeto the;la- tional council for election the teachers and other .employes ofthe schools and of the district council;presideoverthe public examinations in the schools of its district; appoint commissions ofwomen to visit the mixed schools and schools for girls; and renderamonthly reportof the school funds and the condition of the schoolsto' the

. . national council. -

Members*ofboth the national council and the district _school. coun- cilsareindividually responsible beforethe courts'Tortheproper handling of the school funds: Toearry outits administration the national council hasaninspec- tion staff consisting ofageneral inspector in charge of three inspectors general,oneeach for &Nos Aires, the schools in the territories, and the national schoolsin the provinces.These three arein turn a'ssisted by regional inspectorsandaconsiderable number of special inspectors for Right schools, schools forilliteyates, and such special subjectsasmusic, drawing, manual training, home . economics,etc. The ifispéctormustgo.tò each school during class hoots and in- vesti'gatethe instructiontoseethat it is given in accord with tle law and the regulations, andprogramsand methods qstablishéd by the national council;correct allerrorsin teaching; seethat the official texts, systems of registers, statistics, and inventoriesareused; inform the pational council of the results ofthe inspection indicating the condition of the school and ofallydefects ihatshould becore tected;andreportonthe condition of the buildings and equipment. He must report monthly to the president of thectiiincil. f

D. NATIONAL MFNISTRITAS OP EDVCATIOX .55 National schoolsareestablished inahyprovince which demands it, thegener!il understanding being that the educational needs of remote andsparsely settledaistrIctswill be metin this_ray.Locally each suchschool hasaschool agent (encargado escolar)-appointed by the national,council, and with dutiessimilartothose of the district school

councils in BuenosAires. . e. Vile sectional inspector,asubordinate of the inspeOor general,-has' within hisparticularirtlisorprovincedistinc0administrative dutiescorrespondingverycloselytp those ofschool superintendent in theUnited Statès. He is aided by school visitpm,onefor each 20schools, whovisit the schoolsand keep himiikformedontheir

' condition.He most visit such schoolsasthe inspector genetal orders. Moreover, the inspector generalmayhave traveling ins vetors whose cl -dutiesare motein the nature' of general observersor.irveyorsto

, study the schools, the general geography of the privince, and thecon- litionof itspeople lind .to wake t(ecommendat ions for improving the (ducalionalsystem. A

In the lo nationalterritories,szitliapopulation ol,. 492,000 scattered i ovei*an areaof 527.917squaremiles,and the two national colpnies

''(Martin Garcia Islahd and Puerto Militar),the inspectorgenitralis ;,, 'assisted by such sectional inspectors and office personnelasthe budget .olaw allows.Only the inspe'ctor Oneral resiOsat the capital; Ue

,sectional inspectorsare*placedin the 40ormireschool sections into WhiCh iheareais divided for administrative pu1'p0se4. The school§ arehandled directly by tht sectional inspectors, the principals,and the teachers withoutthe intervelition of local authorities like the district school councils'and the schoolagents.,..The sectional inspectors Ihave practicallythesameduties*sthoimhandling the national . . schools in the provinces. ' 1 ( . , Withinlhecompetence of theuiuthoritié§ of this national system of kiildergartens,elementary schools, schools for adults and illiterittes, and ambulating schoòfs,is also the administration of the schooh health servicei;the teachers'libritryin Buenos Aires; the libraries, archives,andmuseumsconhected with the Khools; the training and 1certificationof teacher§; And the examinationsfor promotion in and graduations fromthe schools. Theeducational scheme in activeop- eratio'nlacks fewor noneof.the Ohases and activitiesnow apart of the humantraining plan in themoze.'. advanced countries.Thena- tion41council hi:idled-1n1927 schools,to the number of 10,503, én- rolling1,312,009 pupils withanaverAge#tendance of 1,042,372, aught by 47,198teachers. Beyond its legarrightovertheseAools andagencies is thepowerful iirfluencethtlit its example hasovert4e ..4, school_systems in the differentproiinceL Theyarelargely modeled, .., .. 4 -Y aft4the nationalsystem.%.. . ;. e,. . :s., A , 41K : - .. i 114766-30 Z.4 .** .4';' AII'. :. C I -4t. :d .. ..: VI I4-r i e '(/ , .0 t ' .,' . . ,. : _ A ...... 1:.:.: ..!..?: : 4!t 4 ...... :::1:°.: '1.1 : - . - : , s - . ,, . ;:':'. 4 ... , L 1 e "rtt: ,:. "--1.- --'t.: ---- -' wt'-6 ..- "--itx:' 4- V 4 ''',4..-2` -af -61e-2-Yek- '..CA .....L,;-k .11t4:41C-ZSL:4:1g1A-=:.Z:t4zz,4L'e : A ,' 1 56 NAIONALMINISri.:"OF EDUCATION

Sweden.The royal board of educAtiqn in Sweden is theproles-: sional educational part of the ministry of education and:religion, It is" divided into three depattrnents:secondary,elenientaryi,andva ; cationalandastatistical bureau.The elementary departmentwith 1, La .staff of six educational advisors (undervisningsrad)deals with i mátters relating to the elementary, continuation, and trainingschools ;for elementary tkachers.Themlatterarecompletely administered and controlled by this depailitment.The elementary and continuation schoolsarelargely under local control.The department has.59, eleinentary school inspectors,1 for each of the 52 state inspectorial areas... .. On the side of the laymanagement of the elementary school, the inspector deals in rural districts with thevestry which consists of 411 the citizens df the parish whoassembleat three regular meetings ayear.to consider the affairsof the school suchas preparethe budget, decidg ón the local funds,voteonthe construction and up-keep of school buildings andthe issuance of bonds, select the members of the local school board, andchoose the teachers froniamongthe nominations (three foreach positión) made by theschool board. In urban districts the functionsof thevestryaretakenoverby the townor city council,asthecase mayI.It selects half the members of the school board;the church,ilheother half. The school board carries Out thedeCisionsof thevestryorurban council, has generalcareof the schools and administrdiveoversight of the teachers, and in the larger districts selectsahead teacherorprincipal,orin the cities, aninspector vh9 is in realityasuperintendent. The national tieasurybears about 90percent of the, total ofthe teachers' salariesandassumesthis responsibility onlyoncondition diatthe conimunitymeets certain standardsasto length of term, suitable buildings andequipment, and teachers' salariesasfixed by

e 11 law, and followsa courseof study that has been approved by the board of education.The chief duty of the52 school inspectors is to seethat thes6 requirementsaremet.111):insÌ)ector mustapprove all sites 'and Otitisand specifications for buildings. . . On the professionalside of elementafyschool management, the

ministry has fullcontrol of the training schopl forteachers, the 1 requjrements for admission toand'graduationfroni them, and the ameiunt and kindof practice teachingaildexperience;required for permanent appointment.It mustapprovethecourseof study drawn

upby the localschool board, aridapproves along list of books from II,

which theaxtsmaybe selected.The Sta4 inspectorsaresexpected 1

to.'Asiteach school in their respective areas'0 leastoncea:year and 1 gThvymaysupérvisethe.instruction, but lit realitytheir time is -almost wholly taken-up in conguitationwith the laymanagement0. ;

the school. . . .,, ";. .1 4 NATIONALMINIdTRIES01. EDUCATION 57 .4 0- r Bulgaria.Thecentral officeorthe ministryof education inBul- gariadealswith, the elemenlary schools(the 4-yearprimary school 'and the4-yearprogymnpsium following°it)through onlyoneinter- s mediary agency,and thatagency, adeptrtmental inspector,isapart is chosen of theministry, is strictlyaccountable to it, and the agent. 1 by theminister.Sevehteen of thege 44ectors, onefor each 4dminis- trativedepartment andSofia, and 92 assistantordistrict inspectors areexpected tovisit each teacherwithin the respectivejurisdictions atleast twiceeachyear. The layauthority immediately connecteelwith theelementary school isthe local school committeeelected by popularvoiò,with apresident andasecretary, both.paid officials.The committeepre- paresthe budget of the schooPfetid *submits it to thecity council, collectstherevenues, paysmost of thebills, appoints the teachers and janitors,is custodian ofthe school fundsandproPerty,supervises the school plant,and represents the41,hool district, which is aboZlycorporate,in courts of law.Most of the fundsareprovided by the locality; theteacher's salary or,part of it may comefilm the national treasury. All the work of thescho91 committ0e issubjecttocheck by the departmental inspectoror oneof his assistants.If he reports to the ministér that thecommittee is derelict, theministermayappoint a new onefrom those with the highest vote,next to those elected, atthe last precedingelection. The inspectorhas finalapprovalop thebudget both by items and in its entirety;he inspécts the books of the committee andmaycheck its annualfinancial report. , Over the professionalauthority in thescho-olthe teachers and - principalsthe ministry ofeducation has directjurisdiction in that it sets out thecourseof study bywhich teachersaretrained, appoints them in schoolsin whichitpaysall the. salary, hissu'per- visionoverthem while theyareteaching, gives the examinationItiy which they change from probationary toregular status, and through the inspector receives from the schoolprincipal full reportsonthe , feachingstaff.Havingoncebecome#menTher of the regula teaching force,nteachermaybe dismissed by the schoolcomtnittee though that committeemayentercompliint,against.ateacher with awritten the inspector.After each visit theinspector must make .. .report, and readitoverto theteacher and thetprincipil, either of I. _whommayeaterobjections. Acopyof both re0ort andobjections

I goestothe..ministerfIf the inspector iscrissatisffed with*the teacher, o hemust visit theteacheragain within threemonths, Arrangesa report i signedby the principilordistrict inspector,and, forward ittothe .. minister for 'final fiction.All teachersareciYii *rvants 'with Bala- :.,.

1 1..

fixed, ,';!it) riesset byclassesi. and salaries, retirements,. promotions, etc., .. . , . 1 ::::,1 .,. by law. , ,,...... 4 .. a ,,i . _ , 0 . .. . ^ .I. . .S ... . ' . . ..t: '''e . .,,, .1 ¿ . . r I. . A. ',..; %. -''' ..e. .-.- :: .. : ;, ,:-... Z.k ":-----..Z.1";:;:i.a4-1;r,:,-1,3.-.E.:_i_i_ 11:4,'-,,-.2:..;'---..r1;'.!i. Wr):_:::..¡:!:;:.#.1?....?,::::::'444 . 58 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION .

Enforcement ofcompulsory schoolattendance .i.slargely inthe bands of thelocal civiladministrationand the schoolcommittee. Siam 'hework of theministry ofeducation in Siamwithele- mentary scholsis interestingnot because ofanycomplexityof ".° organization orunusual schemesarranged in the.school law,but because ofthe simplicityand directnesswith whichthecentral authority hasgoneabout introducingeducation inanation of about nine and one-halfmillions that hasnot the wealthto builda system rapid1F. Siam is dividedinto 13 circles,each under thecontrol ofalord lieutenant, whoseauthoritycomesdirect from the King,and the city ofBangkok, alsoacircle underalord prefect.The circle.; aredivided into80 provinces; theprovinces into421 districts;and the districtsinto 5,010communes.In schooladministrationcon- siderableuseis made of thecivil authorities. The primaryeducationact of 1923 is simplicity itselfand lays the foundationforanexpanding, growingsystem. By it. education is free offees ingovernment and local schoolsexcept forsome special schools,and attendance iscompulsory fohiki-renfrom the ageof 7 to 14, thoughtheageof 7maybe raisedbythe ministry of educationto 8, 9,or10onaccount of local circumstances.Those that have completedthe primaryor" prathom "course, a3-year course,before theageof 14maybe exclised; thosethat havenot a completed it andhave not passed the examinationprescribed by the ministrymaybe held after theyare14. The people ofanyvillageor commune mayestablishalocal school if they subscribeanamount ofmoneythat thegovernorof theprov- ince thinks sufficientand, permission havingbeen granted, the sub- scribersmayelectacommittee of fivemanagersto be approved by thegovernor.The committee registerswith thé districtofficer and from thenonis held responsiblefor raising, accountingfor, andex- pending the school fund's,providing schoolaccommodation, and giving assistanceto the ministry's inspectors, theschool attendance officers, and theeducation committeewhen required.In addition, the district officermaycreatealocal school,to be managed by him and the districtinspector, whenheseesfit.He 'may appointtn education committeeto assist him.Suchaschool is mainlained by aneducation polltax.The ministrymaygivegrants in aid toany local school, butsuchgrant shall not implyareductionAktfthe voluntaryorannuil contributions.In 1924-25 incomefromGoierns ment grants for generaeducationwas1,390,318 ticals ($0.37par1# that time);that frog'othersources,mostly lochltax,was2,563 ticals.

6 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION 59 Besides the localschools thereareGovernment schoolsmaintained and directly controlledby itasmodel schooLs incentral places. Matters of training, selection,promotion, and dismissalof teachers. and those ofpupil promotions,and the granting cif diplomasor certificates of graduationarewholly within thecompetence of the ministry. The local schoolsaresubject to the regulationsof the ministry regardini;school times,the syllabus, thebooks to be used, the discipline,temporary closing forepidemics, suitability and sabitarycon- ditions of thepremises, andgenerally everythingthat pertainsto the instruction and thecareof the pupils.The ministry maintains atextbook printingand distributionbureau.Headmasters and teachers ar.e appointedand 'removed by thegovernorof the.province with the approvalof the lordlieutenant.School-attendance officers areappointed andpaid in thesame way -asthe teachers. . The ministryusesin its schoolorganization and inspectionOffices, 3 chief Officersfor divisionsand 18, with16 assistants, for the circles. In the provinces,the districts,and the metropolitandistrictare444 additionalofficers. By suchaplan ofsupport and organization whichis theextreme. of centralized authority but alsoplaces considerable responsibi1it4on . the locality and isarrangedto place increasinglymorethere, 3,625 of the 5.010communeshadcomeunder the opet;ationof the school law in1925 and the attendanceat government and local schools jumped from216,84'2 in 1921-22to 577,036 in 1924-25. Muchof the increase wasduetoanincrease of girl pupilsfrom 16,819 inthe .1 formeryearto 209,061 in the latter. Goteral principles.Frointhe relationships ofthe ministry of educationto elementary scho* trainingin thesevencountries just outlined,maybe drawnanidea of themanyyraktions in thearrauge- limits by which the nationalgovernment'Meetsthe public elementary schools. Out ofthese outlinesand those in ChaptersVIII, lxii and X,aswellusless-extended studyof the remaining43 çsountries,afew generalprinciples thatarein operationor aredevel- opingmaybe drawn. Upon whateverplan the internalorganizatio ofthe ministryihay be arrangedit will includeadivision whosemajor dittiesarethose 'connected withtheelementaryschools. The trend ofthe krowth ofnat ional administration isfrom éom- plete localcontrol of the schoolok4o4divisibn ofauthority whereby the localitytakes charge oftheappurtenances,or externaasthey aresometimescalled, of education,the nation ofthe internaor pro- fessionalphases; theinfluence ofthe'central officethen exteMsto and latercontrols alsotheeAterna. , 60 NATIONALMINISTRIESOF EDUCATION I Layparticipationin actualofficialc.onduct ofthe schoolsis de- creasing; increatingpublicsentimentfavoringeducation it isprob- ably increasing. Local civilauthoritiesareused onlytoalimitedexte*in theadministrationof nationalsystems of education;iftherearelocal educational authoritiestheyareinamajority ofcountries,separate from thecivil bodies. sy The ministry'svoice indeterminingthe number,location,and kind ofelementary schoolsto be nlaintaineddependsonthe form of thenationalgovernment.In federalunions it hasnoauthority; the constitutentstates regulatethat.In centralizedrepublics andin monarchies itmayhave fullauthoritysubjectto budget limitations; may act inanadvisory capacity;ordecide incasesof disputeand appeal.Generally certainlimitationsand mandatesasto tile establishment ofelementaryschoolsarefixed inthe lawand within those thelocality makesthe decision,hut inanumber ofcountries eauthority tf theministry inthismatter is absolute. 1The primaryassumption_ isthat thelocality will . bear theexpense of itselementary schools. A minimumexpendituremaybe fixedby laworministerialdecree and nationalfundsareusuallygranted insuchaxs;ayasto try to stimulate furthereffortonthepart of thecommunity. . National fundsare most commonly applied firstto paying the salaries ofthe pcofessionalstaff,next to the constructionof buildings, and finally,if theyarefurtherextended,t,o miscellaneousex- penses.Wailthe grantingof nationalfunds goiesalso therightto seethat thosemoneys areproperly expended,hence followsnational inspection first ofaccounting andlater ofeducationalprocesses. Teacher trainingcomesearly and usuallyunder thecontrol of tre ministry, butappointments; promotions,salaries, andgeneral conch- *tonsof serviceare, morethan othermatters, regulatedby lawso as to guaranteetenure of office and pension'sorawards afterretirement. Eitheraminimum of whatshall betaught in theschools is fixed ylaworministerial decree, or-theentirecoursewithprogramsis st out in. detail by theministry. Theformermethodis themore co mon. Graduation from theelementaryschool, becauseof its conection withcompulsory educationand theselection ofsecondary school students,is generallyregulated by.theministry: Theteaching of religionand the provisionforlanguage and racial minoritiesaregoverned bylawsoroeinstitutionalguarantees and in themthe ministryhas little option.Theyhave thestatus of rights inherenttoman. . Physicaleducation andthecareof thehealth ofthe school childrenaregráTually comingwithin thejurisdictionof the NATIONALMINISTRIES OF EDEZTION 61 ministry of education. The tendency isabout equally dividedbe-, tweenplacing them inaseparate ministry of healthorpublic welfare and the educational ministry. a. .The ministry intervenes inthematter of school buildingsto the e.-4ent of issuing general regulations,approving plans, and requiring that the building be sanitary and adequate. The responsibility for enforcing thecompulsory educ Lion_ laws lies generally in the localityand often in the civilno eeduca- 001141 authorities,probablyonthe ground thateducational officials- maynot conduct trials for civilOffenses and inflict Penaltiesför violations.

ago%

4 f

qv :.14 . .

CHAPTER VI 4

The Relation ofthe NationalMinistrytoSecondary Education

Generalnature of the relationship.Therelations of the national ministry of educationto secondary instructionare,when compared with those in theelenwntary field, directand authoritative,and the ministry's task isfairly well defined.The pupils andteaching staff arerelatively few innumber; the schoolsarein accessible placesand not widely distributed.Compulsory educationlaws with their varied complicationshave largely ceasedto apply, both because manyof the pupilsareoutside theagelimits and thewillingness to patronize the secondaryschool implies thatparents need not be compelledto send the childrento school. The fundamentalprinciples ofsecondary educationdiffer- from those of elementaryeducation. Inthe latter theAtionis Kmeerned with'having all its citizenrytrained in theelements of the mother tongue, mathematics, andsomeof thegeneral phases, ofthe natural and social sciences.The assumptionis that thistraining isneces- saryfor. the individualtopursuefor himselfareasonable effective life andto contribute hispart toNvird the notional welfare.The assumption, verifiedby experience,is also -thatonlya very percentage of the peopleare solacking inintellectualstrength that theycannot take that minimum oftraining.Naturally, in the larger nationssuchaupiversal schememust depend considerablyon local effort andcontrol, al¡dfurthermore thebelief is warrantedthat local responsibilityin publicaffairs.helpsto develop sturdy, self- liant peoples. Principles andpra,ctices in'secondaryeducation.Secondaryedu- cationrestsonprinçiplesand practices whichdemandmorenational directioh.It isessentiallypreparatory training forleaders incom- merce,industry, statecraft,.and the profegsioris,fields thatrequire fewer andmorehighly trainedworkers. The activities of thework-. ersin them affectmorepeople andare morenational inscope; more matters ofcommon concern.Hence themationas awhole iston- sidered-responsihlefor offering thetraining,maydirect thecourse of it, andselect thepersonsto whom it isto be given. This isnot discussion of thevalidity of thosetheories. Thwmay or may' not be correct.In practice theyhave-not %Policed t 4,40' out well t - . 62 I ...... 411"7 -.4..:1111411." t 1 . r 2. 41.1 - NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION 68 for severalreasons.First, thenumber ofpersonscapable oftaking secondary schooltraining hasprobably beengreatly underestimated and because of thatmanynations have usedonlyasmallpercentage of their actualintellectuglstrength. Theyhave been wasteful of igains.Second, rapidlyshifting economicconditions havemade it impossibleto determine inadvance thetrained workersneeded in anyfield andnot infrequentlyprogresshas been retardedbecause general secondaryeducation liasbeentoo much restricted.The Powerofahigh degreeofcommonculture has beenoverlooked. Third, theselection ofthose whoshall bemorehighly trainedby those that havegonethrough the tiaining,while it makesfora cer- tainamount of social aability,has also -tendedto createavicious circle into whichthe virilityof independentthinkingcomes not atall or veryslowly. Theparticular pointof this analysisof principles and theirapplication isto indicate howitcomesabout thatsecondary education issomuchmorein the handsof nationalauthority acting through theministry ofeducation, thanelementary educationis. , And, further,better applicationsof thoseprinciplesor evenentire changes ofprinciplearebeing workedout throughsomeof the ministries.Particularlythe changesarecoming inthe extensionofcoin- s pulsory educationageseither.at the regularelementary schoolorin manykinds ofcontinuation,superiorelementary,trade, andvoca- tional schools,all intendedto increase thelength of thescho4 attend- ancelifé andraise thelevel ofcommontraining.Again theupper v yearspf theelementaryschoolareoverlappingthe loweronesof the secomfaryinstitutionand thetwoarebeingsocorrelatedthattrans- fer from theoneto the other isgrowingeasier. Thegeneral tend- encyisto apply. tosecondary educationmuch mt;reof theuniver- sality ofelementarytraining.and withit willcome.is coiningtosome extent, trshifting ofresponsibilityfor thesecondaryschool fromthe nationalauthorityto the local. 'Th6uglitheseattempts have beenmade inseveralcountries avl are nowgoingonactively inanumberto have itotherwise,the secondaryschool isdistinctlyaclass institutionwhosepurpose is to preparepupils forlater universitystudies.Feesarecharged in many-countries, andwhile theamount for eachindividualis small theyare aforce forselecting themorefortunatelycircumstanced children. . Scholarships,bourses, andfree placesgivenkt- the expense .:; ofthe nationare a commonmeansof aidingthose thtitotherwise. , copldnot avail themselvesof secondaryinstructtoli,and the selection .t., of therecipients tendsto create social stiata. Theteachersare genk. erallytrained inthe universities,andmayhave additionalpreparaft tion throughprofessionalcoursesin pedagogy.ThecourseofstudA with fewexceptions, iseitherificorporate4 inthe law, in whidibesse 64 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

the ministry öf education initiated the law,oris embodied ina ministerial decree. The general practice is for the national treasury to bear allormost of the cost(.)fpublic secondary education.It provides the teachers' salaries and either buildsorhelps to build and maintain the school-plant. The division of financial responsibility, if there is*adivision between nation and locality, is clearly established. Thesecondary schvolanational 8e1too1.Intruth, the publicsec- ondary schools in the countrieswe arestudyingareoverwhelmingly national, in thesensethat theyareestabli§hedand maintained by natronal,funds, directed, inspected, and approved by officials of the ministry of education, which inmany cases namesthe teachers, and the final granting of the diploma,orcertificate of gradiiation is approved by the ministry.In thiswaythe nationalgovernment practically selects theyoungpeoplewhi)attend the universities. Private effort in secondary education isveryconsiderable in extent and fine in quality, andoverit the ministry has control in various ways,in different countries. A usual form is through subsidiesor grants in. aidgiven to the private schools, and this is accompanied by nationdi inspection and approval, with thepublicationofalist of those private schools thatareconsidered equalors.uperior to the public institutions.Another Check is by theprocessofhavIngthe final examination conducted in thepresenceofarepresentative of the ministry.He signs the diploma of graduation along with the director and teachers of the school, and only such diplomascarry thesamerightsasthose granted by the public fichools.Again, the private schoolmaybe annexed to,orapproved by,somepublic secondaryI. school to which its pupikgofor the examinations, And the 'ministry thus iudirectly contmls the private effort. . Definitionof the secondary school.---Inthe 25 Latinlanjivage countrieswe arestudying, 19 of whicharein America, the termi- nology, general plan andpurposeof secondary education is fairly uniform.. The schoolsarein Spanish, colegios, liceos, and institutos, .orunder the general term escuelas seeundarias; in French theyare colliges.and lyciitsorgenerally &oles secondaires.Portugal main tains lyceus; Belgium in addition to (-Tolesmoyenneshasadistinc-

.tive term whichnoother Latin languagecountry uses,ath6nées. Rumania and ItalyINthe GermaniC influencetothe extent that in addition to having licee and licei,onedivision of secondary edu- catiop ia.named gimnaziiorginnasi. Theage oadmission to these secondary schools is from 10 to 15; thereqiiireme*Listhe completion ofaÌ)rimtiryorpreparatory school courseusuallyA6 years' duration.In six of thpti«i countrios it is 5, in Portugal and in _.Rumania 4.Cuba has shortened the secondary

school codise to 4 mid longthened dui primarycourseto Il years. .In , ..,1 . . 4 lip: W 414.- 4.;:a t'V . : NATIONALMINISTRIMS OFEDUCATION 65 addition to thecompletionof theprimaryschool, passing Øiexami- nation of admissionis usuallyrequired. The secondaryschoolcourseis normally5yearsnduration in Argentina,Guatemala,Hondiiras,Mexico, Nicaragua,and Salvador; in Cuba 4dtheDominicanRepublic itis 4.Colombii;Haiti, Peru, France, Portugal,andRumaniahave 7-yearcourses;Italyrequires 8yearsofsecondaryinstruction;the other.10 countrieshave the 6-yearcoursethat ismost typical ofLatinlanguwenations.The tendency isnowto divide thecourseintotwo stages, thefirst being generalinstructionobligatoryfor allstudents; thesecond arranged for the pupils tC)._choosebetweentwoor more specialized lines of study.In thisconnectionSpain,Ecuador;Chile. antiBoliviause a 3-3 plan;FranceandColombia,4-3;Hondurasand Mexico,3-2; Rumania andHaiti,3-4; UruguayandVenezuela,4-2; Peruand Portugal,5-2: Italy,5-3; andthe DominicanRepublic,- 34. As to types ofspecializationin the latOyearsof thecourse,the commondivisionin LatinAmerica As sctfnceand letters,though someof thecountriesarebeginningto breakawayfrom thatclassi- fication andintroducèmathematics,bip1ogi641,preprofessional,and technical curricula.Theclassi-cal,modernc)assical,andmathema- tics-sciencetypes prevailin the sixEuropean't.ountries.Normal in- structionforprimaryteachersrunsparallel withorisa partof the secondaryschoolcourse. \\. . Thedegreegrantedat the close ofthecourseisgenerally throughout LatinAmerica,the bachelorin lettersorsciencesorboth. (Bach- illeren CienciaLetras.) For the completi.onof the firststagee certificate is granted.On theEuropeancontinentBelgium.grantsa certificat d'.6tudesmoyennes; FraTice,abaccalaur(tat-de l'enseigne- mentsecondaire;Italy for.the classicalcourse,adiploma dimatur ith classicaand forthetechnicalschools, 'acertificatodi licenza; Portugal,a certificateofqualificationfor theuniversityadmission examinatiOns (Certificitdo(lehabilittKäoa exam de Admissioao ensino superior);'ilumania,adiplomadebacalaureat;and Spaina bachillerato universitario.In nearTyevery clise these degree's,certificates,ordiplomasadmit theholderwithoutexaminationto institutionsof liniversity rank. . Inthe. six GermanicAiinguagecountries,Austria,DanZig,the Netherlands,Denmark,Ntiway,andSweden.and inHungary ondary sec- educationis carriedonalongthe linesof thetype developed inGermany underthe empire,an8or9year secondary schoolwhich: thechild entemat theageof40 andin whichhemayeleak the classic,a1 withorwithoutGivek,the 'modernlanguhge,ortherinath- ematics-science course. The Free Cityof Dozig.and.11ungary lowthis fob typeveryclosely.In Austriathechange istowara-a . 44. ., . . . Ir. y . 4 . 4 "; -"U _ a t* ,4- ---% % - - ,,%- 4.Z. "::: '"" - "66Ati41- . ata I 66 op NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION '.1+1 .41

scheme in whichspecialization alongfour linesis carriedononly in tht last fouryears.The Netherlands,Denmark, Norway,and Sweden havemodified thescheme considerably.Childrenenter the secondary schoolof the Netherlands,a6or5yearschool, sithe ageof 1 2 afterhaving.,completedthe 6-year 41ementarycourseand maythere followfour lines ofwork.Those ofDenniark .do four yearsof middle-schoolstudy beforeenteringany .oneof the three lines'offeredin the3-year gymnasium.The Norwegian childis about 14yearsofageand has completeda7-year eh;mentary.schoolbefore heenters the 6-yearsecondary institutiondivided intoa3-year *middle: svhool anda3-year gymnasium. TheSwedish plan isto ipletea5-year elementaryschoolcourseand then takeupthe rarsecondaryschool consisting ofa5-year middle schoolfollowed by the4-year gymnasium ofthreeseparate lines of study. The Germanand Dutch-s king countriesand Hungaryclose the secondary trainingwithamaturityexamination andthe grantingof acertificate ofmaturity (Reifezeugnis).The Sc andinaviancountries term the similar exan.lination,astudents'examinationor examen' artium and inall of themthesompletion ofthecourseadiilitsto the university.The numberof hours ofstudyperwekrangefrom 27 to 37. Secondaryeducation inthe Slavoniccountries, Poland,CzectIo- slovakia, Yugoslavia,and Bulgariais conductedso . much alongthe gymnasium,realgymnasium,andreas pan-A lat itnee( s special descriptionhereexcept to note that inPoland the8-year coureisAividedinto threeyearsofgenealtrainingfollowed b:%;five yearsof specializationalongany oneoftee tit The secondaryschool of Albaniaisanyear gymnasium.That of oldUreece isa4-year gyninasiumfolio%ng11.'3-yearmiddleor Hellenic schoolto which pupilsareadmitt(«nnthe 4-year pi- mary course;thenewerscheme i*a6-year elementaryschool followed byaG-year secondaryséhool. Afghanistan,Persia, Egypt,Iraq, andTurkeyhavefewsecondary schools. TheToirkish planadmitspupils fromthe 5-year primary school andgives themsecondarytraininginia,3-year middleschool followed bya3-year lyetie.In Afghanistiuyand Iraqthe secondary school isa4-year institutionfollowinga5-ytlar 'anda 6-year primary ,... school.Recently theEgyptiansecondarkschoolcourse. wasex- .. tended fromfourto fiveyearsand dividedinto cycles ofthree 'andtwoyearseach.Thec*in. Persiais threeyears. ..General secondary schòas in Chinaand Japan'followa6-year ., .. elementary schoolandaretermed 'middleschools; inthe formerthey :'. ,. . .are..6-year oftwo 3-year fectioiis,lower == and higher;iii...:.::::' the latter the!cowseis fiveyears. The Siamese i(-,. . . .8year , ..., . seeondary -4,,, . 'I *. . ). . l' W: 1 . . A. e , t'i 4:.-----,,. :-..: -e""P. . -* .... 4 i r.-:-. 44- ,.vg .....::-: ... .N. ---,T4-!' . r a' L.:-.-----.1- ".i----"If4aM3111,--- %. -, . 'L;---"-- : .1 ' .,* ,__s; : . -.7-1'`. ,-ia.. .. :.,...,____. _;e'w .. . . ".1/4.f.. - '' ....--1-a.uw-a..------_- -- .'.-..:-.Q.14._---..-,--..---- : i NATIONATIJMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION 67

s'choo1ormadhyomcoursehas three divisions;lower, 3; middle,3; and higher, 2years.It follows tbreeyear's of the5-yeat prathoinor primarycourse. The board of education ofEngland definesasecondary schoolas one" which offersto all its pupilsaprogressivecourseof general education, with the requisiteorganization, curriculum,teaching staff, , and equipment, suitable in kindandamount for boysorgirls ofan age-range atleastaswideasfrom 12to 17, and which alsomakes suitable and cormiatedprovision foranyPupils belowtheageof 12."Thecourseof studymaybe closed witha." first examination" suitable for pupils hbout16yearsold, the standardbeing suchthat C. a passwith credit inacertain number ofsubjects in threemain groupsof school subjectswould entitlethe candidateto admissionto ; auniversity; orwitha" secondexamination "suitable forpupils abouttNylo y.e4rg older, framedonthe -assumptionthat the candidatO has, aftesr thestage marked by the firstexamination, followeda more specializedcourse. . 41k The primary schoolof sixoreightyearsin the IrishFree State is followed bya4-year secondarrcourse,which clQseswith the- exami- nation f tv thejunior ceilificate,and from therethe 'pupilma:i7 study twoyears morefor the seniorcertificatp thatadmitsto the university. -The scheme:. in NewZealand isan8-year elemwtaryschool , anda4-year high school, thoughthe 6-3-3 planis beginningtocome intovogue. . From thesedetailed definitionsexpressedformally interms of yearsand inrequirements for aamis:sionand graduationmaybe selected threefairly well-mitkedtypes a secondary schools:The Latin-languagecountry 6-year school,changedtowardalonger course.in France,Italy, and Rumania;the Germanicyountry. 8ort yearschool considerablymodified inScandinavia;ind the Iiglish type defined ingeneralterms withanimplied timebasis ofifyears ) divided',into periods of4 and 2years,but settingthe normal 1, of achievementby classes ofexaminations ratherthan by numberof ' yearsatteiided.Theaccounts to follow of the relatiftof the nt*onal ' ministry of Aucationto the secondary schoolsaregiven withaview to presentinfthe conditions intwaorthreecountries, representing eachtype. hechoicewai influentedalso by Cbmeimportantsec- ondaryschool that have been made inthfpast threeyearsin .

several countr4s. . .$pain.---Theauthority heldby the ministry ofpublicJnstruction and finearts in Spkinoversecondary educationis shovn well in, theref9rm of1926. A royal decree drA.ugust25, 1926, prepared-by theministry. .4fter consultationwith the, ouncil ofpublic. instruption . and approval- by ihecouncil ofministers, outlinesiii generalWillis, .:.. . .. r the . ,. é. 1., organization of , seaindary'educatoion. 'I° kk .! 4 ; * . . ..:.,10` T .1 'T.. A 1 A; ,:., ,. , . . 4f... : 4 .:" ;v1-. 68 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

The plan isa6-yfea1t school divided into two periods oft threeyears each.The first.p4iodis devotedto general culture subjects and closes with theexamipation fo'r the elementary baccalaureate (bachil- Nlerato elemental). Thesecond hasone yearof general cultureand \ twoof specializationin either the sciencesorletter.s leading to the 'it-Diversitybaccalaureate (bachillerato . db. universitario) Admission toi thè'secondary schoolisto children at least 10yearsofagewhopass anoltrnce examinationgivenat the respective institutes they wish to enter'bkaboard of fivemembers consisting of three4!ac1iers of the instituto,onefromanational primary schoolandali*dni,aster ofa,private sdtool. Aiticle17 of the decreereads:

41111b The minister of publicsinstructionand fine arts has authorityto dictateany dispositions be deems nece'ss4aryfor the'execution ofthis decreeaswellasthe regulations for transition(tct thenewplan) and for fixingtheprogramsof study. I '

, This decreewas followed by.two others,oneestablishiw aniforin. texts for the secondary. schools, t4\second approving theprovisional reAl'ulationsfor theexaminations fprsecomAy studies.Toimrry out the three decrees theministry through itìgeneral direction of 4 higher and secondaryeducation issuedin 1926 and1927, '21 orders andCr9ORT6 whichdeal in detailwith the internal , . arrangements of 1the secondary.schools.They efix thedates of openinga.nd. *sing .chools;list the subjectsand the topicsunder eachsubjeçt thatare to be taught together withthe hoursperweekto be giyen to each subject;establish ... permanencias" of students anddirect closely "bow the Spanishlanguage is . to be taught in them;give the qualifkations for specialteachers; determinethe classificationof teachers,thecor responding salaries, iuid-the awardsfor speéial work;arrangethe duties of theeconomic councilsof theschools; regulatethe methods of conductingthe admissionexaminationsaswellasthose for 'eachof the baccalaureates;and makeprovision forchangingfrom the fQrmer planof secondaryeducationto that of1926. The mere-xistenceof theseorders milddecrees is inClicativeofa school system*almost entiyelycontrglled bythe centralauthority. The ordersfurtherthatcentralization.Layparticipationis no4hen provided.The examinationsare so tirranged that eachof the higher institutionsselects itsstudents fromthosepresentedby the lower.% ..... The finalexaminationfor theuniversitybaccalaureate15 is held at the aiversitybeforeatribunal offive judges,three ofwhom *Lie .professorsof the universityse1ecte4 bytherectorÌi the.; '4- 9f the facultiesfroxnthe facultiesof philosophyand lettersand . ,. 7 ... . _ ,iiz. . : . . .,, . ... . Aiform . , ofgroup, supervisedstudy. . . , A The *reader . will remember ...4.1 that Ole isRDexaminatiafor admissionto, notgradustAi .. 0 601121th university. 4 . . r , ...* ! . , s .',.i. # ' : a .-. , . . . :s .;.f::$15;,...,..., . . ,. Ator fr ;. (..,..,.. . . .,',. - t 11°e' t4,-..!_-7-,-..2%,,,- -4-4 ' r"g' 1 12.=--:-: -.--2ri*.=."--1 '-wie.-k4-...4:-.- 7' '' 1 ; .---1.-.e- :.- '- ,----- NATIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDUCATIO* 69

lawif the examination is for the baccalauréate in letters; from the faculties ofmedicine, sciences,orpharma-ey if it is the baccalaureate in scienoes.A professor of theinstitibte from which the applicants conwandadoctoror alicentiate insomepraession, preferably onewho isapart-time teasher in the university,complete theper- sonnelof this examiningbotird.Since the university facultiesare practically parts, of the ministry of educationandThe directors of thé institutesareappointedby it and subordinateto the rectorli of

, the university,the control of theministryoverthis impqrtant exami- nationISabsolute.It is equallyso overthat for the elementary baccalaureate.Private secondaryschoolsmust send. their pupils to thepublic-school examinations.The nationalgovernment alone has the right to train for and srant.dej4rees. Secondary-school teachersareappointed by the ministryand drawn frdmpersonswho hold the master'sordoctor's degree.Their . , salaries in all public schoolsarepaid by the nation. i Poptitgal.Decret;No. 12: 425, ratifiedonOctober15, 1926, in Portugal, is another document that- by itsmereexistence is ample evidence of full national control cif secondary' education.Entitled the"Statute of secondary instruction," itrevoked fiveformer decrees onthesamesubject ind became effectiveonthe date of ratification. It is divided into five chapters dealing, respectively,with theoi:grani-

zation of the lyeus, the .. teaching personnel, ther6gime of studies,

I Private and home education, and transitorymeasures. b. The numbiT of public lp:eus for both boys ariagirls, and their location- is fixed,aswellasthe conditions under whichnew!netts maybe established andanyof those in oReration dosed.Therector of each is appointed for, fiveyearsby the Government fromalist of threenamessubmitted by the school council.His hours of ditty and his salaryareset in- the decree.The school council consists of the teaching staff, holds regular sessions; hasNssecretaryoneof their number appointed by the,goveranlent and paid extra for the

' Work, andmayhave autonomous administrationOteglicypriapertyor funds given the schoof provided theyareapplied accordingto the 1 legal requirements.The administrative council of the school ispre- sidedoverby the rector and has four othermeinkis, t'wo activeand two substitutè, chosen annually by the school council from itsmembership. a It haftasecretary and treasurer and in general.... .has control of the schoolproperty andfupds. The inspection of all secondary education both public and private isin chirgeof the council ofiiispection which is directly subordinate. stothe ministry of public instructiòn and composeci of 12inembe.iis p.. -chosen. bithegovernmentfrom theprofessorsof the superior uormfrl schooLs, Briefly, its dutiésareto . the lneus, and the unixersitim ; 6, . . . *it 70 NATIOf.° AL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION

seethat the official prcigramsarecarriedout; that the childrenare girl]propermoral and civic instruction;that stiitable libraries, laboratories, gymnasiums, andplaygroundsareprovided;to instruct the personnel in pedagogical anddisciplinary matters; and, ingeneral, obseue directly all the organizationof the lyçeu andits film tioning.Itmay proKseto the ministry disciplinarymeasures for unworthy conduct 6h thepart of the teaching personnel. The teaching personnel is dividedrather Singularly intonine groupsaccording:to subject matter taught by each:Portugueseand Latin: Portuguese and French; English and Germ lan.; hi4oryand philosophy;; geography and, history; naturalsciences;physico- chemical sciences; mathematics; and drawing.Admissiorito service and appointmentsto ._positionsaremade by the 'ministry,and salaries and general conditions of servicrare fixedby the decree. Theprogramof studies, by years; *subjects, and hours'perweek. is establishedaswellasthe grafting scale, the' scdle of punishments of pupils, the details ofthe final examinations, tfie length and dates of the schoolyear,the school holidays, methods of selecting class teachers, and theproessesvpf admitting private pupilsto the publk examinIttiohs.Thenational-governmea. has the rightassiduouk and rigorously.6)superintend private% secondary education in col- , legios, boardingschools,orprivatecourses,and the instructionmust be given bypersonsauthorized by the.gqvernment throughanaffirm- ativevote ofthesuperiorcouncil of public instruction. .The diploma of graduation -fromthe seebndary school. isa cer' tificite of qualification forthe examinations of admissiontohigher studies.This permits the holderto taketit-the university the .entrIanceexaminations beforeajury composed of membersof the faculty with which he wishes ... lb to Andy. Rumania'f.lie *sent law of.secondury instructionin Rumania passed thk,sfaaateonApril'.5, 1928, and the 'houseof deputies the following dia.It wit's promulgatpdasRoyDecree No. 1308on

May. 14, 1928. . Prefaceilbyanexposition of moiivesof 235pagt Overtilt) signattire4theminis pf instruction,the law itselfis brief, ,sca'reelyi 60pages,andalittlemorethan half of itrelates toale teachers, their ceitification,conditions ofemployment, salaries, and

. rights. elk Is I a 11 . Secondary education isby thee law organiztdontheOAofs i 3-year gymnasium (gimnaziu),toihich pupilsthat have compie the 4-year primaryschoolare`adraitted,-followedbya4-year lyce

.. . Completion of.thegymnasium cofirse.is evidexicedby 6 l certificate of altolutionofsthigymnasium (certificatde absolvire : C `firimnaziului);promotionto thelistclass of thelyeeaniswar 1; ' : - v)Sythe certificate ot ;',47. . lyoeal studios (tprtifict.de 1' . . -- . , r w P-*._ :Nzi . ':. . 4jr .1ice". -s.". %.4 qk Pg' =:. ; :N !.% ., .:44e; e %..1- .t.' . 41111. . - I .9 . P 41, /* *V "I1 -c.. . ..; b. ;., 4 . ;A 1% '4S.:* ; .1.44*-4 ,PW a' 06- 4 .722"..-44 - , - "--V-, If% - , ", . : rt .P;*. '' goart - e . _! vtit4--14, _ , v..' .3's 4 I- 1 1. '4 ' ' .0 4 :4 r... . - r.% A , . . '..:-1 ' `2 44( 4Y-V41i.-. k, . 11.. .,, ...--*...... 1.$ ' A: #.. .1., 7:1i '' ' ., 4 r ,',,,I. to, "`i i `V' ;: : .,1a NATIONAL-MINIM OF EDUCATION 71

graduatioR from theseeconda.iyschoollea'cis to the diploma of the

baccilatireate. (diplomiide, baaalitureat). Under the law.theministry of education intervenes inanuMberof special ways./ The' direction and generalsupervision of secondary instruCtionis under the charge of the nation and is exercised through the ministry ofinstruction.It,mayissue regulations tocarryout thela-ws;shall 'Provide the detailedprogramsof study,overseesthe intérnal management of private schools; andmay approvesupple- mentaryprogramsforanyof them. No schoolmay use anydidactic mitterialnotapproved by the ministry.Thp, schoolsaregenerally senaratefor thesexesbut the nriniArymay,with the approval of the permanentcouncil,-authorize mixed schools. No schoolmaybe opened,nogymnftium changed toalyceum,nor any newclass division beestablishea without theconsont of the minisfry. A regularor",theoretical " schoólmaynot be changed to apractical school wilbout the approval of the ministryonthe advice of the permanent council.Examinations for .promotion from tlie 'gymnasiumaregiven byanexamining commissionoverwhicha delégate of themini:41'y iiresiaes.Those for graduation fromthé --lyceumandwinning the bliccalaureateareformal affairsatwhich

at least 200 candidates areexpected to be present.The committee of . se,yen.members is madeupof six teacheç of the higheseclasses in the public lyceums under the presidency ofamember 9fauniversity factilty..The báccalaureate is apkoi-ed by the ministry and admits/. to the university. Diplomas granted byprivate secondary schools havenovalue unless Ihe schpol has the " right of publicity," i.e.,is examined and approved bysome one or moreof the ministry's inspectors. The permanent councilmay approvecrqdentials eirhed

in foreign countries. . As to its internal organization, each school is underadirector chosen for fiveyearsby the minisiryont6,advive of the ibspector ,of the°district,andanassistant director choso also bly théministiy onthe advice of the director,.Each class hasadirectingprosor whose duty istocarefor that particulargroupduring:itscar in the school. Tbe entire faculty constitutes the school council.The . .. ministrymayippoint suçh Other officers of the schoolaslibrariaw secretaries,adcòuntapts,etc.,asitseesfit.The schoolmayadopt , , .....,

regulations of organization subject tò the ministry'sapproval. . ftA school committee preside,doverby du; director and madetipof members of the façultyhascharge of *the constructiv,maintenaricei , and' of the schoolplant. It levies the school ties and atten.40.,1 *4 . to their¡mountingvid**bummed, all under the. iinisterialsupqff, . . Interhats may.be qtaintained.46.0,partof the instit4ti.o...... '...-d N.,. . . . -:. . ,r.. -,.., _ ...... :- p. : 3. . :.. . . , ' ?. * . - .4 . - - 1.14746780--3-4 e ,4 ". . -- .- - 1, v Ir.TY. ik 4..4. ,.,, -Ix ; *sr 1-4st A "4..10 . % k - ....,_...... ' iie..*.* *17 . 1.4- ' .S.,:k..:;,#4t....;!.o ". ' ....'t i'1, *t* **/ .* /, .. .tit ...; r. *** ..* *r....--i _71 ?! -14**. , ;:rt.: i! ... i .145. 4). -"*... , I 0 , .11 ,06. AL:' P-LNI.-'r '''' ...0't .,.. --.4 r .4' ? .s. - .- ..%,:".. --A.1...--' 4....., ;-.,!--.:. .1...... ' ',.K.1 '4 .- ki,V...-.A %....,,,-,..c....A, . 1, F.4...q.. 'LI---:,.... -...... , ...!... , i ..- ,... 144. -.7,.z..._ ,-.r.,*....t.-.(11,-.,,...... : .*. .,--,..--t?' S:107;,:".1.. :16. -,..`, --.1-47- 4 ''',ii.#,..1%.nt X.....4- ar-f-7-11 e A, .e.-; ...... fit- ... -c .:- ,..---zt -.%-,-.1'.....---...,..-467,6 ..L.1.4,,, ,::.9 -, v.-,147,.,2-..k. / 4. N ., *- V:r; '4.1 - .* ,,! g * C.` 4.11'44j e ill*: r`44.e.-..¿(,/kl*?' iLTP)* 4 E."1"9.19;rV11** /S. 4 -:= .:te 41 41 V .e*V4. ' - r 1-.*: * otaZ, 1A 41...-l*,74;41:?e. !1:44*.?;itt . tt- - -* " StAlt.421- 11.&L' : : " ,,'l.1_/t--'..r.;*',h!!.f.e(TAtner...-iaZSA-4!- ;.4,,'-.-'- .-L'''A. -14N.z- a -Iti":,..dr/g...t..$4 72 NATIONALMINISTRIESOFEDUCATION

Theteachersarepublicofficials.Havingoncepassed the exatit- nations necessary to qualify andservedaprobationalperiod ofthree years,they areknownasdefinitiveprofessorsand-maynot bere- moved, demoted,orchangedexcept bylegalprocess.Theirclassi- ficationsand salariesarefixed -byThelaw& and whilethematterof their trainingand firstcertificationand akantmentis in thehanas of the ministry,the laterArrangements in r4an1to the workare so outlined in the lawthat theministryhasnowidescopeofunre- strainedauthorityin dealingwith them. Over the schoolsand alltheirmanagement bothexternaland internal the ministryhasconstant supervisionthroughitscorpsof inspectors. e. Thesethreereformsinsecondaryeducationmaderecently fairly are representativeof thecontrolexercisedby thenationalministry ofeducation Overtheseconlaryschoolsin allLatin-languagcoun- tries. Generallyin LatinAmericasecondaryeducationis specifically the business of thenationalgovernment andisadministeredand maintainedby it. Forcountriesthat bavebeen influelicedgreatly bythe plan of Germanic secondaryschool'training,Yugoslavia,Denmark,andHun- garyserve as good examples. Fugoslavia.Secondaryinstructionis givenin the 8-yeitrgymnasia andrtlal schpols whichadmitchildrenthat havec6mpletedfouryears ofprimary training.Theseinstitutionsaremaintainedalmosten- tirely by nationalfunds;inafewcasesthelargerdistrictsmilltowns rovide the buildings.Theyareunder thecontrol oftheiiiinistry through its sectionforsecondaryeducationwhichsupervisesthe . gymnasiaand realschools,institutionsfor thepreparationof teach*,andsecondaryschools assignedto tile ministry. . Within the ministryis thehigher educatiXncouncilmadeupof experiencededucators,whichgives adviceonnearlyany matter relatingto education. Atthe closeof eachschoolyearspecialinspectors chosenby the council visiteach school,observe theclasses,attend the 'examinations,andreport to theministryonall m.attersofinstruction andadministration.Inspectorsofspecialsubjectsare sent out dui- ing: theyear. . -The curriculaareissuedby theministry;thetextbooksareprinied by thenation, andareuniformthroughoutthe schools.At theclose of each 4-year periodof thesecondarischool, pupilsaxerequiredto 'takean vamination,writtenand,oral, thatisapprovedNit cond aèted .4amember of theministry.Thecertificateefmaturitygainedby eCol completionofflip secondarycourse admits the hol4rto itutions of . . ujthrrótprvank. e . . . A.,..` , . s :,. . : -tr.ov-- , . -...... ^li t-' .'1 V -, - .,,,,,, ::, '2 ..f . lb. 4.- ...";:". "1:- ---rk'' -v- ). : _.i.. .t, . : .- V., .11 A'flefit: . Ns% 4 ..-7. .- ".. .7 , ". r - z ta-y".....itI_:s , . _ w . i; "'"g*-177.170 'iv., s *#** . VP , # v_... or.% 4'. `11 'IV' I:.s-,,- - A. , , I . .. -.Am? 511- ; .,- 1. v 4

NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION\ 73 Secondary teachersaretrained in the untversities. The general conditions of their employmehtarefixed by law. Denmark.Secondary education in Denmark beganas amatter of private effort and private schoolsarestillnumerousbut the National

Government is taking-anincreasingly important part in it.The three types of school, classified by levels of instruction,are(1) Middle schools which accept pupils who have completed fourorfive ,yearsof primary training and give thema4-year coiirse, which closes withamiddle-school exaniination;(2) the real class ofone year leadingto444a1examination;and (3) the gymnasia, which pupils enter from the middle school, and 'Pirhich ina3-yearcourse prepare them alongany oneof *three linesclassical, nmdern language,or scientificfor the university.Graduation is determined through the students' (;xaminationgivenat the completion of thecourse. The 34 national secondaryschoolsaremaintained by hational funds andare.entirelyadministeredby themiiiistryof education. One hundredand sixty municipal and 127 private schools haveupper classes that leadtoone or moreof the examinations alreadymen- tioned. The broad otitlinesof the curriculawerefixed b.yalaw .of April 24,1903, and within. them the ministryarrangesthe detailed programsfor the nationalschools andapprovesthose of the municipal andprivate schools.Allaresubject to inspection by the ministry's officials. , All final eximinationsareconducted by the ministry through approved representatives.Itpreparesthe questions for the written part of the tests.The standings andnamesof §tudentsarepub- fished official131,and the certificategainedat each examination gives the holdercertain rightsasto admission to national employmefits,

the Universityof Copenhagen,etc. % The training andexamination ofsecondary school teachers is in the hands ofthe ministry a.ctingthrough its in4pectotof secondaty educatioh.Teachers in .thegymnasiamust completk their work in the Univérsityof Copenha" withspeciecoursesin pedagogy,* do practice teachingunderanadvisor,serve aprobationary period; and. pissafinal. eiCaminationbeforeaconuilittee,onemember of which is the nationalinspectororhis délegate.The qualifications for middle-schoolteachersareetkotto high, but thbyareequally under the control ofthe ministry.Teachersarecivil,servants, with their . salaries : .-f: . aridpensions fixed by law. . , . All .thecommunal andmost öf the privatesecondary scbolsare given financialaid. e. Hungary,:wwTheHungarian languageis of TuraniinbOgi4.- t . : *gramniár it&voda4-utaryASgocoplpletely differ,ent. from lhoie..4. of

.the4" :TOUtermanit . , ' .languag:' es:that:the Kiln ans . ; '***" _. , , - - - are ."gJr .A.441-7'. ra ; 'C*;+11 s- 4.7 r , . , - - * -) f-r.A *7. .t . P'",11-, 1* *r ( 4;7. . - - wtri APU ).1:( .21.V, 4.;- - .4" -C ;Y:4;t4iferleftraa t" . . 4 -11; j;4104 A. -*A" t'17 . 4N. 74 ItATIONALMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION1

lated bytheirlanguage fromother nationg,but theirschoolsystem isof theGermanpattern, bettered inmany respects, findinitipro- *visionfor thecareofverysmall Childrenfar in advanceofmost of the othercountries ofthe world. Thefundamentalprinciples ofsecondaryeducationwereestab- lished inlaw 30 of.1883.Theprogramof studiesfor eachtype of secondary schoolsfor boyswasfixed bydecree No.38.804/1-1926'°; secondaryschools forgirlswerecreated by reformlaw 24 of1926 and theirprogramsfixed byadecree,of1927.The threetypes for boysaregymnasia,real gymnasia,and realschools; thosefor girls are ..ryinnasia, lyceums,anti colleges.All giveani 8-year course to whichareadmittedpuOiiabout10yearsofagewithfouryearsof primaryschool training. TheControl ofeducation ishighlycentralized inthe ministry of cultsand publicinstruction.A superintendent.appointed by the governor onthenominatio.nof the rftigisterhas charge ofeducation in each ofthe sixdistrictsinto whichthecountry is divided.Par- ticularly heinspectsthe s'econdaryschools ofhis.district.In the Public secondaryschools hemayinstruct thestaffonmethods, administration,and thegeneral .upkeepof theschool; ,inthe private institutions hemayonly in.strpctonmethods and reptirthis impres- sionsto the ministry. The ministiyissues thecurricula andcoursesof studyin detail,has closecharge ofthe textbooksused,namesthe teachers,controls tile finalexaminationsby havingthe suprintendentaspresident of the examiningcommission,and determinesthe issuanceof thecertificate . ofmaturity. o Teachersin secondaryschoolsareexclusivelygraduates of theuni- verAties.Theyare onth(ksame,shlaryscalea vi1servants -andare advancedin gradeautomatically. . The certificateof Maturityfrom âsecondary s'chooladmits the holdertoaninstitutionof universityrank wifhoutfurther examina- ...tion but forsome years after the warthe ministryof educationhad . authority,ontherecommendationof thefaculties,to limit thenum- c , ber ofMk'estudentsadmittedto universitystudies andto distribute thedmissionsaccordingto tilepercentage of thevarioufi N nationalitirepresentedin thecduntry. The En h4angtagecountriesthat havenationalministries of 2::\eduelitionmaybeexceptions, ifthereare any, to the general rulethat th'e.ministryofeducationcontrolssecondaryeducationmuehmore closely it does elénAtarjr eciucation. . - "" . N. -2. ."' I ,..". 4:1k *5; e i X. t4E24. Z. P. 4r4 The Programsof4... Study thiRungatiafi Secondary.. School*and 'Cow f53,..r oftlis :Secondary;J. Bebools 10-flotsam Mimi.-Graduates 8' 8 Aie Adtaitt*0Without - to -.',.11414111*** 11,siosilb hotutions.o.tatvarop? 444 :rompsauca!lau- Ora* 't*" 4-;;4.`"*.tC.4. Or. .240 W D. P,- , . ,=. ....( SL. "4444 #.4 .47 . - .*--,;:,51.1;',, ....faille PK M '" ,. 1.41,11, er 1/414VVINI. r 91VrVO 4^.:elitiiikr.,(4: 441i A.1`::;" G.c14 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDUCATION 75 Iridt Free State.----Doctor Corcoran, professor of education in the UniversityCollege, Dublin, writes:li Secondary schoolsareinfluenced by the state inafar less directway (than elementary education is). No secondary school in the Free Statewas set up by public authority inthe strictsense of the term.All these Schoolsarethoroughly denominational intheir originsand in their actual administration.But .with hardly au exception, they have during the past 40yearstaught secular subjects on state'curricula,taken state examinationsthereon, accepted state inspection and advice,and received stategrants In aidto schools and state scholarshtps for pupils, . . All secondary teachers in the lrish FreeStatearein the private emplAyment of secondary schools.A imblic register of seconitarey teachers,administered by state authority under the rules made conjointly by the Ministerof Education and byarepresentative council, hasexisted since 1917.After the expiration of the transition facilities in 1925,no new applicant can bv registered unless quali- fied by holdingauniversity degree,auniversity certificate of training for education, requiringayear's work and practice beyondthe degreecourse,anda definite amount of full teachingexperience successfully obtiined und.erizispee lion by state inspectors....

. Theprograms are now well adjustedso thatthe connecthm (between ele- m.entaiyand secondary education)rsno matterof merely fitting the end ofone tothe beginning of theother. There is in effectn' spliced " unification.Th last threeyears of the primary curriculumaresubstantially identical with the first three (11-14years) of the secondary, and transitcantake place atany ageperiod.... a , Thp tidal yearlycharge is about $1,500,000.Just une-half of thatsumis paid to the schools,as clepitation grants, laboratory grants, grants for special work in fully Klingualor purely Irish schools,and grants for chorus and orchestra work.Five hundredand eighty thousand dollarsa year is paid to registered teachers; the balanceis met downto examinations, inspectors, administration expeusiss, scholarships, and thecosts of specialsummer courses forteachers." Doctor Corcoran'sstatementsargue ahigh degree -of nationalcon trofof secondaryeducationeventhough .the schoolsareall Privately managed.The ministry'sregulations for theyear1927-28 indicate 11 itsnature.In brief,noschcloVis consideredto beasecondaryschool unless recognizedby the ministry and tlintrocogiiition dependAon itscompliance withthe Allowing conditions: (1)Maintain suitable premises;(2) employateaching staff legally qualifiedand sufficient in number;*(8) offeracurriculum in thenecessary.sajects witha reasonableproportion of the students receivinginstruction in each of thosesubjects;(4) keep attendance and record booksin theman- ner prescribed andopento the ministry'§iiispeòtors;(5). perniit the schoolto be ingpected by the inspectors of theministry;(6) hold siich "

examinationsfigthe ministrymayrequir.e; and (7) furnish Ithe min.

istryinformation .about , teaching staff,. cOpies. of the time t4ble, I , 2 . . . _ t 21 . - t . 4p, V. - - r r, - - . .. . lik¡ ,0. niii-:1711,7 . .. = "Irish FreeState. 6 -71, It& Educational ,Xtixbot* the. Interptitioual IpatItuto ot Teatill011r- .;...-4 .-.- .gi 044,1ege,'ColutablitTh)iveiattn 1926. .11e* York, cinfilinCa.,1027: 41":* 4r4 ;46t - '- r no word te.1; 1:**tisittthrOutiatt, 44' lootgtioit 0,4714sOkaisWith. .1'0 r .' 4;* . A' L k - o' 1- -4 *IC; . - - t. . . . f itr 7^. ,72./Yr re 0,._ ! . 141/7' . ... A.17_ . AfX` - tk4 r. 1.-?, t "1-.1 ,- arn.?t' 4 w- , -, -,2. . tft..Z.V.;:t4'.. taI.b . - ff-,a .1 '".f- :` *4 .44r.t1,14-'0` . -$ ''. )41,..-tZP e 4. -*Y./Nati .44"'" '':,;% -a% 4 ,i Jet ;..-4 AV " Vike.4 I ?': "*. -agela .4 rsq-ski,-= :NATIONALMINISTRIESOF EDUCATION curricula, and syllabiof study,andalist ofthepupils.eligibleto be . regardedasrecognizedsecondarypupils. Nonew school isrecognizeduntil examinedandapproved bythe ministry,andrecognitionmaybewithdrawn iffortwo successive yearsthe number . of recogniiedpupils whohave mado130 attend- anceseach is less 12 than ortheinstructiongiven inthe schoolis deemedinefficient. Theage period ofsecondaryeducation is12 to 18, andthe planof ,organizationisajunior4-yearcoursephisanadvanced2-yearcourse. Thecurriculum ofthe formerhasasubstantialcoreof obligatory subjectsand Oaseswith the-intermediatecertificateexamibation; the latteris intendedto completesecondaryeducationand fit the pupil to enter tininstitutionof universitystanding.It leadsto the leavingcertificategrantedon a final.examination. Theministryregulates dieadmissiónof primarypupilsto the secondaryschools,theissuance ófintermediateand leaving ceriifi- cates,aswellasthe conductof.theexamindtiopstor them,the examinations foruniversitymatriculation,the secopcUeyschoolprograms of study, thepayments ofall thedifferffitkinds of nationalgrants, and thetrainingandcertifid4tionan'dmiAimumannualsalaries of the teachers. Thecurricultiarecouchedin somewhatgejtiralterms, and within themeach schoolwayarrangeitsjownRiogramsand sy1l4bi, subjectalways t6the Ilppróvat the ministry.Onany questionof the interprefationofthe-regulationsthe 'decision . .. of the pinistèr isfinal: . r' . . New, Za.dancl.-Secotidaryeducationin New..Zealandisopento,

. childrenwho have . completedthe eighthyear ,(StándardVI)of. the primaryschool.In.1928 itwasgiven in43 secondary:school$,'N I %district highschools ,wittisecondary deNtirtménts,e21technicO?high ' I' schAsand technicalday4chools,40 registeredprivatesec,o0dary ..?.....schools, 12 ,qécondiryschools foiMaoris,and2 juniorhigh schools p. withOird-yearpupils. :The total number, . '9' . of pupils lenerollidwas 26,930----aboui , .19. pér ceritof that.of theelementaryschoolchildren.. Forall the, ¡nittlic:fieçoridaryschools thedeparthientof education .1 praOribesth.e cculaandcourses of instruction;inspects' thi..mwith its 4iiisspectoitichgeen'for thatpurpose; examines .ándclassifiesthe -....-...... 4aChers a0 fi4scales fortheir stifaries;frames regulatiónsfot :.,..4-. the aviaiskoffroplaces. ,,. , enablingprimary-schoolpupils to pioceed: , .: - .-to , fre.",..iirwoncliirf, :education; . approves -.plane .%aii4. :allotsgtaa,r,t,s .10. :--....;I.; . .sePpndsc4901buildings; aiid3 con,tróls L. , dOpetlythe. colsfit: .. . . " :...... , 4-._ . ..,....- _; 1 Maoris. . - ..-...... -...... I 1 I '.-,. .. , ?';z.\-: ...... ",--:- . ; : ' L'. '.1i: i, I e e ! .. , ' .% :.;*-It: ' I % ,s .: .: : Vi717. tib . ,, - ...IA,'-. __,,,,oer 4 7 °of of - tiii figuisitte.,1 #.' ;It providéd%. , ...... the- ... ..Naii "'.' '.i : f - - 01 Goventmenk..''' ...:b..: .. I ,'-'* ? t T. IA; . .,..: ..:ihav.o.. w9 E T:1-4'''--[-A., 1 , Ioy...,are. tAen i u 4..iiiiii.6..1..i.:'ditraiii, itk'4.- ;rnitt,iii...... :..t....Li,.._,....- II S . NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 77

contributeconsi.derable amountsto the techhical schools, and if the purposeof the expenditure is approved the Govern!)lent grants sub- sidyonit.Feesarefew and small, and inany case areconsidered partof the grant.More than 90per centof the secondary pupils are on"free41)1aces for at least threeyears.If the department then eelsthia the:¡areworthy theymaycontinueasfree-place pupils for three years more, oruntil theyare19yearsofage. Twenty-five of the secondary schools-wereestablished by specific actsOf the )egi,slature andarecontrolled by 'the boardsorgovernihg bodies provided for in The acts ofesttiblishment,but in 'eachcasethe 'board of e.ducation of the districtmay name one.member of the e governingI;i.idyandthe: parefitsof. the pupils shall electtwo.-Other

.secondary schools.are,establishedordisestablished by the minister of educationohthe advice of the council And .subjectto-certainlimi- tations.enibodied in the law, in regiadto number a pupils that maybeorar.eenrollOd.Eaçh of these schools is controlled bya board ofwhici;the education board of the district appoints three members-, the parents, of the pupils elect three; thegovernoraivoints two; and thecommiffeeof theiitaresturban school districtorthe

council of the.nearest borough appointsone. .`" ,This board of educationfor the secondary schoQl isabodycor- poratewithpowerto 1)1lre1as6 and hold property for schoolpurpose andto.suedr,be sued.It mustgovern theschool in accord witha scheme approved by the minister of educati9n and that schime define thecoursesof study,-the respectivepowersof the board and

sthe principal,lhe feesto be charged- tlie pupils; th ngements made for pupils. livingawayfrom home, andmust inc -any 'other 'provisions thit the niinistermay diiect. He-may from time totime with the advice of the ct?uncil.require the boaidipte modify its scheme , , J. Withrespect tocoursesof study. . 1-_r. Every district bhiet school is mahaged by the' coinmit4e -of Ihe school district. ..(Seepp,44 to 47 "Ch..V.).Teclmital. high . . '4pchoorsareinstitutions reCognizekas such by flui,minti*r Of educa-. ..tion, in whic4are.'givenonAve disis in week, 6.911ock.. . . _ in the*Afternoon, for at least 20 Imurs ineach ;week and .at least 36

11 . wee)cs14-eachyear,such 'v9catio,ntil'akci-telmical.courses'ak tire . . . . prescribed.Eadi is maniged lilya,)30.ird ofmanagersináde 'ip of . niembers s4ectectby thiS-controlling autluirity a ,the selicigli .thet . .40-1

*mittee of the urban ichool district, the paretaipf the pupils. the . . , r -, -\ . 1. oroo4ntie4 iiny pa0.pf..: local pithorities of the citiO,. boratiglIsi:. II . ! /14 4:44.41 .5. -.ttflie':khcieland the employers24n4` e which i 4ithin .ftaels-of :¡! v'S! 4: fal r ; . i . -.I, - . 4---...... -* it 4 ,! .. . ""- 1,i 0: . , .7 it .:11, ;$.4:41 -..--..v: . .-7:34 V . ".,,,. ,ipiplpyees ip local Oidustitiet..:',.,.4 ,,,-- . -.. `' **: %.% 'Pr , .. ":# - " .4"--:.6.--41.11, (V*" 'N'T't "

; fort,r .4y..techniet0 .high ii.hool, 4 .Y.:( rn - ,_j ; : ¡I', 1. 0. 04 rsq L.J , e'r._, wit..**nit ..te**0:0, f ANN- 1 1144 Kit;iitk 4..4. .#1;,,4;i.ligr4:v ',2y/szi#fiiiriioir..lios:',5 iiiiivii:.:74._ *4. 78 NATIONALMINISAMSOF EDUCATIpN courses,the facilitiesforcarryingonthe work,the hesto be charged, thenamesof the managers andanyother -detailstheministomay prescribe. Eachsecondary schoolmust providea course of stady fornot less than threeorfouryears; eachdistricthighschoolortechnicalhigh schoolfornot less than two ór threeyears. Under theauthorityot theministry of educationtheschoolsmayissueintermwliate,lower- leavifig, and higherleavingcertificatesto pupils that4ave finislie4 2-year,3-yeap, and-4-year courses, respectively.Theschoolsmust always be6pento inspection by theministryand suchinsi)ectionmay include . examinationof thepupils inthesubjects ofinstruction. Theymust report annuallyto the ministeronallmatters forwhich hemayaskstatementt. Evglandand Wales.---Thereader willseein thesearrangements for secondaryeducationin theIrishFreeStateand inNew many similarities Zealand, to the schemescarriedout in Englandand\Wales. Theschools of Irelandwore'lungmanagedby theEnglish aut4orities and, ofcourse,the settlers inNewZealandtookwiththem\their Englishideas of education.sChapterVIII,whichdeals withthe Proard (ifeducationofEngland,givesanidea ofits retationtlip withsecondaryeducation.

11.

I 140

41.

f-* 1111.4 e r s e e 1.. ' ta. 46.

7 MP' . '# .. e*,/ -. . 0, . 1 VA 1 Uit .1. 1 ' . ' , "' .-or e.. . . "'? % '....., ..': , e 1 4.'. . .. t . I II -I ., i. .., r 4. , ,..-..- ' e;A4 II ). .. . .r.,)., 1.,., ,r , . ' to...... -1...... ,-:.. t .. ,.',,.4:,A..,..1t.d,.::,a:il ...--Y,:,....e4., ".,". .;.i_ .-',': r * 1 . . s . ,,.."-: . .r.''...- : ! - . . .. . % . "A.' 4 '?1.44).. t.1 ..; 4 (...1% 'r.,:"..; . t --.' ,. ... 4\' -ie'r.*.:(',..' .,z4' .-,..;:: .: !,.s 4 r..11,..1,:!.?. -.:_t; &.,::., . . . .i 't -* .a.t, Iltt ...,41.,. '',;:,-".,, 4. .5 . '-- .;.4- " :;... -.!; '.,- ...... : I.i ; . +. ,-., _..;';44441-4 . .. . * s.": .. 1-.. " ' '.I;"-: '14.:. 4 ..... 2 .. . . ', -'',.' -: 4""it...4 .. : 's s 1. :., 1 41.. t r .4 4::!...' , L.? :e. . ..:- fr%#' II l . 1 , r'' . k .. , -,, 4 - ,... . 4": 1. '4i i*; 4, ..1%.44 % .-I ; . . . .. P. --r ..-s.,-:;',' (..'.3 .. a,. " .1v.i.;:4:--0,;;-42-irtes,11...... ;.;:1.1.-.'7'.--.: : . -1''''44. '-'4'e'-.t.. \* i: ; 2... .. i :: 4 . *WA .4 .. agg . 4. .1, _... 4, '7'4.;.` ,.------,.- : 14.,,t._,:.. ; -ti.--,-..: -1.,:..,-,A...... -:..-- -Tr. -4,- . 'si.'.4: ;"1111,7t22... . . :- ` .--...... ! . . 4t.-- I- 7 3.! ' . '. .-...... "...w.),,...... --4..., ?A:4. ...-- ...1,' ..`-' '72.;"...'"44. .;''464.:.",;- 721 "." Si .4.:.-4-0., ... ',' . : "... ' - , ..s.'.. 5 :I:,4'.: t 11-.:3.: , :...e .;,..e, ,._,-'f 1 ....4.7...1: -',e-,_ :":.: ...p. - , .....,...... , ..1--.:-.--,..- :"..? .'*--p.4-1..,:-P:',t. - 3. Jr'. a. i ,.1.---., 1 7 - t- ...... 4,.I., .... 1g i.r: .,-... .- . ...-z4.1413....., i a. %"- -.4: 4-::,,,.4.. -, -. . i -..: K f*....s.. A .. : 1-1V-*Y. 4 7.. i; 2.' "sreff i %. Jr -. . rio, ' i 'i--- .1. \ A' ' :0.,,.. - . _ t. - - .... i":".0.4\I,-', t. , . :.- ., .., -' 474NI 5 . 1.t.,,.'it ,:tr 4 ''.44"' 'art; 4"'' 0.!2'.144t.i.t.r.:*kricm5.4*. , .".. . no:;,!'r '. 4 1' ' .1 r 2.;#'''t*Vei-:54*:1:1,.'". ...?..x.- -);..,,,Ilhol*Atf-.4(.7,-, 7vit 4-.N.;-' 4,40, ,' t-.%- - ...... , Sv.- -ipz _ht.t.-vIro :*.tar;.g 3.;" ...,-' --k ..,K,...... ,,,,..._,,,,,.A6 4.4... ::544ts -.463:-....' -',..5,14,-.' .4' ..."..1` 7`f . ,Zirele ',N. 0./_' .I1 ....-,a- 1,-.,-,17....1.-...,....,3 -.77- -tf't * :.....'-',74,.;."4.0 '. ;,'" ' -4-t*.t':ttt " - .. '441k-11 :'-'5- -f-7" M.5f!.7 1:9':,-...«.. 44e44;-. 1.47;04...i..*,..ck,-.'. 1:-.1kt...... fir

CHAPTER VII The Relation of the National vfirlistrytoHigher Education

A 4. Introduction..Minidries of educationaredecidedly youthful institutions when compared in like with the universities.In the countrieswe areconsidering,morethan 200, schools give instruction r: onuniversity levelstomorethan 1400,000 students. About half the universitieswerefounded before,manyof them- long before, the opening of the nineteenth century; but itwasnot untilwellAbward the latter half of thatcenturythat ministries of educationwere beginning to be at allcommon asparts of the executive branch of the national governmehts.It wouldseemnatural, then, that ministries of education shouldnot have much cohtroloverthe universities; first, because the tiniversityestablished before the ministry will have worked Out its relationsllips with the Government;vithoutthe inter-

, vention of the minis6y;and, second, the uhiversity will be estab- 4 , lished firmly enoughsothat the young(--3r organization, probablynot sopowerfully mannednorwith its functionssowell defined,cannot 'easily takecontrol of higlwr education. Suehis thecasein most ,parts of the DritishCommonwerlthof Nations, the Scandinavian kcountries, and inafewcasesin. Latin America.It isnot. thecondition of 'affairsin Spain,Italy,most of the Latin Americancoun- tries, .andmost of the Slavonic nittions. 'What shouldbe the relation of the universityto the nationwas, a matter ofdiscussion andcontroversy for 10or morecenturies. Ju4at present it is distinctly in the foregroundof educationalques- tiotisinanumber of countriefi. WO donotundertaketo give the answpr and within the limits of,oursubjectwe arejustified inkeep- ing th\is diseussionto-the comparatively small field ..-.1 of the relafionship . .. of the,university to the nationalgovernmentasit is Axpressed throulA ..;.,. the ministry of education. Itniay be well . ,,,:., to reparhere - :41 ' *P *' thatin'gent;ralif the ministry pl ectucationhas ,__.--1 ...... , anyauthorityat all....

, over institutions a university h:.rh, . rank, thecontrol will apply only . . . 1 to . . I-. , . thoge. of the professignal,classicaltype and not to the. higher tech- *. , _.. '. . --,..t:., r 5 .¡ " +4 .. r; tied inst4tutions... . The -- - '`':i:r, - latterI will be dependent0on, other. ".mihistrietr 4.. !Ail .Ther,areozptiofis, butNs is the; geniktal.r4.. ..)34thOatiOn4. '.'1-.41".'1:,¡. ' . c, . '..' . e' . ,..t a .,7 1:7:r 4.t -:, l ship; L:_,:. existingbetwtthe minist4, of eauclitio4and.tht institutiohs:.`,.-,%:, -; '''''' .44 to, /. ... y , ^.4.' e: , . . a ,.-'' .:k Jt-a, ', ,4 -,..,; 1....--,-...:, jig her edu&tion. ---4..-.:. .- -- ,_D: -Yin' A-r :..:.-- -,-, -LI i andeiitoodif iks basedonsoine ow.14- ,. , ,- , 1'./ ...: ' W. *.x.. - 1. .::4:-;_f.- :;f3,,', _,.%-.., rh :. Z.4 4...1. .,i'. !.'id .;%¡.;"fo4" f `!t:12 ...... !-..1' .1..t,* :;.;`..-;' -kit i."¡1...+ i ''ZI:.:'471F:i;,;:%!'::: ' ':t -et: -::.t ei4. ."16:41»:../' " t! 7V., '' A.*.C4'.".1.17. --"'..:*"1*.z.,.k ;; 4; -ile -:3..` . .e5:;177:1,,,LAyliif 4r.V I- 14.;' ...':6'4:..- 4'" .4 .. 'c.. : :"1.44: :-` \ A' %.' ;lb a"- :!'A.C: .' .Va--` -&;,. k..;**44-...-Iii-: :*Zr'- .;." Ls!q2.7q,'''',.:172i: "q-- .4=740...... -::. _XS%-.. .. *A, _v.-`::14.;,,t , .IT-- . XI' irj,;::;-er; e .kt lirdiz*:;'' .)--i. 4114A4P-IMOIX41:101AtAta 80 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION

edge of the piesentdayconceptions of the relationthat does.$) should exisrbetween the universitiesand theirrespective natior Several different kindsof thatrelationshipcaneasily bedist tinguished:The ahnost absolutefreedpm from nationalcontrol that the univetsities ofEngland AndWales have; thealmost absolute Control of the universitiesthat the Governmentof Spain has;the inclusion of the universitieswithin the ministryof educationasit is inFra/nce;and other less pronounceatypes in other couritries. For the BritishCommonwealth ofNations thesituationcanbe expressed innobetterwaythan by quotingsomeof the speakersat the Third Congressof the Universitiesof 'the Empirff heldin London in 1926.Professor Holme,from Sydney,Australia, speakingonthe relation of theuniversitiesto the Stafe (the word" State:"was usedthrsiZtioutthe discussion inthesenseof " nation "or"government ") under the fourheadingsinitiation,recognition,suplort, and controlsaid inpart."

I' Asa matter of fact the real Initiation of universitieshas not been andshould not be due to action bythe State.What the Statecan properly do is to recognize something alreadyexisting that hasgrown up independently of State action....Ifweask what isthe realurl64n ofuniversities, theycan not do better thantosaywith Topsy,oneof the wisestpersons that ever lived, " I 'spects Igrowa"... The formal recognitionofAnyinstitution andthe grant* ofpower of givIng degrees shouldalways be inttehands of the StatelI. think it would beamost unfortunate thing ifanyvniversitywere to have this power withoutexpress authority ofthe State whichmay anda!;,hould lay dliwn in its charters certain conditions with regardto theexervisellthispowerwhich k onlysubsidiaiy 1 as a rule to the mainpurposes of a university.... It Isclear thatour universities donowfOquiresomeState support.... I trust, however,the universities will ¡leverbe mainly tiejkindentonState support..s . Letuslook to privatebenefactions supplexiientecl by local suil port given by municipalauthorities.... On this beading (oontrol)we can lay down the clear proposition that there must beno control whatever by the State..oTer the universitiesin conduetiag their wprk.... Deputationsrepresenting'modernuniversities asked(the Chkincellor :. of the Exchequer) foralargely Increusedgrant andnocontrol. The official view appearedto be, " Shallwegive all thatmoney and havenocontrol? e unveriffiesdid not hesitatenor attempt compromige, but distinctly. said, i -40 " That isWetly whatwe do mean; no one but ourselvescanhlave'any ideo 1 . . .,... hówthatmoney can be best spent from time to time.The doorsare open,and ifwe make fools of ourselveiiyou can*takeItaway.Inspect freely, 'bid theti

.t thugbenocontrol.", . The minister adopted*thatposition subject toa verywi* k.a-proViffl.p.". . we shouldrequire that that :. . .money Is to be spent for the develop'. ment.oethe real work df the _ _ _ . university andnot. for allyfiticyfads.or inor . . . . i a 0 i ..., V. a. t w ..:-::..,-*,":; .',.'--...... :...... :: luxuries." ..' i'-;-1_ .' ....f :-.... I -.-. -.-., ,::.:..5.T.-...... ," . r¡i:4;:.:;;I.:.,;7...... 1,4A4.1....1.r.'_, at.a A .. . s. . ,...'`..:: _,.: '.. n.: is ,_»: ...... ,. 1:,Ll ,.. , j .. _- f.,'.--,e.a.: --* _-. q,,-,-.1- ,-,.. ir P : Ir '-t-- - -'''. 1,2 ._.:4.- . . ." ...... 40...... 1,21241.!..."...... 2. * e. e . .: . : : : ;. 114. .. : 't.' rli. taf.:;44:::;:. ::::j7i!t::: Congress ofItheUnlversftlei o! 6e : .t._. ....-.,,4-.:', ...... :the. BMA*. ., ii 111 Y 4,- s 7 7 ... .., _11:e.. Plic'eet.41i .yA ...- t .:-,,,...... -.-...:_ .., . . . ..- ..-,...... -,of . , 0. Bell -.- VI* -i--.:.:-.7:4!;4-:'....-11.:.-.;.-,..,,.:;..,.(,..--s..,i. ,!.. ,,,-,;... _F,,,..r: ,,,k .,.., , ..°4ke'''. ,- . c i .-a !..., .4.,?; 1 ..:. ,..ti. 7-4 Sons (140,,x9206...... Z:*.:-..ini .-f."::r.,..:.- ;.....!,?-z'--.`. Z : "A '..-.. ". ::,..-- L....1::.....;.;Z.4.,..,.....:,:::.4.. t. i Sy. - - * ". : 4- o.,.2 ,. V..".7...e. 1:.,*,!?..;:.r .-e! %;-." 4.,;:4.k;-*-:.'"::**-..-3'-' '-' :II'P..: f'. -s-.17,..0:iro..!::1 , ..---..- -., - ' I.,.:4. 4 1.l':". **. . , . ' 4 '1-...% a fP-: 'W' &':-.d.fr.....P: 1- f.-' -. ('W..° " 4 " ."' -' ' ; ...41 i ''. ''',.0%,..f41" 11. -e fell.% ,N. 7,...., . An....-Z,, :4.."::-.-..' 1,1,rcir>..b' Z .14_1' ---1 ;,....1-.,-,'";.------.*)).---,`.- So "*."-- ''''e.:"'-- -I ."*. . -... :14 ,! .;,..-f- t-' -;:1, t- 1,- ''.' 1P,.A . 111. .-,.e - .1.--s:.i -..,-* , tfr ,- 4tki. 4 - I .' : ' -rat . 9...... ,... .- . ,-, -°- ''.-->'-ev4r 4.;1/44- W'Ar ; .47,.., ...-"; .1-7,.-.64.1- r'-_, 4 '6'6 .4 6*. 4; 17 -".'t,....ff.tif;%.;.4i;-,:;').', ,:-:.--.1' ''''A .. , t , iitstir.)4. 40ix et. -ty:441tvw.7.z.F,-,.._,,.,...,,,,,g&r:--1,,,=Ì-spfFt 4"--4:::t,,k;i:4::):!? 1,1%.-e,jil?" -.7 22:14:14; 4- -110:04"egb.' -1 -4-4-A.ts, Ati,,,,,;.;.--fa-, e I. -11`*:174*`-11."'-...i*--.',°.:g- t I. 74/a ita. el , I . 4:-...% dt-'-.TAt.:3....___:.:4:.... ,4,

' I. . NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 81

MN, " To quote Professor Holme further: But amongthe victories of British commonlsense there stgl remains the Brit- ttY, ish Governmentpolicy to support the universities, and to leave them freeas they werein the days before the State controlled education. 4

SirTheodore Morison, speakingonthesamequestion, said: When a university receives money fromanisourcewhatever, it is toa cer- tainextent under1111obligation, and theremusibe danger, whoever the benefactor may he,whether the State oralocal iuthority,or eventhe halivhlual o millionaire, that the university's policy will be warped thereby.... 4. I feel quite sure that the only way is for the university to standLIPcoura- geously either to- the State or to the local authority, or even to the benefactor,t and tell him that the gift, can only be accepted on condition that the university retains Complete autonomy. I (h) not 'believe that the doctrine will be found unacceptable,'butthe univer- slties_Apust have the courage to state it, and they must occasionally have the courageto rrfuse benefactions. Tn those quotations is embodied the English viewauniversity that hasorhad its beginnings in privateorlocal g9vernment effort -given by Ale National Governmentpowerto grant degrees when it 1 1 has shown itself to bearesponsible lxidy ;-supported partlyor even largely by the state, but still self-governing andautonomous.In th:it conception the universities of Great Britainnowfunction and overthem the ministry of education hasnocontrol.In two minor 'Particulars the minkrymayingareinto the character .of certáin. coursesthatareoffered.(Seep.97.)The.universities of England, especially the olderones, areinsome ways"states within the state." Many of them have their representatives in Parliament. The Uaion, of South Africa.This conception of university free- domasexpressed inmakingthe institutionalAdycorporate,giving it thè rightto grant degrees, allowing it full freedom in choice of 4 personnel, and pelimitting ittoarrangeall the details of itsProfes- sional workapplies in the Union of South Africaeventhoughlhe a. .*1 ministryof education therewasestablished fotno purpose'drier . f thanto deal with matters of higher education. i," . .1. '141 At the formationof the union in 1910, the provinces retaiiedcon- trol of education,exclusive of higher education, for a'petiod of five z'':*4 yearsaftertheunion and thereafter until Parliament should decide otherwise.-Prestimably then the union department of education t ". mayadttiihisteronly higher education, but in the 19 "ears ,that ;".r:.;;s . ; . halte elaryd sineeits'establishmentits auties have 1.3een widenedto .

.ttOtt . . aiJ. it "station of the children's t. - protection. ,act under . , f " . - T ' . '%4:77- . . ,,v./.4icti, 7 industHal schoolsareinaintained "xe. + and *there' .pensions 4 w . J ..% 0 . '7 -.-' 1 .., ' 4.. Ae" 41 .v.antod4 -tho 1-:g 1 7 ..4,A ".!,, tochni4L-011e00.1. sn4.,:the: ..440044ra.: t.'/;.:'4, :.%. : ",;flii'i,:: .:.: i... .,-- { - -,ry., i -!gas: --- .'-ti'-- _....-....,,.._....,....:.-...,..:::::....!-..4:4`.(-47i-:6Ne.-47..47.0,,..le ..0 4.. . - -.-.LII.'? J ' * 'dil es JP;0,0!_ ;#9.11 's --4- ''' 0.1..**40. ucatio*-'Avit* tbeuMon,'Ow ".0""'-ts44-. -ar--. is.. '" %'- -1 4:4- . ..-n =. '? - . e -Z. T.... - "v11 - .., i! .'2." tt:-.a."*.te,.- . . 40, u. - 4'1 = ; ar s. '!.1,4 ` t, e - - - A v.:. -4c "II. i.t -::..-4- . . - *, "1*...4,V,,,,* .06, -.1:(.:".%.%.0.:,41*, t' .>N.-Vi-e.r..7t t -:-.4J or-, 44, t. 4:47 "It 4.; !'" -, 1;4 i."./.4ir ...*%1P:;1"t1:k.Zt. r .= -Air: 2' ,4 -;;;nr.,710.c. It).a-, .r.7 Set.i '' )%172A".1711:t4'SA3.". r"."-t. , " _.;."titi44,i.,sf.'.#...,:s114,A,:: t+i , . "We 6'6'eillVf6:4";V.4174 4 frcl,, - . . 16NS -70W *:;''e _ . 82 NATIONAL .MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION

When thedepartmentwasestablished its headofficewasratedal an undersecretaryship;in 1920 itbecameasecretaryship.In1910 therewas one university;in 1927therewerethe three residential universitiesof CapeTown,Stellenbosch,and Witwatersrand,andthe Universitypf SouthAfrica, withits six constituentcolleges. The union budgetestimate in1927 for universityeducationwas£337,885. Early initscareerthe department,in consultation withsome of the provincitilschool authorities, arranged-the limits of itsowork

by defininghigher educatiotas" education beyondthe standardof matriculation;();a.standardconsidered by the ministfrrasequivalent

thereto which.is carriedOninaninstitution establishedundera specialstayte, andanyextensionorcontinuationcoursescarriedon inconnechon with suchaninstitutionwhich the ministermay, op. prove,andcoursesfor the trainingof teachersfollowed in institution's afterwardsto be named." Lateradefinition lesstheoretical andmorepractical,onecouched i4terms of the South Africansituation,NI- a smade in the financial Telationsact of 1922,asfollows: ((t)Education providedby uni versitiesanduniversity.collegesini.sorporated bylaw; (b) education provided by the SouthAfrican NativeCollege; (e)educationpro. vided bysuch technicalinstitutionsasthqsminOermaydeclareto be places of highereducation; (d)suchpart of the educatio4provided by othertechuical imititutionsasthe minister ofeducationmay,after consultationwith the provincialadministrations concerned,&dire to be highev edùcation;(e)anyotbereducation which, withthecon sent of the provincialadministrationconcerned, the ministerof edu cationmaydeclaretip be higher education. Thp Universityof South Africais themost important of the -higher i'nstitutionsin the union.It includes Grey, Huguena,Natal, 4ho'des,Transvaal; andPotOefstroom UniversityCAteges. .Act *No.12 of 1916. provides . that the universityshall consistofachan- cellor,avic.e 'chancellor,acouncil,agtehate,the convocation, and the principals,professOrs, andlecturers of the,,s.eiveral onstituentco leges of theuniversity, and tfistudeilts; irittunder thenameof the1Tniversit3YoA.S".Africa isabodycor4porafe,with pet:petal succession, thatmay stie'andbé gued, .acqiiire andalienatepr4iiprty, and performsuchactsasbodiescerpciratemayby law perform. underAct. No.12 andt6-'eatuteslater adopted by itfind 'approved. . ' bith 'UnionParliament theuniversity tornetiiit I V p -. ; Ir " autonomous. Theconvocation consistsof graduates,of the univek ,...., -- , -....- ri*ibeti ot theliniversittsenate.: It hatj'powerto choose:- ;.:44.;

...1.3.V.4tt ."...the . cliotelloi, 'élect ...... St. four nuimbersof;the pound";, v. I . and discuis and - f , ...... : .41,< ...... ,...., 4s its Opinion , on any matt:o relating's* to the universityqs:-...... t I V, .Y0 re"V;% 4 J. .k lo' wciema1eup .of eight teisongiigypointed by theGove th,eÚniQfl,'fouret op°cation,pne e 41.10. l tez.5-4wAl4f:-..t;"4.44-211-tcstrzkied.:4- = L04-1qz% NA.TIONALMlisTISTRIE8OF EDUCIATION 83 by the council, andoneelected by theSenate of each constituent college, andoneappointed by theadministration otanyterritory outside the Union thatmaycontributeto the.univers'itysuch funds as areprescribed bystatute.The council is the main administrative body of the universitywith large control_overappointment§,

property, and professionalarrangements.The chancellor is chosen . for life and is, ofcourse,the representative of theinstitution before the Governmènt. and the public. .4 The ministry of education intervenesasadvisorto the Governor - g- 111 General in the appointments ofthe council, hasarepresentativeon the join't matriculation boardwhichconducdthe matriculationex- aminations for all the universities,andto which the ministerap- points representatives Of .privateand public seoondaryschools in eaI each provinceonthe recommendation of the headof the education department of the Province concerned:The council of theuniver-, sity must, transmitto the minister eachpkar areport of itspro- ceedings for theyear.He is requiredto submit the reportsto bot4 houses of the Parliament. The universities havepowerto grant such' degreesasthe stattite Preseyibes, andto fix the regulations determining tliò acquirementof the degrees.Profestgionafexaminations for the rightto practice certain professionsareconducted byva joint committeeoftworepre- sentatives from each of thefour universities and fivemembersap-. pointed bythe Gosernor General.Over ii4 tillministry hasno . authorityother thanto receive and publish its reports. , . Argentina.---Argentiriahasno*private universities because the gib diplomasgranted by the five nationalinstitutions admitto theeprac- t tice of the'Pro-,:t.essioils; thoe from privateinstitutions wouldnot. Effortshave been tnadeto establish provincialuniversaiesbuteven- tually the National 1 Government tookoverthee schoolsthus estab- . lished.The national universitiesarelargelyautonomous; 4The contliiionAofthe University of LaPlata is fairlyrepresent4- ' tive ofall of thedi.Bycontract of August U, 1905, it-wastakenover frOin the Provinceof Buenos 'Airesb.y the National.Goverinnentand.' 'given thenameof tiv " NationalUniversity of LaPlata."the colitractwasmade effeNive bynational )awNo. 4699 of .thefollow

ing September19.., ,Jhepresent stattites of the 'universitydate from. APri1\220,-1926, andwereissued bythe Wesidentof the *republic. 4-1-1 °The universityisa.juridical **son*Rh onlyonefund cothposectof ft.11 the* mQneyfi.itrecaves,inchicliug tl*fie v'otea 7:1'. 04 . , . . L7 tró' it by. the. National. 4 :10r7r.. e. Govérnnieht., Tile universityinelitdps: its faculties'and-Irift¡tSeit;,:);;' .4, the istronohjear...ibfiétrttatioryithis" itusii*,the hdr .:.$01061p

.;Fitte., Arts Withthe schools .. '''^0-4 .fP4- . . ,anx.. .. each ofthem, 4,:. , , 7., ' . % . ..s.,...,., 4,,,,,.:.1:4.-:.: e r _ 4 %I . Al -%...- ' :... :.,.¡O _ i 4...: ,te:.,' .-. . ea ...,...,. ..''...::-. ";,. !,1% . 4T "PVT* .: . i - oi V4 . : - -. I ' ... ,: ...., , a, .,de ..- '...... - . ...111:::!. , -.1::* V.', . -3,.-- c - 7 . ,- " t , ,!-ret, : . -.--,:,e:' -...); .:!-i:?S':A.:.-:.:7:"(-7-7 . '. . . . .t- .t*7;?j(-7::: 4 p. . A --: .a, _,:, ;71.'.'¡ --.`...*,;-(1.--... --4--.-,,_ ;it. .,.;'.',. . 34ftl;.' i-'.i. 1 ,"1'.`-;;_.''-! :' k; .' . :. 7 J, ; :V; Z :-.. . ' "' ;" .4-6' -'tl: ''.*-.. 0 -; ._ *- 7 4. 7: _ N--' _ ,--:(---. . ***: ;4%¡A-4,ati;:iiitti(iti4: 84 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION J. The responsible, administrative authoritiesarethe president and vice president of the university, andthe superior council consisting of the president, the deans, andatitular professor from each teaching body in both the faculties a-nd theinstitutes.The directors of the special schools and institutes attendwhenmatters pertaining to their particular organizationsarebeing considered.The generalas- sembly of professors has considerablepowers,including the election of the president fora.3-year term.All of the officialsarechosen by the administrative teaching staff ofthe university,not by authorities outside of it.Both financial and professionalmattersarehan- dled by the university itself,not by the ministry of public instruction. To it thepresident of theuniversityreports annually; otherwise it has almostnoauthorityoverthe institution. 8pain.-L----The12 national universitiesof Spainwith theexception of that of Murcia and the universitysection of LaLáguna,are veryold. By law of September9, 1857, the educationalsystem of the countrywasorganized;12 university districts,onefor each university,werecreated; and the°schools,both public and private', werebrought under the control of the governmeni 'through the'ministry of promotion (Ministeriode Fomento): Six facultiesphi- losophy and letters,exact scienfes, pharmacy, medicine, law, and theologywere established.The faculties of theologywereremoved from the universities in 1858. With the idea of giving the universitiesgreater freedom,areform wasbegun in1§24,and is expressed in royal decreesof June 9, 1924, August 25, 1926, and May 19, 1928; androyal orders of August1, 1928, and August. 23, 1929.The first of,these madethe universities juridical personalities; the second fixed theregulations for their financial affairs.That of May 19,1928,wasdesignedto allow the faculties liberty in pedagogic affairs andto setaminimum of work orstandards which they must attain and beyond thatto permit them to extendtheii teaching and investigationasmuchasthey choose, to increase the funds, and to offer better salariessothat stronger menwould be attracted to universitypositiohs.,The introduction to the decree contains this paragraph: This greater liberty in the pedagogical direction of the studies,which has been extended to the faculties, is conditionedonthe indispensable inspection ,and the necessary dependencyonthe central authority;for it would beun- .fortunate, afterso many yearsof centralized uniformity and eqmlete sub- mission to the ministry, to leave all to tbe judgment of the universities.They should haveauapprenticeship of liberty in orderto fexercise it profitably. t( The law of May 19, 1928,exPressly*gives the ministryof public instruction and fine artspowertoptposeto the councilof ministers thesuppression inanyuniVersity ofanyof the facultiesorsections; approve -atobligatory in the plan of studies ofanyfaculty,*or . .. , . . : ../.$11:5: .1N414f": ...* . at . -- - - - . rf*eri' NATIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDUCATION . 85 foursesrecommendedto it by the university; authorizepersons not »f the regular university staff -to givecourses,when it is rec'oni-4. mended by the rector; permit exceptional students to complete .coursesin less than the regular number ofyears; approvethenum- ber. of students to beácim.ittedto the htboratories and seminars in each faculty;approvetheprogramsof examinations and the passing marks;, inspect all the pedagogic and economic services, the teaching personnel, and the administration of the universities; modify everyliveyearsthe plans of study which constitute the minima of instruction offered byanyfaculty;correctanyfaults in the actual teaching thatareieportedto it; and dictate the regulationsneces- sary-to make the law effective. As to academic freedom the law states: ART. 73. Professors will enjoy full pedagogic liberty in the fulfillment of their teaching functions for the exposition, analysis and criticism of doctrines, theories and opinions, and for the choice of methods andsources ofknowledge; Nit theymay not attackthe basic social principles thatarefundamen4x1 to the constitution of the country,northe form of government, nor thepAers, norauthorities;punishment for infractions of this preceptmaybe given administratively by the academic authoritiesor eventhe courts ot jastice, according to the natureorgravity of the case. ART. 74. The rectors. and inevery case the ministerof public instruction, will havepower to suspendanyof thecoursesof type bor e(lettersorhistory) when because of theircontentorthe form of their development occasion is gi ;enforanyof the infractions pointedout in the previous article. The brief royal decreeof June 9, 1924, which it-expectd to confer considerablefreedomOnthe universities provides: (a) That there is recognized inthe universities of the kingdom and in the faculties the charactér ofacorporation for public interest and juridicalper- .. sonalities withpower toacquireproperty and hold andadininister it, but (b) universitiesand faculties must in eachwebeauthorizedby the ministryof public instruction and fine arts to acquire property, lb and (e) thelyniversityauthoritiesmust report to the ministry, all . usesof itsownfunds andproperty, entirely separateò from the reports for those funds given by the National Góvernment. Decree of August25, 1926,wasdesignedto bring about greater

lay participationand public inte.rest in thenuinagement of the . universities. Byits terms each national -university isto haveaboard oftrustees (Patronato de la Universidad) whirh loansauniversity council consisting ofthe rector who is the 'presiding officer,the vicerector, /the deans of the various faculties, the directors-ofthe secondar'yschools in the city in whichthe university is loca6d, the

prelates of the dioceses, the presidentsof the provincial assemblies, . themayorof the capital, the presidentof the territorialcóurt,a doctor from each provinceof the university district,agraduate of %-* 6 AtV . 4:: * Z!j. v - -. .. . .-:+ç-i,.. - - 4 : ; do - -.0.. _.`ttiv___,E,. ...,, . , . _ - --..-.... . 2k ...' .74; '':`,. 'At °-...., .,.. ..4- _. '14 .:.. .. A 1,- .. .0. k '--41111. ' .., ., ....ay /!..,w,,k, 'I'l.' ---v-,....-----.---,-.1.:..--..:._ illi.t.t.'1,.. ...'i.L.a..- `...-.-:,...-.__%.:!.."-v....1t,:itile ,11;.*:;.4.-ettr .1.;* Av=4.0_AK.iv,r2,1tr..:Z,. .4.1:-..:%rt 86 NATIONALMIRISTRIPSOP PDUCATION' the previousyearfrom each faculty, andpersonswho have made donations to the university. The council receives and estimates all properties and incomes; pro- ,posesschemes for betterihg the university; inspects thework of the larger colleges;*informs the National Governmentastothe regulations-ofthe institution and of its budget; andapprovesthe annual report *of the committeeof government (junta do gobierno).The committee,. is the smaller active body thatcarriésout thepolicies of the Council.

How far this attempt at bringihg theuniversities . moreclosely incontactwith the people in Spain is succeeding is uncertain.The paragraph quoted from the introduction'tothe decree of May 19, 1928, indicates that theministry of public instruction is still in full control of the institutions and that 'tile local authoritiesand the people havenovitfil holdonthem. Peru.The exposition of niotives for the university statutes issued by the Alinister of Education Pedro M. Oliveira of Pollasjustificia- tion of thesupremedecree of July 23, 1928, which regulated higher public education,expresses asituation like that in Spain.The minister .in his expositionr4iewedthe history of the universitiesof Peru and summed it.upthat theywerefounded by the nation, had always been maintainedby it and had always been regulated by it.

.*Hewrite's:2"' rioin all this explanation,it may..he deduced Oklaouruniversitie4arepublic establishments, erected, maintained and'regulatedby the State.In Peru,as in other countries', education isafunction uf the State.'like Stateisnota -mereguardian of the law, but the regulator and director of all the social Hie; and in that conception all degrees of educationtfall within the sphere of its influence.Onearti6leofourpolitical chartersays:" The State will diffuse higher education and:promotebstablishments of sciences, arts, and letters." The ordered existénce of that isnecessary tothe State: Therefore, tbe Govern- ment, the organ of the State.may notbe iltdifferentastowhether there is one measure orfinother which doesordoes not respond to its social aspirations, which hisordoes not have themeans forrbalising itsends.% Well then, universities That find ttoselves in this condition, that are establishments of the State, that fulfillafetion of State, may not be indepençient of It.The Argentine Professor Rivarola says it is 'difficult to separate these two concepts, the university' and the State, when oneIs discussing universities existing by the law which- created cir recognized them. Hecohcludes that the idea favored in other vtinies that a law may give to a university freedom from all authoritx of the public powers, &meld be abandoned. We do not wish tosayby that. that the university should be complet*ly absorbed by the State.Education isa,public service, but by its special nature it has needof certain iutonomy.For service*, ofaspiritual kind it Is indis- `pensitArtosay,"tin orgunistation Whichwithin (*twilit?) limIts, develops Itself,

- al v *Oliveira, Pedro M.Tistointegro de la exposIciÓn de motivos del estatuto universi- MU.Etiel 13A1etin de Enseftapss.Afto V, Novlembre de 1928.No. XLIII..frappes() 19s, ;aileron de " IA Revista,"Lima, 1928. S. . . . 'NATIONALMINISTR1A8 .OF EDUCATI9N 87

works and subsists by itself."Theùniversitiesthatarescientific establishments areof that order.For things ofanIIntellectual nature they should have liberty.... The fruitsf the Peruvian university régime suggest the necessity of modify- , ingit,. substituting for it something else which is as far from the university dependent directly on theMinist4'y of Public InstructionasIt, 19 fron7 the univertilly who11freeor autonomous. Thenewuniversity stitute which Minister Oliveirawasdefending begins:

1 ARTICLE 1. Official higher education is given in the national universities of s San Marcos of Lim; Arequipa, Cuzco, andtrujillo,and in the higher schools and institutes. Only py lawmay new officialuniversities be created. ART. 2. Thesupremeinspection of the universities belongs to the minister-of education, assisted by the Aional council of, university instruction. . ART. 3. The officialúniversitieswill èonfer in thename of theneon, the-Nob academic degrees and titles which tit for the praciice of the professions. ART. 4. The. official universities and their facultiesarejuridicalpersonsin public law and enjoy pedagogic, administrative, and economic antononiy within the limits fixed by this statnte. Awr. 5. The universitiescan not carry ou orapthorlze work foreign to their proper purposes. In short, universities in Peruarecreatures of the nationthe,yare subjectto its inspectiortthrough the ministry of education; they.confer only those degrees thatthe nation gives themaright to.confer; they have only suchautonomyasit grants them; and-they must ccin- fine their activitiestothose that the nation deemsproper. The Government control of the universities is exergised bya national council of university instruction compos.ed of the minister of education,who is its president, four delegates appointed by the Government, andadelegate elected by each public university.The Government delegatesmuf.,t,hold uniersity. degreesorbe preeminent

in the sciences, letters.,orthe exercise of the liberal professions; must o havenoteachingoradministrativepbsitionin the 'universities; and be free ofanypolitical activities.Theyareappointed for twoyears

with the rightof reappointment. *. . Inge.neral the duty of the council istoseethat the laws andregulations iselatingto the universitiesareobeyed and tp decide qtrstions raise4 by theirapplication.Specifically, it superises the handlink 4. all theproperty and incomes 'of the universities, approvés their budgets,seesto it that the national budget contains. the amounts necessaryfor higher education,a4ointsthe treasurers, andapprores theaiTdunts. On this personnel side, itáppoiptsthé rectors and .all theothet nonbers of the professional staff, fixistheir salaries,r6- _ ceiws their resignations-, hears eoinplainttabout tikem, andway sus- :4 pend -ppr dismissanypf them forcause.Itmay-. pröpose to the: 11.47017 4, .. 88 NATIONALMINISTRIES OP EDUCATION 1

Government thetemporary closing ofany university, faculty,orin- stitute,orthesuppression aany courses because of serious breaches of discipline;decideonthe creationofnewfaculties, schools,orin- s.titutesdictate allmeasures toassuretheproperfunctioning ofthe univeristiesin abnormaltimes;promote and regulatefreeteaching and-inspectanyprivateuniversitiesorfaculties. Withoutitsap- proval,nostudentmaybe finallyexpelled fromauniversity. By theterms of suchastatute the authorityof the NationalGov- ernmentoverthe universitiesis almostabsolute. Thepart which the ministiy ofeducationplays in theuseof thatauthority isdependent onthe influencewhich theminister wieldsaspresident ofthe council. Presumably itwilt begreat. Hungary:Hungary.losttwo of its universitiesat the crose ofthe World Warand theremainingtwowere .13depletedof fheirown specialproperty and incomesthat theybecame greatlydependenton the NationalGovernmentforsupport and becauseof thatlostsome of theautonomy they hadformerlyenjoyed. Itisnowlimitedto the management of academicaffairsonly. The NaionalGovernmentis buildingtwo other institutions,the ElizabethUniversityat Pécs and theFrancis JosephUniversityin Szegedto take the placesof the two.thatwerelost. Each universityelects itsownrector fora1-yearterm from each faculty inrotationand he withtheprorector, thedeans, andthe prodeans allelected bythe membersof thefacultiesmakeupthe universitycouncil.Theadministrativeoffioialsareappointedby the rector;the assistantsof theprofessors,the clihicaldemonstrators, etc., by thefaculties.-Professorsareappointed bythe executive with theapproval ofthe ministry.The curriculamaybe prescribed by the ministry;in realitytheyaredeterminedlargely bythe faculties.Diploinas of graduationareconferredby theuniversitiesbut, the ministrymayh4verepresentationontheexaminingftards. Finland.TurkuAcademy,fpundedin1640 andmovedfront *rimto Helsingforsin 1828,wasthe firstinstitutionfor higher elucationin Finlandand is stillthe onlynationaluniversity.It wasearly organiiedin accordance*with theplan ofUppsala Uni- versity inSweden,a plan bywhich the.universityilas théright to nominate forappointmentitsownchancellorandaconsistory of theprofessorswaschief bódyin administrativeaffairs.It held thisstatusevenduring theRussian ruleof Finland,thesenate had littlecontrol ofanyofits affairs Otherthan financialmatters and tyenin thosettheuniversityhad 'muchindependence.--- TheconstitutiOnof present-dayFinlandprovides thatstatutes shall regulatetheorganizationof theuniversityand regulatfons niakingthe statuaseffective.maybe isstiedas.'ordinances. ;The ..statutesweveenacted in1923; theadministrative ;ii; ordinancewas ; 9 e m".17 t . Or 1.9 2 . .- - . e.. . '_. - NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION 89

411, issued in 1924.The institution isnot directly subordinateto tke ministry of education. The chancellor ofthe uhiversity is itschief authorityandthe consistory hasthe righttosubmit nominations for the office to the President of the Republic.The President 4 appointsprofessc:rsalso and his action istaken in the councils of state'on the recommendatiQn of the. ministerofeaucation,but tfie chancellor must be present whenmatters concerning the university arebeing discussed andtheopinion of the consistoryifirstcon- sulted. France and Mexico.Thestatus of the universities in France is told of in Chapter IX; theattempt made in July of 1929 to give the Universitr ofMexicomuch greater autonomy than it ,formerly had, is recounted in Qhapter X.

411, -

11.

, e

L. .-7.11' 4 - LP 40.;' V ,

fi -.A' I . . . .. p. ..4 . 1 r

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Ni ...".5 : : ''::I I a % of . . , . . ..ir .;,.- . . _ :f --; ...... e .4.V. hI .. ilLttg4 s ; di.. .a I r ,. 44, : t... :.' '1'''' '' SP:11 r.:t.,.. v.,' 5 . I a..rig .1 V.4..j li s II*i,,.,1 .. - . -. ,? .4 . -; T., +r: AL . . . v.,: .e **,_. - , - ...1-.4 . ,:,. .; 4. .,I .2 .-... 0,:. -_,.0...... ,.....*;...r1111...... ,...:"...;.' ir .....-?.. . 1 ...,.. .. % .,.,. . Li. ?...... ,*.e-e-.L.:, .1..,1...--..»N;',1; -' ....1.-.,.., .."'-'-' ------r-.2.- ':- l' (2 1 ''-`r--AF-.A."1.-1- ---":_.*"--..=-_.'_t_011L,...... e._4014:_.,-1_,..4-734.1.r._...... - ...-. ,- '''...... 4_i.e7 r5cit, PZ.O. ¡ILIV:S-1,7r " ..e:P1 ilt Int. dab

'am? a CHAPTER VI II

The Board of Educationof England ándWales

General character.Theboard of educationof England andWales is nneof theyoungerandamongthestronger,morevigorousand morex'ersatile ofthe national ministries.of education.Limited in its areal jurisdictionto onlyapart of the British Isles andin kinds / of education,generallyto public elementary,secondary, andteacher- trnining instructionand bottnd bythe English traditionof local responsibility forlocal affairs, itcarries onits activities throughan arrangement that closelyresemblesapartneishipwith localeduca- tional authoritiesand wields its influenceby control of thedisposi- tion of nationalfunds foreducation and Iby thehigh standardsof its professional personnel. $ r, In its handling offunds and thedetermrnation oftheiruseby inspection andin itsmanagement of the RoyalCollege of Art, the Victoria andAlbert Museum,and the ScienceMuseuth itisanad- ministrative body.In the issuanceof itsgrant and othevegulations itspowers arelegislative. In itsrelations toyarliament,the colonial office, the healthoffice and certainaspects of its dealingswith the. local authoritiesit isanadvisory organization.Through its varions consultative committeesand its officeof specialreports and inquiries it ranksamongthe best of thenational educationalresearch bodies inanycountry. Legal 8tati8.Theboard of educationact, 1899 (62 and 63 Viet. Ch. 33), creatingthe board ofeOucation of "Englandand Wales, is brief.Toquoteafew of themoreimportant sections: I. (1) Thereshall be establisheda board of education charged withthesup- , intendence ofmatters relating to educationin Englandand Wales. (2) ThebOard shall consistofapresident; and ofthe lord president of the council (unless he isappointed presidentof th board).Her Majesty's Prin- cipal Secretaiiesof State, the FirstCommission of Her Majesty'sTreasury, and the 011ancIllorof Her Majesty'sExchequer.. . (4) Thepresident of theboard shall be appointed Her Majesty and shall, hold office duringHer Majesty'spleasure.

(5) *The board shallbe deemedto be establisted-onthe appointmei of the

411 . ,president theregf,ti ,

3.:(1)Theboard of educationmay by their, fOcers,or,afterfIng ithe advice of the*consultative committeehereinafter mentioned,byany .11ivsity 111111111

.t' a. The date ofi the first appointmentwas Mar. 81 1900. .; 90 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION 91 orother 'organization, inspectany school supplying. secondary education and desiring to be so inspected. for thepurpose of ascertaining the chargeter of the teac.hing in the schooland the nature of the provisionsmade for the .. teachiugand%the health of theNeholars, andmay soinspect the .schoolon such terms RR may he fixed by the board oféducation with theconsent of I I the treasury.... (2). The council ofany county or county boroughday,out of anymoney applicable for .thepurposes of technical education,pay orcontribute to the expensesof inspecting under thissectionanyschool within theircountyor borough.. .

6.(1 The hoard of edationmayappoint Such secretaries.^e" , and servants as the hoardmay,with the sanction of thetreasury, (let( .0 .8. (1) The office of president of theboard.. shallnot ren(lert134¡-14)erson holding it incapable of being electedto,orof voting in, the CommonsHouse 1 of Parliament, . .. The act abolisked the educationdepartment andgavethe Crown authority by orders in councilto transfer to the board of education anyof thepowersrelatingto education that had *theretofore been exercised by the charitycommissioners and the board of agriculture. Its effectwasto centralize nationalpahicipation,asfarastherewas any,in general educationin theonene.wly created ministry, and establishedas anadvisory body, the consultativecommittee.22' 'rule final authority ofthe board lies in section150 of the act of 1921.It reads: If the localeducation authority fallto fulfillanyof their dutiesundlr this act,orfail to provide such additionalpublic-school accommodationasis, in the opinion of the boardof education,necessary in any part of theirarea,* the board ofeflucationmay,after boldingapublic inwitry, niakesuch order astkey thinknecksary or proper for the purpose of Compelling the authority to fulfill theirdutVandanysuch ordermayhe enfbrced by mandamus. The mandamus isseldomor neverused Indaformerpermanent secretary of the boardwrote of it-as a"rusty and cumbrous instrur ment."

Laterencect1flent8.FotloWingthe act of 1899, that of1902 substi- . tuted318 local education authorities for2,568 sçhool boards and 14,238bodies ofvoluntary schoolInanagerswiihwhich the board of .'. education shouldtransact business. A specialact for the city .of to

London -wispassed in 1903. The administrativepowersof the board . were further defined inacts of 1907 and 1909 and theseincliidedthe6 % provision of mealsand medicaltreatment ofsChoolchildren. The -.1 ideal ofanationalsystem of schools along broad andgenerouslines wasfirst outlined hi theact of 1918,asystem to be organiied anda administered by'nationarauthorlitieswith the rightof control in the . authorities 'for eat% localarea.ThepiPanincludesnursery,, come pulsory continliaticin; andentraLschools;)walth,recreation, and _ Sit..6 A " For further discussionsee p.22. -. r *92 Ns. NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATI6N `-N social trainingaswellas'theoretical andpractical instruction;aid fundsto be spent inthe.encouragement of research.Previouslegis: Iationwasconsolidated in thoeducationact, 1921,now.in effect,and wehave toleal *id thecondition ofaffairsasit is expressedin and carriedoutihrough thatact. Nit8of aministartion.For purposes,4). felementary education England andWalesaredivided into62 administrative countim'ineluding London;83 county-boroughs;and 173 other uilitsconsisting oft. N"districts withapopulation ofmorethan 2000and bor- (Highs tiiibtethan 10,000.These diVisionsyorrespondto the civil admi"trative divisionsand educationis in thehands of the civil aut1l4ies, theiTspectivecouncils.For higl!ereducation(other' than elementary)the councilof thecountyorof thecounty bopough* is the localauthority. The line ofdemarcationbetween theboard ofeducationas aministry aril thelocal authoritiesasadministrators ofeducation within their respectiveareasis sharp andclearly defined.Withone exception, the RoyalCollege of Art,noschool isanintegralpart of the

ministry. . Powers oflocal authorities.FriEnglishlocalgovernment, lopal authoritiescando only what theyareempoweredormandated by statute. to do.Each councilmust ca'rry out itseducatibn activities throughaneducation committeeorcommitteesconstitteed irtaccord- ancewith theact, and to CW.lecouncilmaydelegate fullauthority, except to raiseataxorborFawmoney. Summarized briefly,thestatutorypowersand dutiesof the councils areto: -'L-6,-

as (1) Contribliteto theestablishmentofa national system of publiceducation bybrovidingfor the progresMvedevelopment rindcomprehensive orgitniza- tion of klucationin respect oftheirarea. (2) Wintainand keepefficient allpublic elementaryschools within their area which arenecessary and have control ofall expenditurèsrequit;d'for athatpurpose. 0 ' (3) Supplyeverythingnecessary for the efficiency of theschools provided by thein. .,e, (4) Makeprovisionsforradical- instructionsuited to theages, abilities, . and Tequirementiof the dren, -andorganizecourses of advanced instruct- a o .1, tion for theolder andmoreintillimint.children, Includingthose who attOnd beyond theage of 11. . .Y (5) SupOyor aid in supplyingnurserx 'schools foP children..over 2 and under AJ 5years ofage. . (6) Provideorassist voluntaryagencies inproviding vacationschools and s, , classes, playcenters, ahd othermeans of recreation duringholidaysorother A. . . I times. ') ..; i 'N. .- (7) Arrangefor board . and hMging of,pupils not in positionto attend a : ,.. tf' ii.- schoolnear their place ofresidence and . in sole weft . provide pupil ., t . trial ;42-1 4' r.:' portation toandfromschool. , ,!,4* .*. i ':.. -. . . ., , ., :=:,... . . ,,,,u--A7-.. . %...;.' i,:". '4': . P. I ; l : 1 . 1 a i'-'-tgsi- :.. *. . . ". .0. it:±-44%.-'. a ...... ' ei .A.74 t, , . SO N P tif:f I.=.-.21411a4 -.4.%L/1.-.--.....kat7;;;Ar-1 4P4a4'- . 4.4LE. '.j..-,-..4. .=, .44,- 'a..84S..''-,-fite.h.L...... --...... ,; :.,t_,.....--igb; .t14at i,a,a1....---kyCLU.$,...--, :, 1,L ,.. NATIONAL MINISTRIES451? El31.TAITION 93

(8)Aid pupials from theageof 12 to the link of thecompulsory educatjon actlíy bursariesorscholarships. (9)Authorize theinstructIonof childrento the eud of the school. term in which they reach the ageiof 16. (10) Make arrangements with themanagtorsofany schools provided by agencies other than the councilto furnish the educational facilitiesthat would under the law be required of provided schools. (11) Complainbeforea (blurtofsummary jurisdiction ofany parentsthat are notcausing their childrcn betweentheagesklf 5or6 and 14 to have efficient elementary instrucdin). (12) Make and enforce by-laws regardingthe attendance of chiliirenat 0 school. (13) Provideproperchducationaifacilities forblind, deaf, defective,*and epileptic cliildren. (14) Supplyoraid the supply of higher. (otherthan elementary) education. including the training of teachers and thepayment of saolarships and, fee: of students. e (15) Establishand maintain sisufficient supply of efficient continuation schools. * (16) Make suchadelluatib arrangementslls maybesanctionedby the ministry ofhealiiifor, atfending to the health andphysical*conditionof the children. i (17) Take suchstepsasthey detim fit for providingmeals for children in attendance atpublieelementary school. (18) Make and enforceby-laws, within the terms ofthe statutes, in regard to thé employment.of children andyoung persons. (19) Purchasortakeonleaseany laud or any right oyer land. (20) Appoint andremove any necessaryofficers, includ1n0tlachers,and assign to themsuch salariesor remuneration the authority (impslit Each providedschool is undera,body pf,managersappointed by the counciltodt;a1with suchmattersas maybe committedto it S4y tite local educationauthority. Managers of nonproviUdschoolsare selected in, accordancewith the terips of the.trust creed of the schdol or an to. order of the board. of, ellucatioxli.. In brief,the responsibility fot theprovision, -maintenanye, and idminisOltationof eductition in England.imd Wales lies in thelarger localadministrative units.Between themand the bogrd of education i;nointermediary authority;theccontact is direct(' andsince the boardis the only bodybetween the local authorities mid Puna-. nient, appeal-to thelatteris easily made. Cs The localauthoritieseiti not legally dowethings without the appr'ovalQf the boaid.These :elateto such Matters as-the estab1M- molt ofnewschools, thediscontinuanceorcitangiing,the- siteg of exiaingschools, groupingnonprovided schoalsiundet:aJingle board ofmanagers, transfer,orunion of authoritybetweentwoor more councils, extendingthe compalsoryeducatio4ap, making by-laws .foisschool attendance,tonstituting th.education committeesof the .4,

. councils,ming artangements forrnd, deaf, and defectivechit , 7:1 r

*: 94 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION ft

dren, and makingprovision4 for higher (other than elementary) education. Powers oftheitard.--ne.board "of educationnevermeets; te work is carriedonby its president and his staff.Its influenceover

éthe local authorities isgreat and isheld principally because the

national government- contributestoelementaryeduoationabout. g32,750,000 annually and the board haspowerto reduceorwithhold thegrants if not satisfied, Nvith the educational provision for wbich thosegrantsareintended.For the elementary schools thegrantis neverless than 50percent andaveragesabout 56percent of the total expenditure,ofthe authorities; for the secondary and §irmlar schools it is 50per cent,of thenot expenditure. This financial leveftin the hands of the boardisa verypowerful instrument. The formerpermanentasecretary wrote: " The board'spowerto get th.ings done,to get them dotie well,orpreverft their being done in the service ofeducalionrests mainly and inNelast 1.'sortonthe powerof thepurse,exercised bywayof stimulusorpenalty." Inoneof itsrecent memoranda the boardstates:23 50 The board eiideavorto fivòid excessive minuteness of centisl administration .not only becatnie it is costly, butbeCauseit destroys thesenseof responsibility i. in.the local authorities.... Thepowersof financial control givento the hoard bya systemof grant based

. onrecognition of expenditureare so strong as to becamp, intheory, of de- . strpying theresponsibilityof the local education authority...... Occasionally questionsmaybe put in the House of Commons which by iiii- Mention advocatea, greatorminuteness.of control by the board thanaxisisin ¡practice.... i In practice the board find themselvesable to resistanysuchpremure tuin- terfere inmatters of expenditure which involvenowiestionof important principleorfinancial moment.The *board consider that "easonable financial criticismmaybe applied to the expenditure oflocal authorities without injury to theirsense of responsibility; and without' inteerence in 'pettydetail.

Here isafrank admission by theboardimat itcanentirely control elementary and secondaryeductition in Englault, and Waits by the . useof the grantsystem, that the attitude of the board itselfprevents such control aud that the boardfinds itnecessaw toiesistattempts to force authorityuponit. .. . , . The inspeetarate.Theboard's chiefcontact with the schools is through its inspectorate.They number aboutMO andarethe koard's i:eyesand ears." Inspection has'its primary justificatio4 in supervis- . ing andsafegu164ingthe expenditure of public motiejibut the inspectorate of England tuitk Wales has long Passed thestage of merely checking theuseof full& The inopectorsarecarefully selected for

. "kgple Greta BAWL Boardot Education.Memorandum withRegard to the Existing Grant Spam. itionnhaDd Paper 2571.London, H. M. Stationery Once,1920. r"" or fir NATIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDUCATIOBI 95 I. training,experience, anti good judgment andarénowconstructive agentsgenerally working for thebettermentofed,ucation.'Khey visit theschools,'questignthe pupils, advisewith the teachers and the truthorities, attendconferenCes, Andmay'.thémselves call and hold meetings.In secondary educatioil thefull inspection amounting to asurveyofsomeschoolor groupof shools iscommon.This lasts for severaldays, is conducted by severalpersons,intludes all phases of tR-provisionforedueation in that particular instance, and isgenera aHy.applied toany onesituation notmorefrequently thanoncein two orthrecyears.Schools inspecten andfound" noto,inefficient "are indaded iiit heboard's published list. ofefficient institutions. Provision, of vatjowl futiuk-.----Asto the part;Which the board plays infixing the anlpialnational expenditureWIeducati(;n, in consultationwit1i -thereasury,it makes the estimates eachyearand they formapart,of the national budget,which is laid before Parlia- mentand requiresthe consent ofParliament,.The president of the boardas amember ofthe House of Commons,maybe and usually is rolled lipon toexplainordefend 'the education estimates. The bowyespegulationA.The ParliamehtófEnglandenstomayily frames its laws iiigetTeral terms and leavesthemtobe made effective by "Order§inCouncil "orby-departmental orders, rules, and regulations. Thenational' funds having'peenvoted, the board has widepowersin their distributionand its regiulations in. that regard, laid beforeParliament shortlyafter theyaremade, have th6 effect of stat utes. One of the main stepsin the practical working out ofthe financial relationship between the boardand the local authorities is there- quirement that eachauthority shall make outastatementofa scheme showingtheamountand kind of education thatwill'be furnished foradefinite term ofyears24 and the expenditurethat will be madeoyit. During thatt:ermif changes need be madeanmewl- ing schememaybe presented.If the board feels that thestemels inadequate ;fold it is unable toagreewiththe authorityastothe chabges $hat should bemade theboaid shalltry .toholda con- fOrence viithrepreiientatives of the authority and must, ifthe'author- -ityrecitiests-it, holdaFrOlic inquiryinto the matter.It,the board ;still disapproves it must laybeforePiirliamentthe report of the icquiry together withastteniptofanyaction it intends totake' in the'wayof reducingorWidtholdinggrantspayable to the -., s .authority. The ourricoula ofihe echools.The èbTa of theprovided ele- 6mentary and secondaryschoolsis, wellasttrainingcoursesfor

11111EW sine later requests of the board are forV-year scheme from Apr.1, 1927, and onit from 1930to 1933. -4111F,.

. 96 NATIONAL MINISTRIES-OF EDUCATION

teachersarefixed bythe regulationsof theboard.In theearlier yearsof the boardthesewereissued inconsiderabldetail; thoseof 1926are verybrief amlframed along bro?adlines withthe intention of givinglocalauthorities muchfreedominarrangements forpro- vision ofeducation,the curricula,the daily progfam's,and thegeneral methodsof teaching.The planis beingjustifiedontheground that theprogressofeducationhas beensogreat in thepast 25years thatregulationby thecentral authrityis becomingmoreandmore unnecessary. The boardneither issuesnorselectsanyof thetext- books used fnthe schoolsthough itmaycriticise theuseoftexts that impair theefficiencyof the instiuction. Theboard'scontrol ofteachertraining.Ihiring the90years or more that theEnglishGovernmenthasparticipated ineducation,it has heldclosercontrol andsupervision ofthe trainingofelementary school teachersthan ofany.othereducationservice.It hascon: tributedalarge shareof thefundsto maintainthe trainingcolleges, offeredscholarships,set out regulations'for thecourses,held the' qualifyingexaminations,untilrecently hasapprovedall appointments'totheinstructionalstaffs ofthe trainingcolleges,inspected their -work.frequentlyand carefully,and prescribedthe qualifications forteachers inthe'elementaryschools.It doesnot fix the .qualificalions-for teachersin theschools andinstitutionsof higher educationincludingthesecondaryschools. By draftregulationsdated June1, 1926, theboard madecon- sideral;le changes inits relationto the trainingofelementaryteach- ers; Itrecommendedthat the for admissiontoatrain- ing college beraisedgraduallyto graduationfromasecondary school;thatpupilteachershipsbe discontinued;and thataid for ; intendingteachers bemerged inthegener-alsystem of aidto pupils andsstudents.Thedifferencesin administrativetreatment between elementaryandsecondarytrainingcollegesandbetweenuniversity- training apartmentsand othertraining colle.gesweredispensed with, andthe boa.rddecidedto discontinueits certificatéexamina- tion in.1928 and1929 leavingitto the trainingcollegesto devise the machinery andtechniqueofdeterminingthe fitnessofcandidates '4'fordtheteachingprofession.It alsogave upinaMeasureits'film- , tion ofadjusting thesupply ofteachersto the demand. e Employment and*qualificationofteacher8.----Localauthoritiesem- ploy theteachers.For thefirstengagementbinanelementaryschool thetiachermust be recognikedby theboardassuitableforemploy-, ment inacertain grade.The boardrequiresthat.employment beby writtencontract andprotects theteachersagainstbeingcompelled tocarry(;t1educationalwork outsideof theirreplardutiesorto be interfered with incarryinkon any activitieswithoutthe ischook .

7:` . o NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 97 that arenot detrimeptal to,the performance of their school work. Theboard haspowerto revpkeits recognition of'ateacher after havinginformed h'er of thereasonsfor the proposed action and giving *heranopportunity to be heardonthe subjeçt.In all the grant-aided .schoolsif the teaching service is unsatisfactory the .teardmayprotest and ifnoimproverOnt follows, reduce,orwith- drawthegrant. Fithgteacker8' salaries.The teachersarestrongly organized and the local educationauthorities also have their associations.In fixing salaries the plan ofcollective bargaiiiingwasfrankly used.The board intervenes only in Tespect tothe quality of the teachingasit is affected by the salaries, and the relation of the paymentof teachers tothe grants and their percentage .of the localexpenditure.Dis- putes oversalarieswere sofrequent in the period following thewar that in 1918 the president of the board actingas amediatingagency calledAsseries af conferences between the teachers' and localauthorities associations which resulted in1919in the creation ofastand- ing joint committee to attemptasolution of the entire salary problem in all lite public elementary and secondary corihool.s.Lord Burnham waschosen chairman and this and similar committees knownasfhe " Burnham committees," adopted salary scales thatwerea.cceptedby both teachers and authorities andwereapplicable under'thegrant regulations. The board hadnodirect authority to compel theuse of the scales but it accepted them for thepurposeof paying grants cn the expenditure involved andarranged the grantsothatno authority woad profit by paying salaries lower than thoseof the scalivs.Practically all of the authorities accepted the scales.The present Burnham award isfor sixyearsfrom April, 1925, and thereafter fromyeartoyearsubject toanotice ofone yearfann,either panel of the jointcommittees'. The board administers the actspro- viding forthpfuperannuationof teichers. Theboard's relation to the tbniver8itie8.Theuniversities of Eng- land havilice their origin been independentof national control. Institutins of 4niversity rank receivetheirchartersfrom the privy council.Many of themaregiven subsidies-iromnational funds but these grants'areadministered by the university grants- corn- mittee,abody thit hasnoconneCtionwith the board though both it and'- the privy council avail themselves attimes of the advice and assistance of the board.Parts ofsomeof the institutions provide instruction that is recognized byt4e board under its-regulations for . the training of teachers, for typesof technical education,and for certain phases ofaduli education.Such work is regularlysubject .and. grantsarepaid.'forìt toinspection by the board's inspectors . ..;_ 98 NATIONAL MINIMIZE;07 EDUCATION

The board also awardsscholarships tenableat the institutionsof '. univerqity rank and itmust 'be satisfied thatthecoursestakenby these scholarsaresuitable. Eammimations.----Someof the universitiesof England, particulairly

'Oxford andCambridge, and variouschartered professionalbodies- I in law, medicine,accounting, pharmacy,etc., have long hadexamin- . ingpowersin thewayof conductingexaminations bothonhigher and secondaryeducation levelsto determine the fitness ofpupils for admissionto universityorto professional training andtoprac- tice in the professions.Oxford and Cambridgehold local examina- tiongto which applicantscomeof theirownvolition, inmost of the colonialareasof the empire.A. correlatingagency was necessary to bring aboutareasonable equality ofstandard in themanydiffer- brit examiniltionsand in 1917asecondary schoolsexaminationscoun- cilwascreated of membersappointedonthe nomination ofthe universities, theassociations of localeducation authorities, andthe teachers registration coun'cil.This bodyhassomeexecutivepowers afid conductsonthe board's behalfall ordinary business,correspondence,and conferencesconnected with thecoordinatiori of exaknina- tion. By its advicethe boardnowrecognizes only 8 examining bodies forsecondary schools.It is diréctedto consult the boardon all importantquestions of principleorpolicy.Licenses for admissionto the practise ofaprofessionarenotwithin thecontrol .of the boardexcept for this check'on secondary-school examinations. Primate 8c/tools.Provided schoolsand nonprovided schoolsexist side`bysick 'and thelocal authoritiesareresponsible for both,The formerarebuilt, maintained,and managed bythe local education Authorities;the latterby .private agencies.Over the nonprovided schools the boardhasnoauthority other thanto require such reports asit desires.Nonprovided secondaryandpreparatory schoolsmay ask°to be inspected by the board'sinspectors.In thatcase, aschool found pfficient isincluded in the officiallist.If the local authority believesanbnprovided schoolto be ineffective, itmaythreaten to prosecute theparents of the pupils fornot providingpropereduca- tion for theirchildren and in thatway canindirectly influence the school.Religious instructiondistinctive .ofanyparticular denomi- nationmaynot be givenin the providedschools; its character in the nonprovided schoolsis determinedby the board ofmanagersof that particular institution. ' The localauthoritiesmay,in theprocessof providing suitable' education withintheir respectivearea§,eithercontract withortake overnonprovidedschools. Incaseofcontract themanagersof the lacwprovided schoolsmust furnish the buildings; theauthority has ,

y,... . -

. . ft.," . ." . .y: - 4Li41;:44,1%1/: . -4.1 NATIONAL MINISTRIES, OF EDUCATION -99

poweronly to make goodanydamage due to fairwearadd tearon thebuildings.The boardpasses uponthe adequacyof school premises, and in twogeneralsurveysof school buildings, 1907-8 and 1924-25,foundmanyof them, especially inthe nonprovided schools,veryunsatisfactory. The board's exactionof better premises hasthe effect tosomeextentof forcing the nonprovidedschools, that have trouble raisingthemoneyWI recondition old buildingsor erect new ones, tobe transferred to ,the localauthorities and become provided schools. Technical education.Thetechnological branchof the board cooperateswith the various examiningbodies in technicalfields thata award certificatesas aresult of examination,organizes andsuper- vises training suitable formanydifferent industries,organizes and conducts shortcoursesfor teachers of technical subjects,and deals withagreatmassof 'miscellaneous educationprovided in continuation, junior technical, and tradeschools and schools for adults. Child health.The medical branchdoes most of its work in the field of elementary education through itsstaff of medical officers f j and inspectors of physical training.The chief medical officer reports annually to the boardontheprogressof the work of the branch. It works in close cooperation withthe ministry of health,whiahhas charge of the medical inspectionand treatment of sctool children. That ministry (health) has furtherrespopsibilities in education in that itpasses uponprojects of local authorities to borrowmoney and issue bonds for schoolpurppses,and audits the expenditures of the local education authorities.The board issues those national grants that a're calculatedonexpenditure, according to that audit. Organization.The staff of the board in 1926was.2,467persons. The president is entirely responsible for its administration. He has aparliamentary secretaty who, like him,maysit and vote in the House of Commons. The regular work is carriedonunder the direction of the permanent secretary, whose responsibility isdirect. 4 to the president. The Welshdepartment hasapermanent secretary of itsownand inmanyrespects isaseparateorganization parallel

izt to that for the schoolsof Engliind. . . The organization isamixture of classification by branches of education and territorialareas.Threeprincipalassistapt secretaries, . each withanassistantstretary,areassigned, respectively,to elementary schools,secondary schools, and technical and continuation schools. For theadministration ofthesethree branches Ehgland is dividedinioseven areas,each with its principals and assistantprin-4 Opals, and these take charge of the work of all three branches.Theit ::;1-p purposeof the arrangementissòto haveanofficer of the board:

15ey

A - .43

. - I -!'. "-ssa ; ..' 1I ". NATIONAL MIVISTBIESOP EDUCATION 4.

acquit'..d with tileprovision'oreducation of allkinds inanygiven area.A stionas to any specific branch he!anreferto theproper assistantsecretary. , Thie inspectoratealso is organizedintoelementary,secondary,and techiikal,each withachief inspettor,andoneof the threeis senior chiefinsspector,resppnsible-forthe entireinspectorate. Tothe senior chiefreport also theinspectors oftrainingcolleges andart schools andthe chiefwoman inspector. Below theseare groupsof divisional inspectorsassignedto definiteareas.The assistantand districtin- spectors aie grouPedby subjectsof educationqithintheirareas. kbodyof staffinspectors is available)orthe investigationofspecial problemsorspecialaspects of education.Wales hasaseparatein- spectorate undertwo divisionalchiefs, thoughcertain ¡unctionsin regardto training teachers, highertechnical work,art .and music, and schoolmedicalserviceareintrusteato the Englishinspectors. I Three generildivisiimsfinance,medical,and legalcoverthe entire field ofthe board'swork. The finance'division isresponsible for theboard'sestimates andthe computationsof thegrants to local authorities. Thepost is important,since itinvolves theaccounting for 50 millionsormorof poundsannually. Thelegal divisionis the advisor in allmatters of law andprepareslegislativemeasures.Med: icalinspection, andtreatment of schoolchildrenareunder the ministry ofhealth, butthe chiefmedical officerof thatministry isalso chief niedicalofficer forthe board,and thetwo ministries workin close cooperation. Anestablishmentdivisiondeals generallywith the organit;ationof the board'sstaff,especiallythe members,numberingabout 1,200, that arebelow theadministrativegrade. Ackieorybodiee.--Aidingthe boardare anumber ofadvisory bodies.Themost importantofthesethe consultativecommittee has Alreadybeen described.The juvenileorganizationscommittee Qf 28persons,qualifiedto represent allkinds of socialandrecre- ationalorganizations,isa.nactive bodyfor promotingandorgan- izingToluntary effortto help out thenationalsystem of schools.The adulteducationcommittee,consisting ofrepresentatives ofthe universities, theprincipalvoluntaryorganizations, andthe threeassocia- fions of localeducationauthorities,together withpersonal appointees o of thepresident ofthe board,actsasadvisorto the board,cooperates with thelocal authorities,preparespublications,andgenerally pleb; motes liberal educationfor adults: Among otherbodiesadvisoryto the boardarethe Burphamcom- mittees and theseconda6schoolsexaminationscouncil both , of which liavebeen noted.(Seepp. 97 and 98.)

.1 1 .

r, r, .

c. . . . . 1 t . ; . . . _ " NAtIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 101 Research.The office ofspecial inquiries and reportscollects from all sourcesinformation relating toeducatimi.Its special reports,a seriesof 28_ volumes issued before the War,have been followed by aseries ofvaluable educational pamphlets. Thisoffice also maintains theboard's relationships with the colonialoffice;assists in selecting teachers for particularpositions in the crdwn colonies; is theboard's foreign correspondent;arrangesthe exchange oftearheri of modern languages with France; andhas much to do withmaking and carrying out the plans for the periodical meetingsof the imperial education conference., Statisticalmeasure8 olthe board'8 responsibility.With respect10 population the board of education hasaresponsibility that ranks third in size of those devolvingeupon national ministriesof educa- num- tion. The ministries of China and Japan .must deal with larger bers of people. The 318 administrative units had in 1921apopula- tion of 37,886,699.The .school system is unilingual with theexception ofsome areasinlWales, and toward bilingualism there the board has adopted the broad-minded attifilde of inquiring into how the Welsh language and literaturemaybe preserved.25 The public kind other'elementary schools, including tnursery_school and certified schools for defective children, hadontheir registers in 1925-26an averagenumber of 5,677,075 pupils. The secondary and preparatory schoolsonthe board's efficient list, including'grant-aided schools with 360,503 pupils and19,640 teachers, registeredatotal of 426,408 pupils. The attendanceat various kinds of technical training schools, classes, andcoursesainountedto 858,212. Adult education has been carriedonin England since1750. Extramural and similarcoursessupervised byuniversitiesand university colleges, other thanuniversity extension and vacationcourses, enrolled inpreparatory, 3-yearAutorial, and advanced tutorial classes in 192:00., 7,736 studentsqualified for grant.PArt-time.courses other than vacationcourses,directed by approved associations for adult education,wereattended by 8,305, grant-qualifying students. Besides these,2,467 adult studentswerein university extension and vacationcoursesand in residential colleges. All ofthesecomeunder -the purview ofthe board andarekoverned by its regulationsthat took effect August1, 1924. The work is arrangedto providea pro- gressive liberal educationfor adults, is inspectedand given fairly liberalgrants. . Expenditures.The estimatesof national expendituresto be made for educationand within the administration'ot the latard call for , *Great Britain.Boardof Education. 7ointnitteeson theWelsh Language in the Edu- entionalparptem ofWales.Welsh in Educationand Life.London, B. M. Stationery Office,1927..7\

4-* 102 NATIONALMINISTRIES OF EDUCXTION

£41,649,899 fortheyearending March31, 1930.Thegreaterpart, £39,177,000, isto be used inpayinggrants to the local educationauthorities.Thecost of maintaining theboard's entirestaff of2,131 members isestimatedat R,817,850,orabout 2percent of the total. Thecontinued decreasein numbersandcost of the staff isshownas folloWs:

Year Number Cost

1925-28 _ 2, 467 1925_ .... 90n, 151 T 2, 358 R92,5C 1927_ 2. 301 1928 S67. 111 1 s 2, 208 1029_ 834, 085 ,,on. 2, 131 817, 84

AO.. '

74t.stri. o

'444 s

foroe-"1.

Al r T CHAPTER. IX The Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts of France

4%. The /imperial tinier Fontaine said to Napoleon, " On themorrowofarevolution,ontheemergencefront anarchy, And in thepresenceof hostile parties, unity of aims and of government is necessaryin educationasin everything else.France has need, fora time at least, ofoneuniveNity and that university ofonehead," the

Emperor replied, " That's it.You understand me," andonMay 10, 4110 1806,issuedabrief law creat inganimperial university charedex- clusively with public; instruction and education in the whole empire. With that law andalateroneof 1808 developed what Aulard terms the university monopoly"with the entire schoolr6gimeof France included inanational official body called the university. The ministry.--Education in France, general education at least, still retains that national university aspect.The ministKy of public instruction and fine arts is distinctlyan,administrative-executive organization with much of centrálization and coordination.Local authorities have considerable controloverschoolpeoperWbut,in the pedagogical side, onlyaverssyrestricted and advisory participation. Each school isnotsomuch under the ministryasit isapart of the ministry.Control is held, lyaseries of central a`nd local appointees, thepermanent civil-service personnel.Necessary Checksarenot by poptdarly elected municipal bodies but byastrong infusionorthe pedagogic element in the administrative machinery. The teaching profession in both primary and higher levels,and thesearesharply dividedisahighly oiganized body of national functionaries united byastrong esprit decorps. Civil admini8tration.---Forpurposesof civil administration France is divided into90 departments, 3 of whicharein Algeria, eachpre- sidedoverbyaprefect who is appointed by the president and holds officeuntil promotedorsuspended. 11e is the localagentof the centralgovernmentand appoints nearly ill the subordinate officials in the department.ile is assisted _byaprefectural council of8ap- pointed members andageneriteOuncilof 17to 67 members elected for six-years,one-half retiringeverythreeypars.The administration ofParis and the Department of the Seine differssomewhat fro hat of the other departments. .The departmentsaredividea ifft . 103 2,4, 104 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

into 37,981communes,most of them (33,914) with fewer than1,500 inhabitantm And 22,151 have fewerthan WO. Only 159 coriimunes havemorethan 20,000 people each. Everycommunehasamunicipal council of 10to 36 members elected for foiiryears.The- council selects from itsownmembRrship themayor,who is the chief executie officer a thecommune,agent of the central government, andgenerally in charge ofexecutinigthe laws and official decrees.Hemay be suspemled foronemonth by the prefect, three monthsby the minister of the interior, anddismissed by decree. Educat;o al administration.Forpurposesof educational adinin- istration France is divided into17 academiesor groupsof depart-

_ ments.Over each academy isarector, who must have the degreeof doctor awl who is chosen, usually fromamonguniversity professors, by presidential decreeonthe reconunendation of theminister of public instruction.'Thedepartment is the administrativeunit for elementary education. a Ministerof public instruction.Thepowersof the ministerare constitutional, insofarastheyare commonwith those of other divisions of the executive branchof the Government.They include responsibility before theparliament, of which the ministerisa viember,counter signing of decrees; execution of thelaws;prepara tion of the budget; authorizationof expenditures;auditingot -accounts ;and representation of the nationii acts and affairs affecting his ministry. Heis selected by the Premier,of whom he is in- variablyapoliticalsupporter, with the approval of the President. Hemayat thesamethne that he is ministerof public instructionbe the Premier. He givesuphis office if the cabinetchanges. Histerm is r'arely forsolongaperiod as-oneyear.In the 8years8 .inonths !ind 5 days from November104.1917ito July 21, 1926, therewere15 differenteabinets in Frantic.(lifealsop.11.)The minister has his immediate cabinet ofafewpe*nal.advisors who retirewith him. The inspectors general.As directauxiliariesto the ministerare the inspectors Oneral, whotraveloverthe entirecountry,supera vise the application ofthe nationalprogramsof education,and try to perfect the methods adopted in thethree levels ofinstruction. The general inspection of universityeducation has infact practically disappeared;that for secondaryand primaryinstruction and the maternal schools is activelymaintained througha corpsof 33 general

inspectors. A& The central òftioe.----Thecentral office isorganizedon aplan of 4 sevendirections.There isoneeach for superior,'secondary, aqd..' r, primary education andfor finearts. The direction of accounting-ii»

. dividedamongthe bureausof the others. The subseckariatof tech- il: rr- nical education, whichhas been ..&tingedfrequently in t.,...... ,,.. recentyears, . 4",, 4 t . 4 3

'1.,\4 11 : : * *' t .. 4 ..0 r5.1+ ...''',. .. ..C4_,., .:.'t ..e 3 . .%!,01 .. 1./ . 1.*.-A :...r.A. f t ::.. .. ,:.i':.... % -N. ..1-11., .4 : 1 tM4;;A4;(;,.. .b , ..... , 1 , ....._ 4., -.V. . 'f.'._; ..,.,..ie s-*,m-4r / - . .1 ...... " , . ,, - z Ir . .;%:,,,4...... I.- o . r 4 ..,...4,. 0 ....,.... I, `.$ .....4-22;Z:t.zir,* tt4:111. Kr.11:::?3,./Q111..7,1....:_, ' * . .'"4wa1k4, .¡Ii:,1_12...!.; 4:t!''''..:_..._.4..,t&inii_ 42,...t 1.4t-1,-..; , ,, , t NATIONALMINISTRIES OF EDUCATION . 105

wasreestablished by Minister Marraud when hetook office in Novem- ber,1928. At thesametime he setupthe first subsecretariatof physical education. The PedagogicalMuseum, located inParis, is administered directly bythe _ministry of public instruction. The.guperior council.Themost influentialeducational body which aids andadvises the minister is the superior council of public instruction. It iscomposed,df 9 actualorformerofficei4of public instruction, 17 representatives of the largeunivérsities, 10 of higher education, 10 of secondary, 6 ofprimary, and 4 private-school teachers. The first 9 and the last 4arenamed by presidential decree;the others areelected by ihe personnel of the respectivecorps.It hokis its meetings at Paris twice annually.The ministermayatanytime requestits advice he must by law request iton programs;methods of. teaching and exaiiiinations;adlilinistrativeand disciplinary regulations relative to the public schools and those -relating tothesurveil- lance of private schools; textbooks which should be prohibited in the private schoolsasbeing contrary to good morals,¡theconstitution,or the laws; and applications from foreigners for permits to teach, open, ordirect schools. The council sitsas afinalaPpeliatecourt, withrecourseto the council of state forexcessofpowers, upondecisions of the depart- t. mental councils prohibiting primary, public,orprivate-school teach- ersfrom teaching and decisionsuponcóntests brought against the opening of private schools. The perinanent section of the council consisting of 15 of itsmembers, including the 9 named by the President, isanexecutivecom- mittee for the larger body and doesmost of its work. Particularly it studies curricula and regulations before theyalkisubmittedto the council;gives adviceonthe creation of normal schools; upontext, library, and prize books that should be forbidden,in the schools;and reportsonquestions of studies, administration, afid disciplinere- ferredto it bythe minister. Consultative committee8.6These committees,oneeach for primary, secondary, and higher education,aremostly occupied withmatters of personnelappointments, promotions, and changes. Besides the various councils and commissions that aidthe ministry or are a partof it, the ministermayand frequeritly doepappoint commissions ofatemporary nature to study and reporton some special phase of education. An example ofthis is the commissioncon- sisting of members of the parliament,and ròpresentativesof the

teachers in all the levels of .instructionappointed in 1924.tòstudy the listnieans of making all types of educationalopportunity avail., ableto children of abilitynomattérwhat their socialposition. ._ 'The rector.---Thetutor is, within his academy, themost important representative of theminister and&nunsthe execution of the laws ..,.- . .. r 4. .- :. ,.... C rt. " - . "` r 4 4 7 0^ 410?:. ". . 12%1"4.: ):791 "*:; 4 .4 4A :14 - -

. 106 NATIONALmnarrvEsOF EDUCATION is% and ministerial decisions ridingto ,public and private education. Conformity to curricula aialmethods of instruction adoptedby the superiorcouncil'is enforced by. him withthe assistance of the local inspectors.The schedules coveringthe division of time,eventhat of the faculties, the listof manuals, the booksto be bought by the. students and the libraryworksto be placed In their hands arè all submitted for his approval.In general- he supervises the efficient organization and regularconduct of the exarilinations held inhis academy; in certain instancesselects subjects for compositionand' namesthe examining commissions;delivers certificates and diplomas; and designates plycée professors calledto sitonjuries which determine the bestowal ofthe baccalauréat. He gives adviceand precise information ónall matters of personnel, oi administration,and of pedagogyto the minister and the-minister's inspectorsgeneral. Con... sequently he hasan.almost unlimitedpowerof inquiry and ofap- preciation.He has the authorityto createaclose liaison between the three levels of instructionin ordertosecuretheir cooperation andcanresist, ifnecessary, anytendencies thatmaybe iojuriousto

national education. . , -Academy in pector8.Thechief assistants of therectoyarethe . icademy inspectors,-personswith advanced educational .qualifications and experience in higher teaching,whoareappoint:ed,by the Presidentonthe nomination of the.Ministry.In general there is oneinspector for each department butsomeimportant departments suchasNord and Alger havetwoeach,onefor 'secondary andone .- for primary education; the department ofthe Seine, in which Paris . -is located, has eight. Under the direction of-therector the inspector 'oversees secondary and priknary instruciionin his department, or. division, thereof. He supervises the financialmanagemerit and administration of the lycées, the collèges,the normal schools and the primary superior schools. He inspects the teachingpersonnel and advises the teachers inanymatter of schoól organization, divisionof time, creation of special classes, L.things of like nature. He has special authorityoverprimaryecl,,cation and inspects the maternal schools and kindergartens. He nominates the regular teathers for

appointment by (the prefect of the. department,' assigns the duties..

. ofsupernumeraryinstructors, ispresent at pedagogicalconferences, Presidesoverthe departmental committees that select the school texts, 'and is chairnian of the committees ofexamination for the bestowal of elementary certificates, superior. certificates; eérOficates otrieda- gogical.aptitude for teachers, and competitive exaniinations for ad . 'missionto the normalschools. 1. T de¡xortmeAtal mina of prktiary alsoatio.n.--The academir. ,

, inspector. has working with him the important administrative bo* ...... i . 1., . ,. W '... ' 6 I ; 1 ;' & :. : 4 f e -, i: /.. !A 4. k k e ...I. 4 -ONVII,::1.01 :" I .. . Cjz!.:f^ . . .. I e r, . * ,..: 6 . . S 7, ..,e:* . 1 .e . . r p ',1:1. . s .Z.- R ,.:,4,7 .-, ,.. t V e 1 .. / ; -.."' " P , ir ".:4.''. ' ,.:7. : .. ,.c -.. . . - . -. .0 ..; .,0i ...... Sikt ..-. .4;.» -..i' \s'iF.T3i:AS. ., .: *A. , t:....i:. ie; .. 09... : ,...... k:: .WA ..T2 ., 0, ..., . . , r vir NATIONAL MINISTRI18-*OF EDUCA,TIQN 07

the departm'ental council ofPrimaryeducation of which.the Prefe ispresident and the inspector is vicepresident.It gives its views onthe number andkind of primary schools that shouldbe maintained ineach cdnunune, is wellasthe number of teachersrequired for them.It makesupeachyearlists of teachers to be promotedor given honorariums.It Aedidesonthe opening ofaprivate school incasetheitbispectoris opposed andmayinflict certaindisZiplináry penalties.It has the right toproposereforms thatseemto it to be proper. The prkary schc.018.Public instruction isfree, lay, unilingual, generally separate for thesexes,and compulsory for childrenfrom 6 to 13yearsofage,thoughmanychildren enter preparatory classes at 5andsomematernal schools and infant classesaremaintained ,for those 2 to 6yearsofage.Eachcommunemust maintain at )east,enepublic school; in the smallcommunesitMaybeamixed school.The 7-year elementary primary school is organizedon a Op ofapreparatorycourseof 1year;elementarycourse,2years; middlecourse,2; and superiorcourse,2; it closes with the examination for and certificate of primary elementarystudies..Pupils who complete the elementary primary schoolmayattend comple- mentarycoursesofone year or more, orsuperior primarysc 1 that offercoursesat least threeyearsin duration ind lead t4 es brevetof superiorpieimary.instruction(brevetd'enseiement primaire suOrieur).Maternal schools andcoursesfor ultsmay also beapart of the officialprimary school systemanmayreceive subventions from national funds. Primary and otherinspector8:Theacademy spector hasfor his immediate assistants themenandwomeninsectors of primary education and the departmentalwomeninsectors of maternal schools.Generally there isoneprimary insectorfor eacharron- disement (a civil administrativedivisión rITthe department,con- drsistingof seveialcommunesand adminisredbyasubpeyfect), but theremaybe twoormom_in importaarrondisements andgroups of priinary schools for girlsmaybepect.unaerwomeninspectors. These primary inspectorsareappoint lie minister andsuper- vise all the primary elementary,fi perior, and mateynal schools in their areas'. Theyrecomend teachers for appointment api promotion and presideoverteaciers' meetings, hold examine,- -tons, for the certificate of primaryo.dies, and advise in mattersof the school plant and equipment.A few departmental'womenin- spectors of maternal schoolsexersesimilar authorityoverthaw . , , institutions. , Municipal-school comimi88 :The municipal-schoolcommission is composed a theniayorrhis delegate,aspresident;oneof the . ....4 .1. a. ., ...... g. .1 o. Y:t'e .108 NATIONAL MINIMUMOF EDUCATION e delegates of thecanton,orin theconununeshavingmany cantons, a§ many delegates chosen by theacademyinspectorasthereare cantons; and memberschosen bythe municipalcouncil innumber ecivaltooile-thirdor moreof thecouncil. Theprimaryinspectoris ex'officioamember of allthe mtinicipal-schoolcommissicAsin his area.Themainpurposeof the schoolcommission istooversee and encouragescho61attendance. Withthqmayorit makesupannually the list ofchildrenbetween 6 and13yearsofage.Itmayjudge excusesfor ab§ence,pronouncecertain penalties,listento complaints,. andgrantsome exemptions from attendance.Each monththe teacher%furnishes ita copyof the registerof attendance.The priL maryinspector,parents,orguardiansmaywithin10 days aftera dikisionby thecommission appealfrom itto the departmental councilwhose findingsarefinal. The.schoolcommissionoranyof itsmembers hasnoauthority to visit thescho91, inspectthe work,orjudge theability ofthe teacher. Committeesofpatranage.Eachcommunewhich hasone or more publicmaternal schoolsmayhaveone or more committees ofpatron- esseswhosemembersarenamed forthreeyearsby theinspector of the academywith. the adviceof themayor.Themayoris president. The committeehasnoduties other thantoseethat thechool is in hygieniccondition andwell kept andthat funthiorgiftsare prop-.. ;ASTused for ihe benefit ofthe childred.' * Each superiorprimaty schoolorcomplementarycoursehasa committee ofpatronage namedby ministerialarrêtéonthe advice ofthe superiorcouncil ofpublicinstruction.It includesasmembersex Akio, therector, the Academy inspec1Qr,the inspectorof primary education, thedirector ofthe school,themayor,he president of the chamberofcommerce,and the presidentof thechamber of agriculture.Othermembersareelected eachyearfromamongthe teachers,.persOns repfre-sentingthe principal . regional interestsin professionaleducation, andaphysiciap.The committeemeets eat least threetimesa year,therectorortheacademy.ix4ectorpresid- -,ing:Itreports its deliberationsto the academy.inspector. Its .dutiesareconsiderableand important.It gives itsviewson . the\adequacy of theschool plantand themeasuresOlento fit. the instinctionto the needs of thelocalityorthe region;takes the pupils pder itscareand placesthemoremnritorious inpositions whenthey iutvecompleted thecourse;helpsto send thepupilsontripsto other ;;'tommunitiesor evenforeirtcountries.;providesscholarships; fixes "the püpilratA3s for living intheinternats; andmayhavesomeof its' members visit,inspf;ct,andreportonthe'ichool. . : 10. , s .

ft Z.v4s,,p , a I NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 109

Primary-school teachers.---The 179primary normal sch6ols, of .o which 88areforwomenteachers,aremaintained in accordanco with alaw of 1833-which required each department to setup anormal school andafurther law of 1879 which made separatenormal schools for girls obligatory.These schoolsare anintegral part af the primary-school system; that is, the primaryteacher is trained within the primary system.Ile is trained first in the elementary Primary school and in the superiorprimal-3Tor*mpplementastycourses.Ile then takesthe admission examination fora--departmental normal school.If hepasses,whether he is achnittot to the uormalornot, lie is giventhe kevet él6mentaire, thelowestcertificate forapri- mary-school teiicher. The normal school courstl, iN threeyearsand is closed byanexternal examination for the brevet sup(trieur with -whickhe teaches for about twi) yehrsonprobationas astagiaire nnd then'submits.to theexam.)- .nation for the certificate d'aptitude pMagogique.If successful, he maybe appointedas akegularteacherortitulaire. -All this.training and the examinatipnsarestrictly within the purview of the ministry of publiC.insti.uction.It prescribes the specialcoursesto be given to int6nding teachers in the supplementarycourses orthesu- perior primary school; prescribes. th6 examinations for admission to and the curricula of the normal schools; and controls the exami, nations for and the granting ofthedfro brevetsand the certificate of liedagogic aptitude.Thesefoeexternal examinations,areboth oral and written, andarecondticted by commissions whose members.are nominated by the rector from theinspectoiiatand teaching staff. In the, departmental normal sellobls the director and the entire staff -areappointed by the minister. Two higher primary norm41 schools -s, train the personnel for'thedepartmental normals and in thee higher schools the control of the ministry is practically absolute.. Secondary eduration.---Secondary education istypicalrysevPn yearsin duration, leads to the baccalauréat, which admitsto the universities, parallels in th6 lower twoorthreeyearsdie "superior primary school, and is given in lyoées constructed and maintained entirely by the nation and in communal collègesset uwby thecom-4 un.inesand maintained by them with national aid.Theexpensesfor salariesareborne by the nation; 'all cbsts of equipment by the nmnicipalities.IS.ven-eights of the pupils' feesareturnedifito the nation4treasury. Each lycée is controlleibyacotiricil of administration, whichincludes the rector of t4e academyprhis delegate, the prefect of the dt:Tartment,and t4emayor.of the (1% all three -of whomare exofficio Members; the elected representativetiof the

Oft -

110 NATIONAL MINISTRIES -01, EDUCATION

teachinganifadministrative personnel;andtwopersonschosen by !i the ministerto represent the. families of the pupils.The professional administrative headof the lycée is the provisor. Hedirects the affairs of theexternat and of the internaf,,if thereisone.With him the council of adininisttationdiscusses the budget, verifiesthe account* andarrangesthemannerof administering theschool,especially in regardto its property and funds. The councilmay name oneof its membersto visit the lycée incompany,with the academy inspector and the provisor.Ingenenhits duties relatemore to supervision .of matériol andhygienic conditions thantopedagogic*. functions. The expectation isthat it will bringto the lye& ___ aknowl- edge of the region, itstendencies, needs, lindinterests, and will rouseand maintainalocal spirit of attachmentto the institution. The administrative councilsof the communalcollèges have in their membership a.widerregresentation of localorganizations, but their dutiesaremuch thesame asthose for thelycées. ,i5econdalwy sebooleach(' r8.rr 11eteachersaretrained first. inthe regularcoursesof the secondaryschools aildlater in the highernor- may _ schoolat Paris forInenand the SèvresNormal School for women, orin the universities.Here the controlof the ministry is complete and final.The ultimatecertificate, theagrégation, entitles the holderto employment inanational lycéeaslongashecanrender adequate 'serviceand toextra remuneration annually.Natutally. the competition for theagr6gation is keen. Technical education.Theattributes of thesubsecretariat ofstate o for finearts and technical educationwerefixed bypresidential 'decree of Apra29, 1925. Later itsstatuswaschangej2 butwasagainar- ranged in November,1928, and isnotv established byadecrèe of August5, 1929.It has chargeof the technicaleducatipn 'services, subject, ofcourse,to the approval of the minister;preparesprojects of laws anddecrees; advises aboutthe budget;maybe assignedto deal ivith thesenate and the chamber;nominatesthe personnel of technical education;and directs the expenditures. The structuraland administrativefoiganization oftechnical educa- tionrunsalmost parallelto that of generaleducation. Theschools arenational, departinental,communal,ororganized bychambers of commerceand professionalassopiations.In the publicschools till salariesare acharge againstthe nation.The-teachers inthè national schools belongto the civil list, andeach schoolhas, besidesits direc: tor,acouncil ofadministration. *.The gubsecretariatis advisedbyasuperiorcouncil of technical educationpresidedoverby the minister.Each departmenthas its departmental commatee,and for thelocal schoolsthereare 411, cantonal .

committees. 4 ..4 . tki.tto. 416 ; . . . ee" .714 &,.r . I. .11-1 5 .1 ! ;* A. * : I, , , 1.0 . * K. itivst-ig:4 - s. NATIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDUCATION iii , I.d Inspection is in the handsofinspector;general in thecentral office,and without itarethe regionalanddepartmental inspectots. Teachersaretrained in the Normal School ofTechnical Education. Among the institutionsunder its admi4istrationarethe National Conservatoryof Arts and Crafts, theCentralSclioolof Arts and Manufactures, six nationalprofessional schools which givea4-4year coursetochildren from 12 to 15yearsofageandpreparethem for the six national artsand crafts schools; higherschools ofcommerce; and specializedtechnical schools and institutes. The subseerektrkzt of gatefor physical education.--Thissubsec- retariat has in its field,functions analogous to those of the sub- secretariat for technical education andtheyarefixed by decrees of thesamedateasfor the latter, August 5, 1929,but its work is in the schools of general and oftechnical instruction, notinaspecial system.Theprocessby which its activitieswereconsiderably *id- sened in 1928-29 illustrates well thewaysin which the ministryof public instruction and fine arts carries outits schemes of public education. The budget law of July 20, 1928, openedcredits available to the ministry to organize physical education.On the following August 13 the minister addre$sedaletter of instructions to the rectors-as tó thesteps that should betaken immediately tocarryout the law. 1 The consultative committeeonphysical education had advised that there should be created under the direction of thefaculties of medicine of the univérsities " Regionalinstitutes of physical education," which would begtenters of specializatfon for th'e sfudy ofmedicine, for the training of teachers of gymnastics, and for research in better methods of giving physical training.Fivewereat thattime in operation and the rectorsweredirected toopensixmore, one&Itchat Montpellier, StrasbourgToulouse, Clermont-Ferrand, Rennes, and Marseille. Further, the rectorswereinstructed.to notify the provisors of the lycées, the principals of the collèges, and the directresses of the secondary schools for girlsto putinto effectatonceat least two hours of physical trainingaweek in their schools.Similar noticeswere to go tothe primary superior and the technical schools.The minis-, ter's instructionswereaccompanied by lists of thenewpositions necessary to carry outthe work, the arrangements that would be made insome casesfor part-timeteac1s4anti the Provision of funds. * Directionswereincluded for physical edecation in the "primary schools ahd particularly for the training to be given pupihteachersso

A that. they void(' later bep ared for the duties in that connection. ".11* r. s * 112 NATIONALMINISTRIES orEDUCATION

Subventiofiswereprovided fornonschool organizationsthatare doing usefulwork in aidingthe children intheirsports andgames. Finally, therectorswererequiredto report to the " Service of Physi- cal Education" in the ministryanaccount of their application ofthe instructions.At the closeof the schoolyeartheywereto report the namesof all teachersproperly certificatedto give phygical education as aspecialty. Fine arts.Theministry hasdirection ofmanyphases of cultural life in Franceother than the órganizedinstruction inthe schools. As anexample, by decreeof February15, 1927,asuiperiorcouncil of the theaterwasinstitutedas a partof it.The councilconsists ofthe dirpctor of fineartsorhis representative;two members of theunion of lyric artistselected byits membership;two members of theunion of dramaticartists alsoelected by itsmembership;and thepresi- dents of the followinglisted bodies: Thegroupofmayorsof the senate, thegroupofmayorsof thechambet, thefourthcommission' ivof the municipalcouncil of Paris,the societyof authors,the commission of-lyricitithors, theassociation oftheater directorsof Paris, the association oftheater directorsof theprovinces,the syndical chamber ofthetdirectorsof excursionsof France,and the unionof artists. The councilmaybe calledto give its viewsonall questionsof legislation and administrationof theaterssuchasadmissionprices, répertoire,performances inforeign countries,theatricalinstruction, subventions,placenient bureaus,etc. . The personnelof thecentral service offinearts includesadirector with,chiefs andsubchiefs ofthe bureau,thecontroller-generalof architecture,inspectors generalof finearts andmuseums,of applied arts, and of hrstoricmonuments, and theinspectors ofmusical education.The GuimetMuseum andthe nationalmuseumscomewithin the purviewof this seryice.The nati8nalmanufacturesof Sèvres, Gobelins, andBeauvaisareadministeredunder decLeesof December, 1926.That of Sèvres has*adirector andanadministrative couna composed of thedirector of fineartsorhisrepresentative, thedi- . rector of the budget inthe ministry offinance,and thedirector of commercialexpositions inthe ministry ofcommerce, all threeas membersexofficio; and10 otherpersonschosen for fouryearsby I the ministet incharge of finearts, from.national officialsand industrial bodies. Thecouncil handlesthe budget,theaccounts orthe director, thematériel, competitions,the adminisirationboth profes- = aional andcommercial, andreportson anyquestions subaiittedto it by the minister.Gobelins andBeauvaisaresimilarly administered. ,.:.... Institutions ofmusicaL anddramaticeducationareunder the hureatrof &theaters .: in the.;- directionof finearts.It administers ... '2 ¡*. .% , . . % i '": , % »i .1 ".,1 . . . , . . . . . , :el. 4 4...... 7 ' "....P.4- - .... .!,' 4 . : '6...r. ' %.:rIN.J1C.,:t.,2.1. :. e ...., -- . 1 , . . I ... TN . gig.i ..' V_I_ . % . : i .... . '. *. .: .. tt1=4"..Ira-1,7r-Sr'fit'; .*.c...... ,:',,.,.:.. '.":4,...... :4;:k 1 Is...... '..,, 1 % .1,.:A11,..&,:. - , _...11:= t...... ,_. 6. ,...... , ,.-_:2.frryrs _!..____2., - Ihn.r, Y.' .,...44 ..7-2_,_ t ;._ ,____,..i...... ,:a,ii,..:44,::: ..,. ... 'I-::: fa-I-%...--.1.ft", I.- .-; .'. NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION I 113 the National Conservatory of Musicand Declamationat ParTh.In the departments isagreat number of schools of music,most of them maintained by the municipalitiesand entirely free óf national coil- trol. Whens-anyof these attaincertain standards theymaybe classed asnational schools and laterasbranches of the NationalConserva- tory.In those national schoolsand branches in whichthe'rectors arechosen by the ministry,special inspectorsassume somecorjtroland' the schoolsmayreceive official subventions.The graduLesmay present themselves for studyat the National Academyanreceive scholarships especiallyin the classes fbr singinUand lyric decla- 4 mation: Higher edottedion.Eachof the 17 academies withall of itsor- ganization of institutions forpublic instruction is ina sense auniversity, and all Elite parts'olthe ministry of public instruction and fine arts,ortousethe earlierterm, the University of France.But toAmerican readersthe 17 separategroupsof faculties, with their housing and personnel, whichgive instructiononhigher education levels, constitute the French universities.Theyareall national; the present plan of orgahization dates from 1896.They have consider- °4* able auton-omy andareexpected ,to differ from each other inMany ways. More andmore each of them tends to acquire its own originality, itsown characteristics.Without inany wayneglectingits functionin national education, each interests itself in thecountry around it, in its history, its language, its economicneeds, and places teachers Rnd plant at the service of the material and moral interests of the region.Thus the universities, always faithful to theiressential mission whiçh is to'createscience andto.tOichit, still are otcupied with the application of science (in the broadestsenseof the term) to the needs of modern society." Each is administered byacoun-cilofthrivrsity consisting of therector of the academyaspresident, the deansordirectors of each facultyorschool, elected representatives from each facultyorschool, some personsfrom without the university but selected bythe council, fir andsomestudents chowii by the student bodyto sit withthe council when it deals with disciplinarymatters.' Therector acting under the 'authority of the minister represents the university in allmatters of justice and incivillife, direct.sthe affairs of the institution, and carriesout thrdecisions of the. council. Thecouncil enacts regulationson :The administration of theproperty of the university;the exercise of actiods in justice; regulations for freecoursesand ofcourses;conferences, andexercisescommonto all the faculties; the general organizationof thecoursesandpro- !Tel,' "Richard,Camille.ItIllagnementenFrance.Librairie Armand Colin, Paris, 19211.

vfie

NM* 114 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION

gramsfor each schoolyear;the institution of activities inthe interest of the students;tilt fixing of fees; andthe school calendar.Itmay deliberateonbuying, selling,orexchangingproperty of the university, leases ofmorethan 18years,loans and 'theacceptance of gifts and legacies, offersof subvention, openinglines of instructionthat will be chargeableto the university, granting of degrees,and regula- fions regardingexpenditures.Its deliberations donot become effec- five until approvedby the minister.Itmaygive its viewsonthe budget, creating,changing,orabolishing positions,and regulations for servicecommonto all the faVties. Members of the facultyareappointed by decreeafter having been nominatedby the facultyinterested and approvedby the permanent committee of the superiorcouncil. Most of the degrees,diplomas, and certificatesissued for thecom- pletion of university studiesaregranted by the nationalauthority andcarrywith them certain privilegesin thewayof rights toprac- tice in the professions.In addition,each universitymaygrant diplomasordegreesasevidence of studyorachievement in science, but thesearenot inany waylicensestoengageinaprofession in France.' Private 8Ch0018.--Theenera1 principle isthatanycitizen of Frahcemay openand conductaschool, but the law requiresthat the directororprincipal ofaschool have certain scholasticpreparation dependingonthe grade of instructionto be given, and the school must accept national inspection.as to mattersof hygiene and morals. -The privateschoolsaremostly denominational incharacter and have freedom inmethods and curricula, but,since the examinations that giveaccesstocareerp arecontrolled by the nationalministries, the schoolsareforcedto comply for the mostpart with the official programs. - Statistic8.---Thetwo tables following giveanidea of theamount of public and private instructionin charge oforinspected by the ministry and itsannual expenditures. TABLE S.Number of schools, teachers,Okupasenrolled and inlttendance for various kinds of school*, 1925'

- .._ . - _. . . _ . NumberOfNumber of f- Kind of school Pupilsen-Pupils in ,,ii....4.----. schools teachers rolled attendance . . .- MINIMOIN4 _ ....______..... ___ ... _ _ ...... trnai . 3, 884. _ ...... 405, 448 288,891 primary NO, 488 119, 922 3,753, 778 31332,276 otelor primary 491 3, 094 74, 580 . / . mary normal 179 . 1,038 10, 387...... ). ondary - 531 _ ...... _ .. 169, 841 ... . ondaryCOWIN .. . 43 4, 648...... r . ., or 1w . oar» eats ...... ter education . 82, NO '. . 0 ''' .. &Weal education 173 1.4; ...... -..1 52,434_...... k. . or SI -. . 'i."... ,. - ... - --.11111. ... . , # .- Public and print*. '-:...... :. .Lf'.....^..* ... % ,.? ',..t.i e ,'...... , . 1. , a I r ' No A C , . ; 4 . r.-:4...-$:-.-.3:,-..-,?.....,.....,...... :. . I ., ar ,, ...... 0.4...... ,...,.... a . . . ..,.., .,. a C.SSW:. ..,,,...... 7._.... r.,. S. . -;_...... --_ L.,...S.-.1....,,,,,.2--- ' V ; --....latr "a&P94"...'ir--4-.7._-----,14,14.,LI-iW,,;'.41:3159. .--.-.4.....f..,;. I NATIONAL MINISTRIES OrEpUbA,TION 115

TABLE 4.-E4scationtil budgets for the years1926 and 1927

Item 1926 1927

SECTION I.-PUBLIC INSTRUCTIOF Francs Francs Central administration andgeneral aervioe 3, 760, 800 4, 901, 538 Archives. 1, 849, 100 2, 353, 800 Superior instruction and great scientificestablishments__ :..... _ 84, 307, 700 99, 829, 285 Secondary edUcation 166, 923, 716 . 210, 663, 206 Primary education 1, 025, 700, 100 1, 364, 150, 939 Expenses common tothe different services 236, 464, 234 268, 202, 950 Special for Alsace and Lorraine _ .. _ .. _ 87, 439, 880 113, 384, 900. Total ordinary expenses 1, 606, 445, 530 2, 063, 486, 618 Extraordinary 4, 660, 600 3, 917, 000 War damage 2, 867, 200 3, 841, 775 Total 1, 613, 973, 330 2, 071, 245, 393

"IV SECTION II.-FINE ARTS Ordinary 49, 961, 810 59, 821, 677 Nonpermanent 20, 274, 000 19, 326, 090 Total 70, 235, 810 147, 767 SECTION In.-TECHNICAL EDUCATION Ordinary 94, 142, 366 111, 115, 109 Extraordinary 70, 000 40, 000 Total 94, 212, 866 111, 155, 109

lb) Total for the ministry 4 1, 778, 421, 606 1 2, 261, 548, 269 .5

This doesnot include the public funds spentby the localitiesnor the amounts used.1iythe private schools. The amounts -spent for the central administration represent less than 1percent of the total.

.e 0 Ono

two

lam .:s" ":", . :

; 41. 1 CHAPTER X

11 The Secretariat of PublicEducation in Mexico

Mexico, the RepúblicaMexicana. isafederated republic of2,8 States,oneFederal District (the cityof Mexico and its immediateen- , virons)and three FederalTerritories (Quintana Roo, BajaCali- , fornia North, and BajaCalifornia South). Each State has itsown constitution and laws,levies itsowntaxes, and Chooses- itsown governor,legislature, and judiciaryin much thesame waythat the corresponding Federalofficers'arechosen.Thegovernorsof the Federal Districtand of the three Territoriesareappointed by the President of theRepublic.Each of the ,28 &roes has its school system which it has establishedandnowmaintains and administers through State officialsin accord with State law.- Inaddition the municipalitiesmayandwallyof themdosupport schoolsoVerwhich they have almostfull control. Thepresent constitution of Mexiéowaspromulgated February5, 1917.Article 90 providesthat for the administrationof the Republic the Congressmayby law establishanumber of secretaryships,or secretarias.Accordingly the *Congressissued the law -of Secretarías de Estada andamongthose createdwasthe secretariat of public education (Secretariade Educación Pública)whichwaslatersup- pressed. Itwasrestoredto its functioning byadecree publishedon September 29,1921. The conceptionof thepurposesof thisyoungsecretariat is broad andgenerous.It aimsto include and, to itgreat extent, its present organizationdoes includemost phases of cultural life and physical - human welfarein Mexico and theseareto be progressively strength ,

ened and betteredto the end that the Mexicanpeoplemaybea- more . virile, wealthier,andmoreunified nation thanitnpwis.Ofcourse, beyond thatlies the thoughtthat in suchanation the. individual Mexican will leadahappier,moreuseful life. The secretariat'stask isenormous.,The 15,000,000 people live inan areaof 767,198squaremilesaboutthree and one-half tinies the size ofFrancethatis poorly suppliedwith roads and railmads.. Coln' munication, taking Mexico4s awhole, is slowand difficult. .The peopleareabout 22percent nativeIndian, 60perCent mixed Indian with otherraces,and 18percent white, While Spanishisa common

11.6 0- 111111?-74 .8 : NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION . 117-

languageandonewhich all Mexicansarewilling to learn anduse,the pureIndians haveamongthemselvs 47or moredifferent linguistic groupsthat representmanyfairly distinct Indianraces.Illite.racy (inability to read and write irk the total population)amounted to 62.2 percentin 1921. Thepercapita wealth is low--$449. The school 'system waslaicized within the decade.Primary education is free, and compulsoryupto 12yearsofagebut the lawcannotbe efiforced because therearenot schools enough.Of the two and three-fourths millions of children of schoolage(6 to 14), about 4 inevery10are in school 4ttendance. The States spendagood proportion of their revenues oneducation but they have been unable to maintain ade- quatemodern educational systems. As to levels of instruction the general plan of organization isa 6-year primary school divided into 4yearsof elementary and 2years of higher primary study. This is folloyed bya5-yelir secondary school, the first threeyearsof which constitute a-cycle of general education and the last twdlithe preparatory cycle in which the pupil mayspecialize andpreparefor later studies insome oneof the university faculties. The primary normal schools give 5-yearcoursesön the secondary edbcation level. The secretariat directlyadmini4ersthe schools inthe Federal Dis- trict and in the Territories and all the educationaland cultural institutions thatareestablished and supported byFederal funds butare located within theareasincluded underone oranother of the State governments. Besides the strictly teaching institutionsthe secretariat e

, has within its purview suchcultural organizationsas museums,li- ;

, braries, theaters, and artisticand historic monuments. It issuescopy- rights for literary, dramatic,and artistic productions.In itsaspects of direct administrationit resembles somewhat the ministry ofpublic instruction and finearts of France, for the attitudé is that each institution ispart of rather than subject to the secretariat. Beyond its administration of the Federaleducational and cultural organizations, wherever theymaybe, the secretariat is thecooper- ative, stimuraing, advisory, andconsultantbo.dyfor the State authorities.Itwilynot administer Stateormunicipal schools, but it is making itself theexpert nationalcorpsthat is using its knowledge and influence to stimulate and help the States and municipalitiesto 1 carefor and train their citizenry. Thesedual functions of the ministry makeit inmany wayssimilar to the ministry ofjustice and public instructionin Argentina(seepp.52-57).Finally,the 4 secretariat is engaging actively inanumber of kinds of educational- :

rewarch. . Ferpurposesof this study in connection with this particularmin- istryof education details of the administrativeorganizationarenot

soimportantasthe work the ministry is doing. Thelatter will be !,;i14V1' . ; , ; °.%44,314ktli At... . . , , , . ftT ; ., t " . ' _ k 4. - ., 6A0'..*. F".1: V-,J Z:4 1.- 'A.4;64-461-- '44?%ev 4-z(,(.0 -11 fr- 118 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION a emphasizedmorethan the former. The secretariat, like other parts

Iof the educational system, is in the making. The national whiversity.--7-Until July 26, 1929, the National Uni- versity of Mexico (Universidad Nacional de Mexico)was apart of the secretariat of publiceducation.' Onthat date the organic law of the autonomous national univ.ersity took effect.The institution nowcOnsists of the following listed faculties: Philosophy andle.t- ters, law andsocitilsciences, medicine, engineering,agronomy,den- tistry, sciences and chemical industries,commerceand .a4ministrb. tion; and the following listed schools: National prepariitory, fine arts, the higher normal, physical education,and veterinary medicine, together with the national library, the institutes of biOlogy findof geology, and the astronomical observatory. The chiefgov- erning body is the university council consisting of the rector,a representative of the secretariat of public education, the directors of the various faculties, sthools, and institutes of the university,. andper- sonselected from the faculty members and the student body. This lawcomes asthe consummation ofamovement that has been going onfor tht past threeOPfouryearstointegrate all the institutions of higher education and culture in Mexico City under theone management andfree itasfaraspossible from the control of the national government. The relation of the national university to the national government is specifically defined in chapter four of the Ws. In general the dealingsarecarriedondirectly between the national exécutive and the university, and not through the secretariat of public education. .Briefly summarized, the provisions of chapter fourare: 1. The rector will represent the university in itsrelationships with the different authorities. 2. While employees of the universityarenot considered to be Federal employees, theyaresubjecttothe benefits and obligations of the law of civil pensions for retirement. 3. The national -executivemayappoint extraordinary professors andpersonsfor c'onference _with the fticulties and institutes of the university, but the chitrge is against the national budget. 4. The executivemayveto resolutions of the university council referring to:(a) Clo4inganyfaculty, whim!,orinstitution.; (b)con-. ditions of admissionpf students and the validationorvisé of studies done in Mexicoorin foreign countries, provided those conditionsare notofatechnical nature;(c)requirements for pupils holding Alolarships from the Federal Governmot; (d) expenditures of amounts greaterthan10400pesosatonelime,orin periodical paYa ments that exceed 10,000_pesosannually, provided thitt thosepay, mentsarecovered by funds a re apart of the sub- .es. :'1ie. ;

I NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION 119 tlf- sidy, and (e) regulationsof this lawormodificationsthat hecon-

siders to be violations ofit. ID 5. In order to make theforegoing sectioneffective, theuniversity council will submit itsresolutionsto the executixe, and they willbe in force if he doesnot veto them in 30 days. . 6. The regulation of the privateschools whichgive instruction of university grade and thedeterminationof the validationand equiva- lence of the studiesin,them and ofthe degreesgranted is also ifi charge of the executiveof the republicthrough thesecretariat of pliblic education, whichmaymake suchregulations anddispositions asit deemsproperfor the particularease. 7. The budget of natidnalfunds forthe universitytwillbe fixed annually by the chamberof deputiesas a partof thegeneral Fed: eral budget preparedby the executiveand the secretariat-of the treasuryand publiccred,41). 8. The institutes of theuniversity thatformerlywereunder other secretariats will performordinary technicalwork free ofcharge. for those secretariats and,with theapproval of theuniversityrector, extraordinary tasks forwhich they willbe paid.

9. The National Museumof Archeology,History, andEthnog-. raphy will maintainits relationwith theuniversityinsofarasit givescoursesof instruction. lo. The National Stadiumis placedunder thesecretariat ofpublic education but theuniversityshall have preferentialrightto itsuse. 4 11. The universitymay usethe postalfrank inits officialcorre- Fpondence and havethe rights ofpublic officesin theuseof telegraph service. 12. The universitywill renderanannualreport to thepresident, thecongress,and thesecretary of publiceducation. Secondaryeducation..----The NationalPreparatorySchool isapart of theuniversityadministration.Formany yearsitwassomething ofamodel forthe other secondaryschools ofMexico butvvith the establishment in1926 of that branchof thesecretariat knownasthe 4 directionof secondary education, it doesnotoccupy. so imprtanta place in the-nationalschenle.In 1929.the directionof secoildaty educationadministered sixsecondaryschools,numberi to 6, in the-YederalDistrict withanenrollment of5,889 pupils,inspected public schoolsin the States,and superVisedthe workof 19private (" incorporated") schools,14 of whichwerein theFederalDistrict and 5 in theStates. . Asapart of its officialduties thedirectioncalled and hddin ovember0928,anational assemblyfor the study ofthe priAalems r. of preparatory and secowlaryeducation;directedthee-activitiesof . Icommittee of secondaryand university teachers td'coordinatothe .` . 114766-80--4 ?; f."*"" 120 NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION work ofsecondat, schools andthe national preparatoryschool; urged the téachers totakecoursesin theuniversity andin the higher normal school;organizedextra'schoolactivities4mongthe students; gavemental andeducational tests toaconsiderablenumber of the attendedto . students; formulatedekaminationquestions and tests; general mattersof studentaccounting;controlled\ thegoing of students frbmoneschool toanothe;;unified the systemof teaching in the privateschools; issuedlists of equipmentneeded in the laboratories insecondary school;instructed thedirectors ofsecondary schools tosupervise the classteaching; setregulations fororder and discipline in evening preparatoryand secondaryschools; and selected the texts for,secondary schoolsfor theyear1929.In short it has full authorityoverthe Federalsecondary schools. In its relation tothe incorporatedprivate schoolsit carriesout the termsof the'presidential decreeof4ovember16, 1926,whtch fixes the conditionsunder whichthose schoolsmaybe '-opened. and maintained.Those termsinclu-deaformal declarationby the.persons managing theschool that itis notaCatholic seminaryorintended totrain ministergforanyreligious denominationand that the laws of the &publicwill be upheldand obeyed.Details of thecourses and hoursof study, thetraining anclexperience of thedirector and teachers, the planof thebuildings, equipment,and library mustall be submittedin writing tothe secretariat.These documents andthe' schoolitselfareexaminedcArefully by theinspection of secondary is approvedor . I education .anctapplication tomaintain the school disapprovedonitsrecommendation. Primary andnormalinatruetion.Thedepiirtment ofprimary and normal instructionin the secretariatfunctioned in -1929with 78per- sonsin itsadministrativepersone1,4'oneof which'.wasthe headof the departmentwithasalary of 10,2'20 pesosand 32 ofwhichwere school inspector.The salary roll amounted to288,132.50pesos.It employed 312schooL directorsand 2,549teachers atanexpenditure of6,668,060pesos.The342schools in its charge.enrolled 134,447 pupils withan averageattendance of 120,308. For tlieseprimary schoolsunder its direction,the secretariat acts through itsdepartment ofprimary and.itarrnal- education inmuch thesame wayasdoes theadministration of school's inmedium-sized cities in theUnited States.Byciicula!;iiof instruction it. more clearly definedthe 'zone of eachschool; fixed theadministrative iélationsliip between the directorsof primary schools apdthe kinder- gattensannexed tothem; prohibitedtheuseof the Chileanorthog-. tech- . raphy in theschools and in officialcorrespondence; appointed .nical puncils in theliational language,arithmetic andgeogeaphy, and insocialized materials, tostudy waSrs of invrovivthe instnic***

,1 , ::. , I V. A . .., . : fl .. .P .f;.,.P : .,. '4 < , , NATIONALMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION 121 tion in these subjects;fixed the (failyprogramsof theschoolsand the school calendar arringedthe methodsto be employed fordeter- mining the annualpromotions ofpupiLs;issuedalist ofapproved texts; openedone new primary schoolandtwo eveningschools;arranged the teachingcorpsin salaryclasses;and carriedon anational school for teachers. . In orderto improveuponand checkthe workof inspection,the department bycircularand studydevelopedaplan ofarranging j the duties of theinspectorsunder fivegeneral heads:Administration and administrativelabor,pedagogicorientation,betteringthecon- .dition of theteachers(except inpedagpgicalknowledge),social action, advantages,andimprovements.Under subdivkionsof these pneral headsthe workof inspectionis reportedandchecked and department knowswhat hasbeen doneeach monthof theschoolyear. Technical, industri.al,a.ndcommercial education:Thisdepartment wasorganizedin 1925to popularize",encourage,andprotect national effortsto train technicians and-workersthat willbe 'competenteither in themanufactureofrawmaterialsoriniheindustrialartscon- nected withthosemanufactures,aswelllitstoftwgivewomenoppoz:tu- nities foreducationin manualwork fittedfor themsè thattheymay earn alivingorbe happierin themanagement of theirhomes.The departmenthas created27 teachingenters,15 of whicharein the FederalDistrict,the othersarein theStates.Thecoursesenrolled 20,614 pupilswithan average attendance of18,747 taughtby1,259 feachers. Thedepartmentgave mostof itstime fortheyearto socializingthe schoolsin orderto bringabout solidarityIndcooperationamong those interestedin the p.rogressof technicaleducation; andspecializ- ingand industrializingthelessons inpracticalworksothattho . graduates will bepreparedto enter atoncethe fieldof industryin whichtheyarestudying.Thesocializationprogramconsistedin formingsocieties,of theheads offamiliestoencourage technical education, and cooper4ivesocieties of ieachersand pupilsin alland" ineach of the tedhnicalschools.For thelatter thedepartmentpre-- paredaform ofconstitutionthat isleialunder thestatute of January 21,1927,relatingto suchcooperatives. The directionof educationbymeansof theradio isapart of this department. Itsservicesareeither ofdirectusein theschoolsorof genértil interestto the xublic.With theaid ofthedepartmentof rural schoolsit broadcastspecialcoursesforruralteachers;a fables,b iiisiructi,lectures,musical programs, andlays. for the children. For thepublicitsprograms included ti-sonscientific subjects, programs of music,officialannouncements,and thingsot likenature. ). -Z:

, 122 NATIONALMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION

.Rural schools and outlyivgprinutry schools,and the ineoltpora, tion of the indigenousculture.7This departmenthas 50employees in the centilll office andcarriedonits activitiesthrough two sections; the teanical and that ofprocedure andarchives. Thetechnical sec; tion inadeupof the inspectoi.s, theschool directors,Wheservices of primary and of ruralschoolstatislim- and correspondence.The section of prokbedureand archives dealswithmattei:§ of personnel in, the primary and ruralschools, travel, rentsand budgets, 'and correspondence. The department administers theFederal schools thatairestablished in the States and territories.The schoolsare20 modelprimary, 315 urban and semiurban, and 3,328rural withateaching force of 3,491 andan averageattendance of 188,734 at dayclasses and 46,741 ateven- ingcouyses.Thesearethe schools thataremaintainedby theFMeral Government to stimulateeducation in the States,serve asmodel

schools and reach out intoisolated places and improve the status E of the indigenouspopulation.The department hasadirector of le Federal education iri eachState who. has under his ordersinstructoi- inspectors enough tosupervise the schools of thatarea. Besides maintainingthese Federal schools, the departmentbegan in January of 1929asyste'mof rural circuits whosepurposeis to persuade the people of thecommunities to elstablish schools main- tiined bythemsielves.Theprogram wassuccessful enoughsoNit 545 cntral and 1,946neighboring schoolswereopened. The central schoolsare sonamed because each ismaintaitfed by funds from a.. the budget for thedepartmgnt of rural sehools,serves118amodel for the neighboring schoAsopenednearit, and is in the charge of ateacher who is director of thecircui&and responsible to the inspec- .torand the director ofFederal education. Theindieenous peoplesarereceiving preferentialattentiorifrOm the Federal Government.The department of rural schools directs 789 schools attended by about95,000pureIndians, both children and adults.The boarding schools for Indiansaremaintained in tlie State of ChiKuahua, and the Home forIndigenous Children in Mexico*Cityhas 200 students intraining, most of them for serNice ' asteachers in the 'schools providedfor theirownpeople. Throughthe cooperation of the communities and the initiative of the inspectors andteachers there 2,353 Federal school build- . ings in Decembei, 1928, eachoneof t4em tlae best building in its unity.Inmany casesthe localities have also constructed homes for the teachers.The Federal Governmenthas. ceded 42 annexes tochurches to .be usedasschools.The Federal insPectors and directorsareinstructedto givepreference° in-the vtablishment of schools to those villages whichoffer thegreatestc.6operatipn in- . ,. . ,., - 4,.:-,. a 4.. 17: NATIONA MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 123 firnishing good schoolbuildings and grounds.Insomecommuni- ties theSociety of Mothers has providedbuildings. The valueof theschool plants provided by the peopleof the differentcommuni- ties anddonated to the secretariat of publiceducation amounts to nearly$2000. For theuseof the schools under its chargthe departmentof rural schools purchased anddistributed about 500,000reading books. Besides these activities, told insomedetail; the departmentassists inmaking Ocial centers of schools, sendscultural'. missioninto backward communities,encouragesrural libraries, andpublishes professional hooks for the rural teachers,issuesanofficialpaper. "TA Sembrador," andholds teachers', weetings. . . Pvehopedaj«)gy and hygiene.Thedkartmentof psychopeda- . gogyand hygiene is organizedin two large sections:Psychopeda- gogyandschool hygiene.Each is directed byahead official; both areuncter the head of the department.Tpe first section hasfour subsedio0: School anthropometrics,mental testing,pedagogy, andY. biometritrs.Fourteenpersons,either specialistsorteachers, makeup the 'personnel.The section ofanthropometrics is can.yingon a series ofMeasurementsand investigations todetermine the constants of physical, mental, andpedagogical growth in the 'urbanschool poml tion. The mentaltesting section is applying tothe school children of Mexico various typesof tests that have beendeveloped in other countries, working outadaptatio.nsof them, and initiating newtests.The pedagogy section iscarryingon asimilffir work with different educationaltesis.Most of the material gathered bytffese three sections is turnedoverto thatof biometrics for statistical

manipulation. . The section of schoolhygiene works directly with that of school * medical inspection andschoolbretikfasts,has charge of the five school dispensaries, thepharmacYand the clinical laboratory,ail(' Rspecial school for childrenthatareundergoing treatment for skin diseases.The personnel of these ismostly trained physicians and P

ij hurses.For inspection of theschools in the city there.are 22 physi- .

cians andaliketíumber ofnurseswho eiamine the children aiid . inspecithe school plants and notetheir observations inaspecial sanitary record.. Thephysicians alsocarefor teachers in the schools and attend to the examinationsoecessaryin connection with retirements and pensions. A physici4n anditnursehave charge of furriishing school breakfasts to needy children and at thesametime'areexpected' iostudy and reportonihephysical and mental improvement in the children thatarebeing givenmorewholesome food. Fine art8.-----The deriartment of fine arts has 8personsin its central

directivepersonnel and in. addition, 32 admittistrativeemployees, 545 1,11, in teachingdales,17 subprofessionar, 32 laborers, and 104 inthe

1 - , , sg* . t.a41* , 124 NATIONALMINISTRIES014 EIAICATION

attendant service.It attendsto copyrights, thetechnicaldirection of vocalmusic andconcerts, the popularevening schoolsof music, physicaleducation,drawing, andmanual training,the NationtnMu- seumof Archeology.History,and Ethnology,and theinspectionand careof artisticand historicalmonuments. Othersectiong.Thesesevenexamples of thework of thesecre- tariataresufficientto illustekteits activities.The dutiesof the departments oflibraries,special schoolstatistics, nationalthrift cfiests, constructionandconservationof buildings,and ofeditingare indicated intheir titles. .In hisreport to the Congressfor theyehr endedJuly 31,1929, the secretary of publiceducationsays : Youundoubtedly notedinthe report ofthe Viesident,the importance which thesecretariat ofpublic educationis givingto the workof awakening . consci and arousing interest.We havenot forgotten thetechnicalwork nor the entific refinementin the schooladministration;butwe do recognize that theessential problemof Mexico is,first,aproblem of basiccitizenship:of spiritual unityon our native soil, ofcollecting thedeep rootsinourKadition and inour peculiarities and incontinuingour growth. Thesetwo fundamental aspects explainour constant effortto clearup and maintain theMexican tradition andideal, in orderto determine.ourproblemsin terms ofour own characteristicsand circums sand to straktto the utmost.if it should be

necessary, the consciences . . people,captivating theirimaginations, and moving theemotional springsof theirsouls. Thelengths to whichour nation is anxiousfor Improvementa4tht lengthsto which theprocedvres which have been !Atinto play firee ively awakeningit,are eloquently evidenced bytfie2,000 andmore circu!t schools whichthe communities,under the stimulus and theanimation of thesecretariat ofeducation,were able to establish during thécourse of six months,by the aviditywith whichthe nationreceives the message of thenew day in Mexico and bythenew spirit of illusion with which the people¡lopeand workfor theaccbmplishmpnt pfthe revolutionaryprogram. Ican not insist too muchconcerning the neCessitythat, notwithstandingthe high qualityof thepolitical factorswithinour national life,you consider the school and theteachersas matters nonpolit'cal,leaving themfree to dedicate themselves,without thedangeror tiwnarrowness of factionor band, to realize the basicand essentialworkon which mustrest the entirestructure of the nation.The teacherp,especiallythe rural' teachers,are, unquestionably, force- ful elementsin théèommunity.I beg thatyou never convert theminto political elements, butthatyou permit them, withneither hindrancenor interference, to exercise theirinfluenceof integral,impròvvment,of civiC ilittstrationand of civicstrengthening, andof inspirationin the Mexicanideal. I trust thatthe attentilsreading ofthe report whichI have thehonor to present,may serve tosecurethecooperation ofthe honorablechambers. of Congress of theunion infavor ofeducation in Mexico."

so " Mexico.Becretaria deEducaciOn Pdblica.Memoriaque Indic& el estadoqueguard& el ramo de educacitin ptiblica el alde agostode 1929 . . . Mexico, D.F., Talleres °Mimi de laNación, 1929.683pp. - *.

. :4 .18" . 'Wet,.

I 011, ' ; . i

.:....- t - . : ll- -I, 5 % 13 :.;, .. .1 . *11 1 -.,, lb rre.".., " '. r. .. * Clvii.^":;%k___¡.%\3i..-Y4P':6''', : c ! C'. I.` : ;';. .1,-:. . i.:. .s:...'.. ...:,, ' j ,,' . . -411 - -'. 3--- :<-::4----41-1;,:4,-.4,,Q.--2,-,=,....frAm._,,--1",..,4,-tie4=.;__-_,..--?1,:,--L-_..;--2,..A:4' r:z._...,...-- APPENDICES ANDBIBLIOGRAPHY

Appendix I

QUESTIONNAIRE SENTTHROUGH THEDEPARTMENT OF STATE To CHIEF AMERICAN CONSULAR OFFICEs ABROAD

1.14; there aresponsible ministry ofeducationorother body that is concerned withmatters ofeducation for the entire nation? 2. Does it haveJurisdictionoverall the schools?If not, list the types of schools oreduCbation thatareender otheeltinistries. 3. Is theministry of educationprovided for inthp`constitutionorthe laws, orboth, of the country?Cite legal references. , 4. Howislitheminister chosen?lily whom? For what term or office? 0.0 5. Is the officeconsidered to be political ornonpolitical?Is the minister generallysoineonewho has been successful ineducational work? 6. Into whatdifferent divisions or sectionsis the ministry organizedand what particular powersand' has each 'section? 7. What is the annual expenseof maintaining the ministry?(Not ineluding anynational funds grantedeither directlyorindirectly to.the schobls.) 8. What authority has theministry: (a) To decide the number,location, and kind ofschdols in the countr? (b) To (*ermine the amountof, national fun'ds that are used annually faeducation, the particular phases ofeducational activity to whicht they shall be applied, and how they shall beallocated? (c) To determine or influence the amountof local funds that shall be used for school purposes? (d) 'To decide what shall be tavght inihe schools, by enfacing certain curricula andcourses orstudy, or by other means? %Iv (e) To decide how and when any subjects shall be taught? (f) To fix regulations for thetraininiof teachers and school admin- istrators, and to control the licensing of teachers and admin->11 istrators?

(g) To select,promote,ordismiss teachers and efix their salaries? . (h) To make and enforce regulations inregard., to compulsory school attendance and child labor? (i) To make and enforce regulations regarding theconstruction of sChoolbuildings, their heating, lighting, ventilation, and general sanitation? (j) Toprovide for health inspection and general physical tare of, the school children? (k) To determine pupil promotions andgrant-diplomasof graduation and degrees? 9. In general is the ministryanadvisoTeonpultative bodyor as&drain* trative7executive body? ir .4P ;

1::$91 , .: . .6: : %6 Ì 7/ ItiLtk.: ...... %4 .;72C. a ... .0 *.. .1.. ;.:;. .. *.r. 'qv). . . . I. . a .. I ..1.- -4'.:--":"..1,-'' ,f ..--....:,...v ----3-,----,---,------..%.,,,,...1,..,3- ':1 ". - ..,-- -,...._.4...,....,.%.L.--_,__-_- ---,-...-j¡....;_l. &a...4_ -,f.1427 --:...--- - el.-1"Pt7:: gas"- - -.-b.". -,.r. ( ?..tzfil , .

lab -1k.TAL r .e.t rè t NATIONALMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION .

10. Is it inany sense are.searchorganization?Ifso,indicatethe nature of its research activities. I 11. Does the ministryhaveany controlover private schools? 12. Does the ministryhareany On.trolover institutions of universityrank? Ifso, how and in whatways ists control expressed? 13. Is the ministeramemba,exofficioor otherwise. ofany at,her'branch

of the Government? . 14. ht. the ministerresponsible primarilyto the executiveor to the legislative branch of thegovernment, and to whatextent is he responsible? 15. Is the ministryconcerned onlywith the directadministration of sehlois ofafederal districtand territories,orwith the schools ofthe entirenation? 16. If thecountry has colonial possessions,state fully 114)w and bywhat branch of thegovernment education in thosepossessions is administered. 17. Howare the rules, regulations. nnd directionsof the minIstry . brought. to the attention ofschool officials?

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4.1- *41 - ' tf 128 ,NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF, EDUCATION

Table Showing theApproximate Population and Area of Eachof the 73 Main Political Divisions of theWorld-Continued

II Division I Areasquare Populatioh miles

1 .2 1 3

Divisions with 1,000,000to 5,000,000 each: Bolivia 2,990, 000 514, 155 Bulgaria 4, 847, 000 39, 814 Chile . 3, 755, 000 f 2901 084 Cuba 3, 3 69400 44, 164 Denmark 3, 528, 000 103, 053 (Europe) 3, 420 I» III, 604 Outlying 108 . 86, 449 Ecuador...... Ecuador ...... 2, 000, 000 I 220, 502 Estonia . 1, 1 10, 000 I 18, 354 Finland 3, 3°15, 000 i 132, 642 Guatemala_ 2, 00,5, 000 42, 3S3 Haiti 2, 031, 000 10, 204 Wsh Free State 3, 163, 000 26, 592 Latvia . .Ò 1, 84 5, 000 24, 440 Liberia 2, 000, 000 43, 000 - Lithuania 4, 801, 000 59, 633 New Zealand 1, 219, 000 104, 751 Norway ...... 2, 650, 000 1 24, 964 Paraguay 1, 000,III 61, 647 Salvador 1, (040,III 13, 176 *Switzerland 3, MO, 000 15, 940 Uruguay J 1, 640, 000 72, 153 Venezuela 2, 4 12, 000 393, 874 Iraq 2, b49, 000 143, 250 _Divisions withfewer than 1,000,000 each: Albania 832, 000 17, 347 *Bhutan e 250, 000 20, 000 Costa Rica 507, 000 23, 000

Danzig MG, 000 . 764 DominicanRepublic 897, 000 19, 332 Honduras 774, 000 44, 275 *Liechtenstein 11, 000 65 *Luxemburg 261, 000 999 *Monaco 20003, 8 *Newfoundland 262, 000 162, 734 Nicaragua 6 34, 000 51, 660 Panama_ 443, 000 32, 3S0 'San Marino 42, OW 38

.64.; e%

01'

j. 01 s

1 va.1

Appendix III

THE ORGANIZATIONOP THE MINISTRYOF SCIENCES AND OF ARTS OF BELGIUM

MINISTRY OF SCIENCES AND OF ARTS Normal insIruction, primary instruction, middle school instruction,higner educdion and sciences, fine arts, letters and public libraries.

a THE MINISTER Minister's cabinet. Chief of thecillipet. Secretary of the cabinet. Attachés: Director. Under chief of thc 1)ureau. Clerk. Or THE UENERAL SECRETARIAT

cretary general. a 11% ADMINISTRATION OF GENERAL AFFAIRS Director general. Director. 4Treasury, under director. VI

41. . Under director. , Accountant. ' Chiefs of bureaus (3). Personnel technique. eontroller of school buildings. hief of the serviceof translations. personnel of thecentral administration: Appointments andpromotions, dis- posability,salaries, hierarchy, etc.Civic decorations. for employeep of the central administration.Regulations.General discipline.Library. Bulletin oftiledepartment, The Royal Almanac.Material. of %the central administra-

tion. .13ureau ofdispatch, insertions in the Monitor.General accounting; 1.1 correspondencewith the courts ofaccounts and the department of finance. Budgetof the department.Legalizations, franchises,counter-signatures;gene eral regulationsfor traveling and living Oipenses;attachments;taking of oaths. Miscellaneousmatters.Matters.- not within the purview ofany service.Mat- ters delegatedby .the Minister.Documentation.Relief for former official% employees,and primaryteachers,etc.

A SECRETARIAT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION ?.4 Secretary of Public Instruction. Director. J.

. Chief of the bureau. ea s.

. . . : ...... - , 129 .... ' . . .iiI .. , . 1...Jr:

41. .11." all, 6 130 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

TheSuperior Council of PublicInstruction: Organization,composition, duties.Councilsotperfectingof higher education, of middle school education, of primary and normal education.Coordination of work.General affairs relating to public instruction, coinmunal affairs in all the orders of education: Legislation, regulations, and instruction.Funds for the bettbr endowed: Legislation, regulations, and jurisprudence. Committees of selection.Methods. Subsidies and accounting.Reports. Statistics.Documentation. Student scholarships for children belonging to large families.Legal and pedagogic organization of public instruction in foreign countries.Studies and documentation.Information about the general organization of instructión in Belgium.

ADMINISTRATION OF PRIMARY MUCATION Director general. Director. Underdirectors (6). hiefs of the bureaus (3). rat siection.Legislation.Compulsory education.Execution of regulations andprograms.Organization of primary schools, kindergartens, and schools for adults (communal, adopted, and adoptable).Mattersofschoolassisfance. Endowments.ytatistics.Triennial reportsonthe condition of primary education.Publications.Administrative documentation.Inspection of primary schools, kindrgartens, and schoolsforadults.Organizationandsdirection. School medical inspection.Appointments.Plurality of offices. Second section.Salaries of teachers.Disputes and settlements. Third scetion.Accounting; budgets, subsidies, settlements. Making funds available.Disciplinary punishments.Honorary distinctions.Temporaries.

. Services of inspection..Inspeetion of religious instruction in public primary aud public nokmal schools. Roman Catholic religion: Principal diocesan inspectors(9). Diocesan inspectors (28).

Jewish religion: 64 Inspector. Protestant religions: Inspector (1). , Inspection of pritnicry education.= General inspectors: Walloonlishareas (1). Flemishareas(1). Principalinspectors (30). Cantonal inspectors (175). re... Inspectionof work forwomen. Principal inspectors (31) (women).

ADMINISTRATIONOF NORMAL EDUCATION Director general. Director. ". Underdirectors (2), First sectionNormal education.Normal sections In middle schooleducation. National primarynorml school"Provinciál,communal, and priyate normal schools, admission.Regulations.Personnel.Appoiniment,temporaries, di&

VS -,...... 4;. NATIONAL MINIEfTRIES° OP EDUCATION 131 missals,discipline, and civic decorations. Kindergarten normal sections, exam- inatiQnsand juries of primary and kindergarten normal education.Inspection of themiddle normal schools, primary, and of the kindergartennormal sections. Organization, pedagogic direction.Religious inspection. Second sectionpInstruction.Program of normal instruction (middle, primary,and kindergarten).Program of primary, kindergarten, and adult schools. Normal courses.Examinations and juries of middle normal instruction.Juries of teachers.Council of perfecting.Cantonal conferences.Physical education. Schoolsforchildrenof boatmen.Publications.Pedogogic documentation.

The school museum.Expositions. . Third seotionAccounting.Budget.Subsidieii,Scholarships.Payments. Bursaries for thenoilnal schools.Buildings and equipment.Statistics. Services of Inspection. Inspectors Of primary normalsch6ols (71. Inspectors of middle school education charged with duties in theprimary normal schools (3). Inspectressof normal schools and kindergarten normal sections (1). Inspectress of work for women in the primary normal schools for girls and of bursaries in the national normal schools 0). Inspectors of gymnastics (2) for both normal and middleschool education. Inspectors of drawing and manual work (2) for both normal and middles segooleduca t ion.

Inspectors of instruction in music (2) for both normal and middleschool . education. ADMINISTRATION OF MIDDLE- SCHOOL INSTRITTION Director general. a. Directors (2). Director of personnel. Underdirector. Chief of the bureau. Assistant to the chief of the bureau. Chief of the bureau of personnel. Establishments for middle school education: Athénées -royal, collèges and .44 middle schools.Organization of stud'es.Bureaus* of administration.Per- sonnel.Premises and material.Accounting.Inspection.Council of perfecting.General competition, distribution of prizes.Scholarships for study gnd scholarships for travel.Triennial reports.Decorations. Services or Inspection. Inspector general of middle school education. Inspectors of middle school education (4). Inspectora of modern lannages (2). Inspectors of prImary normal schoòls charged with inspection duties in middle school education (4). Inspectors of gymnastics (see normal school inspectiq4, above). 01' Inspectors of drawing and manual.training (see normalschsiolinspection% above). at.,;11

Inspectors otinstruction in mus!c (see normal school inspection above). , . Inspectress. of hand work and domestic econqmy in the middle schools for girls (1). lore '- Inspector of accounting of secrOary-treasurers of national middle schools (1):

. Controller of accounting ofsecretari-treasurersof national middle schools (1).

4. 132 NATIOI4ALMINISTRIES*OFEDUCATION 4

ADMINISTRATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND OF SCIENCES Director general. Directors (2). Underdirector. Chiefs of the bureau (2). Establishments of higher education: National universities and special and annexed schools.Council of perfecting of higher educaton.Juries of exami. nation constituted by the Government for the conferring ofn.cachimic degrees. Jury of confirmation of middle school certificates.Jury charged with the conduct of The examinations j)reparatoryto admissonto the university. Interuniversty sport meets.Committee Of confirmation of academicdiplomas. University competitions.Scholarships for study and scholarships for travel. Triennial reportsOnthe condit'on Of higher education givenat the expense of the nation.University endowment.Patr.monyof th* univeriityofthe School of Mines at Mons.Intellectual relations with foreign countries.Sub- sidies and scientific encouragement.Subscr:ptions.Scientific trips and m.s- sions.Excavations and works in the interest of science.Help to scientists whoarein needor ,tofamilies of deceased scientists.Scientific societies. Quinquennial and decennial prizes.Publication of the Bibliotheca Belgica. Publication of the Bibliographic rationale.Internation office of bibliography. Unionof international associations.Tables ofStudiesinthe zoological, physiological, and b;olog cal stations in foreign countries. National scientific institutions:The Royal Observatory, The Royal Meteoro- logical. Institute, The Royal LibrarS-. The RoyalMuseum of National History, The general archives of the Kingdomat Brussels, and the national archives theProvin-ces.Participation of Belgium in the work of hydrographicand biological exploration of thesea.Commission of War, Archives.Congresses and expositions.Miscellaneous matters.

ADMINISTRATION OF FINE ARTS, LETTERS,AND PUBLIC LIBRARIES 411"-11, Director general. - Directors (3). - Director of Orsonnel. Underdirectors (2). Chiefs of the bureau (5). Royal Academy and Institute of Fine Artsat Anverp. Academies and schools of painting, of sculpture, of engraving,of aíthitecture, and of drawing.Council r of perfecting instruction in the arts of drawing.ChAteau and collections of Mariemont.Japanese towerat Laeken.Chateau and collections of Gaesbeek. Great competition of painting, sculpture, architecture,and engravin yal museumsof painting and sculpture.Roy.almuseums of decoNative aiut trial arts.Royal conservatories of music ofBruxelles, Gand, Aers,and Liége.Schools of music, lausical societies,the great competition of musical composition.-Royalcommission of monuments. Restorationand conservation of church buildings, ofmonuments and "of objects of ancient art.Artistic furniture of the church-es.Expositions of objects ofart;statutes, medallions for memorable eventi, encouragements, subicriptions,purchases, missions in the interests of arts. The Royal Academy of Sciences, Letters,Lind Fine Arts.The Royal Flemish Academy of Philologyand Literature. The Royal Academy of FrenchLangusigeand Literature.The Royal Commission of History.The Bel- Man Historical Institute of Rowe.The direction of Belgian Library services and international exchanges. ,i Literary and artistic copyright&Committees of e :.'

be:. .-. c, . . : --7 k . . -- - ;- 7. . 1:,.....

. .t EDUCATION : NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF s. 133 . ffing of works andof dramaticmilsicalcompositions.Competitions, missions, travels,and encouragement of every natureconcerning letters (subsidies, subscriptions,purchases, assistance, etc.).Literary and artistic congressesand expositions.Public libraries.. Works complementary tothe school.Civic dec orations concerning theser#Ice. Services of inspection. Inspector of instruction in the art ofdrawing. Inspector ig inst;uptionin music. Inspector31' academies and schools of drawing. Inspector general of publiclibraries.' Inspectors of thefirstdaisof public Dinar* (2).

Inspectors of the second class ofpublic libraries (4). .

ADMINISTRATION OF PENSIONS s Director general. Directors (4). e Underdirectors (3). 41i **Chiefs o'fthe bureau (3). Retirement pcntTion8; (1) Of members of thepersonnel of the centraladmin- istration and ofestablishments under the Jurisdiction of the department.

, (2) Of communalprofessors and teachers and of membersof the teaching personnel in adopted .or adoptable primaryschools. (3) Of directors, professors, andmasters of study inthe normal schools -either provincialorfree, accepted, as well as theteachers of practicesch6ols annexed to the normals. . (4) Every officer andemploylee of the National who has rendered in educa.% lion, services admissible in thecalculation of his pension. Widows'atid orplians' chest: (1) Of professors, officers, and employees ofthe administrative order and the teaching order inpublic instruction. (2) Communal professors and teachers.Accountingof the national, provincial, and communal parts in thepensions: (1) Of communalprofessors and teachers,teachers of adoptedschools, and their directors, professors, andteachers in the acceptedprovincial normal schoolsaswellasthe teachers in the practiceschools annexed to them. i2) In the pensionsof the widows and orphansof professors' andteachers' eamunalthat have beenRffiliated with the providentchests dissolved in 1876. Provincial commissions ofpensions.

COUNCILS OF ADMINISTRATION OF THECHESTS OF PENSIONSUNDER THE JURISDICTION OF THE MINISTER OFSCIENCES AND OF ARTS Chests for widows and orphansof professorR,officers, and employees of the administrative andteaching order in publicinstruction.(Instituted by royal decree of January.24; 1880.)

President. . Vice president. 1 Members (4). Secretary-mèmber. ., Affiliated with this chest are:The officials andemployees whichbelonged to .i. a , the central administrationof the former ministryof publicOstruction; the .. 6 .professors, officials and employeesof the nationaluniversities and theschools .'..); annexed to them, aswellasthe higherinstitute of commerce atAnvers and the.. t,'-eli NationalProfessional Museum at Morlanwelz;members of the teaching*staff fl..,:r.g of the school of veterinary medicinevd of tbe NationalAgriculturalInstitute;

. -...1.(.1'-;.' mik . ..:-..,, . P!: . . 4 0 . . , . . . , . . -9..-: . .. ., . ..., .... .1. ':.. ' .j- %..' ..iri LS4.-"-.. . I* . ; ...'' rF .., :.-- ' -.... ,-. c....-...... : '' ' .."Z1 0 r ,: .:**,,a .0.f. ; ..10...% o:.. _t .r. r". : :'a _..!!r.I..! % 0.01':...' 0..;:i 11.'..:"J .11. 4: : :)S .."16't .:;% :i.:1 '.*2;;';. ...1-,.-" 4,.- ...r.er0 . .: 1' °:!2 -1:.M1-1M00Z.t'.' ;"4 ., .r.4.7_ litAtt_ gt :-.Ii.'47=...jRZ:-.-4110-sf'.- -.-..-°-2 41"-.¡% -''-' l ' -- '- '.--- ',N-A.B.,-"ii.1, :134_ 134 NATIbNALMINIEVIES OF EDUCATION

MD. civil members of the teaching personnelof the military school, of theschool ofwar,of .the cadetschooisoof the schools for pupils (wards) of thearmy; members of administrativeand teaching staff and the inspectors 'ofthe Royal ath4nées, national middle schools, 'and primarynormal schools andnormal sections of the national mhldleschools;Thepersonnel *of the nationalpractical middle schools of agriculture andhorticulture; the principal inspectoraand the cantonal inspectors of primaryeducation; secretaries of the cOuncilsof perfect- .ing education. Chests for the .widow8 and orphans ofcommunal professors andteachers. (Instituted try royal decree of NovemberS, 1876) President.

Vice president. 000" Members (4): Secretary-member. Affiliated with this chestare:The members of thy administrative andteaching personnel of the communal primary,kindergarten, and adult schools,aswell asthe colleges, middle schools,normal schools, technical schools,industrial schools, professional schools,shops of apprentices, commercial schools.,lunne- economics schools, academiesand schools of drawing, academies andschools of music, all belongingto thecommunes;members of the teaching pprsonnelof adoptedor adoptable primary schools; directors, professors, andmasters of study of the normal schools either provincialorfree, accepted, and ihe teachers of the practice schools annexedto these establishments.

s HONORARY OFFICIALS AND UNATTACHED

.1 Secretary -gegkeral. Director general. Directors general of personnel(2). Director. Director (outside ofthe list). , Director (outside of the list).Librarian. Director of Personnel. Chief of the division of personnel.

s get14

: . e. . Nifeb-

.4 . - . ,. - . . 'a- ; 4. ' 4. . . All'. ,71; fr- :` . - 7 ' s -^ --941P

owe

Appendix IV

A BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE'HISTORYAND PRFSENT LEGAL STATUS OF THE NATIONAL

. MINISTRY OF EDUCATION /IN EACH COUNTRY

Albania (MiastriaeMeeintit).1Albanians abroad began about 1903 toinfluence those in the homeland to utablishanatiopalgovern- mentand gradually sufficient mity of aim andeffortwks brought about for the country toannounceits independence fromTurkeyon November 28, 1912. From 14114 to*Juhe 3, 1917, when°anItalian general proclaimed itanindependent country, tlYereiTas practically nogovernment.. A republic *as subsequently established and in 1925 aconstitution adopted.In 1928, the constitutionwas sochangedas tomake-the Governmmtalimited monarchy and Ahmed .13gLif the PrAident,became the King.The executivepoweris- vested in the King and exercised through ministers ofstate.The cabinet of March 17,19 14, includedamirster of public instruction and public health and the officeseemsto have beencontinued through themanyshort- livedgovernments tind to have beenapartof the Ahmed Zogu cabinets of December 3, 1922, and of the Republic.In the present

Kingdom it is the ministry of culture.. .

. Afg1ltnii8tan (iffiniery of Education).The comPlete independenceof Afghanistanwasrecognized byatreaty withGreatBritain onNovember 22, 1921.In 1922 the Government becamea constitutional monarchy withsevenexecutive departments,oneof which . *as for education.sincethe- abdication of AmanullahKhanlate in 1928,no.information has been obtainableasto education and its administration in the Kingdom. Argentina (Miiii8terio de Jwtkiaebudrucción Pública).--Ar- gentina proclaimed its independence from Spanish ruleonJuly 9, 11 I.' 1816. .No stablegaernventexisted until theadoptionot thecon-

stitution of May15, 1853, constitution thatwasmodified in 1860, I

1866, and 1898. The first vigorousmovement for public education . wasroused by Pusident Faustino Sarmiento, who hadstudied schoolsystems in the ,United States and Europe and had be come-intimately acquainted with Humboldt,Guizot, and Horace Mann. During his administratiohf from1868 to 1873, hegaveliberal. In each thetitleof the ministry le given irethe language oi the country, if it could 0 'be secured in that form, 4 041 11476680 10 133 INO . - . ir

ev..1 7 " 1. J. - . 7 .. re. %.* ;kr. " r.n ) 7 t - "2- -4 .1.! k 4 c :; " '.1471:4Vi 136 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

national aidto the schools and organizedanormal school of the moderntype.Theec;nstitutionof 1860, still in effect with itsmodi.-.

, fications, provides for eight ministersorsecretaries to have charge of the affairs ofthenation.Thecompetence of each is determined . by law. Theyear1870 issetasthe date whnthe national Government really enteredupon apolicy of encouraging andtosonieextent direct- ing education,butaministry of justice, religion,and public instrùc- tionwasin existence and reportedin 1863.About1885 thename

. and the dutieswere sochanged that it becamethe ministry of justice and public instrpction midassuch it has continuedto function and , isnoyin operation. e Austria (ffunde,qminitsiterbtm fiirUnterricht).---After thedefeat of the armies of Maria,Theresa in 1762 and theexpulsiou of the Jesuits in 1773,alaw of 1774 reorganized public,education andpro- vided foracentral school commission(Studienhofkommission)to exercise t.,-eneral control.overall the schools.Itwasreplaced in1849 byaministry of education established byimperial decree.In 1860 the education ministrywasunited with that of the intior and in 1167reestablished by imperial decreeas aseparate " Histerium fiir Cultus and Unterricht."Thiswas . continued by the provisional eonstituti.onof the republic of October30, 1918,asthe " Staatsamt ffir Unterricht" Thelaw of March 14, 1919, againcombined it O with the Interior11der thenameof " Staatsamt fiirInneresun Unterricht."Article 77 -of the constitutionof October1, 1920, stipu-

o lates that the administra.tivefunctions of the Governmilniarclio be .iikex"cisedby the federal ministriesthat in number, jurisdiction,and organizationareto be established by law.Decree of April.9, 1923, based-onthe extraordinarypowersgranted the Federal (foverument by thefederal constitutionallasir of November%26, 1922, made the . ministry of educationseparate andgaveit the 'name of "i3undes- . miniteriumfiir Unterricht." _ Belgium (MinistiTe (1esSciences et des Arts ohMinisterievan Ifunstan enTatenskappen).Byits constitution of\1831,revised in 1921, Belgium isaconstitutional,repreventative, 'and hereditarymonarchy. From the thne ofthe adoption of theconstitution until 1878, \ nationalcontf,.."644:pudic' education, insofarassuch control existed, wasfor the-lostpt in the ministry of theinterior.\Viseadmin- istration whichcant. ntopower onJune 12,1878 creeedaministry . oof public ihstruction.Following theelections of June,1884, that ministrywasabolished andits attributes transferredto teinterior.

'The departmentbdcame known . , asthe ministry of theinte 'or and of ,::..... public instruction.Thepresent ministry of sciences and\ . .. fine arts .: wascreated by: royal decr4 oi1008 by taking the public-instruction . ,..r:-.. .. r,...:',.: ,..-:: . \ . . , ..116; ,.,. ,_ 4. - . . . .. [LJ-,,7,-.<...... ;...,.....,-,. . , , . ; -.1- ,....I.:. , . ._ .,...,,.. atils-7'."' i11'4 t) ' " _:___ ... _._._ ....._::...,A.,,, _.,,,,__,...,i,,.. .,::,:,,,,..,,,....;.;.,L:ii.,:-::** ,,_... \'.. t. .

-J1 !sr.- NAXIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDUCATION A 137

branch fromthe interior and uniting itwith the bureau of fine arts from theministry of labor. 1 MU/via (Ministerio deInstrucción,yAgricultura).A ministry of public instruction Wascreated by decreeonNovember 16, 1840, and D. TomfisFrias,oneof the first ministers, is creditedashaving been the greatestthat the Republic hashad.Only brief references tothe history of the ministryareavailatile.2At different. times it wasconnected with other ministriesstichasagriculture and public works.The constitution of 1880 providesthat the business of public 1) administration shall he transacted bysecretaries-of state, whosenumber shall bedesigpated by law.ist.t, present education and agriculture 'arecombined. Bulgaria (Ministerstvonanaro(lnova. pro8vie8hehenia).Con- , stantine Stephanove writes: 3 Until recently the Bulgarian Exarchy, which was formally 'recognizedby Turkey in 1871,wasactually, though unofficially, the Ministry of Educationof all the Bulgarians, wherever, found, for Bulgaria as a state did not as yet exist. Though its profesed functionas tolook ,iater the religions welfare of its flock, its efforts, nevertheless,weredirected chiefly toward the promotion of better education among the various BulgariancommunitiaiL under its jueis- diction. / Bulgaria becatneanindependent principality in 1878;aconstitution.w womulgated the followingyear..Article 161 provided for the mini.ryof education.Artide 78 made primary education free andcoinpulsoryfor all citizens of the kingdom. Apart from the constitution, the school system is basedonthe general education laws of 1885, 1891, 1909, and 1921 with amendmmts. T. Bourmoffwas the first minister of publk instructiOn. Chile (Afini8krio de Instrucción, Paliea).A ministry of pub- . " lic instructionwasestablished under the constitution shortly after % its adoption in1$33. The constitution of September 18, 1925, pto- vides thatthe number of ministers of state and their departments shall be determinedby law.It includes also the article in the formate which provides that: There shall beasuperintendency of public education, in whose charge will be the inspection of national instruction, and its direction under the authority of the government. By decree No. 7,500 of December ID, .1927, the administration of education in Chilewasreorganized and the superintendency pr9vided for in the constitutionisanesential part of the ministry. to .4rNiumo.

Memoriaque presenta el Ministro de Instrueción PtIblica y Agricultura Dr. Carloslias .

al Congresso Nacional de 1925.Primer Centenario de, la Reptiblica,La Pu, Bolivia, . Imprenta Renacimiento, 1925.220pp, IStephanove, Constantine.Bulgaria.¡n Educational Yearbook of tbe International insotituteof Teacher. Collette, Columbia University, 1924: New York, Macmillan Co., 1925.

.41P

. .- . . _ 138 . NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION China (Chiao Yu Pu).In ancient China, the .rulerShun (2205 B. C.),is credited with having created three administrative offices ofaneducational character.He appointed Hsieh minister of education to teach the people the duties, of the fivehumanrelationships. :1* Theoftceexisted in later dynastiesuptoi.122B. C.In the dynas- ties of Chou (1122 to 255 B. C"), 'educationwasin .the hands ofone of the six administrative departments and the system, begun in the time of Shun, of selecting by exqmination ablemenfor public service had developed toahigh degree of organization. imit continued with few interruptions and modifications until 1905, when itwasabolished by edict. The Chino-Japanese War in 1894-95 A. D., the Boxer out- break in 1901, and the Russo-Japanese War allcombinedto make the Chinese people realize that mbremodern methods of education must be adopted.The first modern school systOtnwasproposed by acommissionin1903 and in 1905 the throne createdaministry of ochcation to,uperintend andcontrol thenewsystem. TheManchu dynastywasoverthrown in 1911, and the ministry ofeducationof the Republic organized in NankingonJanuary 9, 1912.4After the uniting of the north and south, the.ministrywastransferred ,toPeking.In 1922, it promulgateda newscheme of education. At the close of the civil warof 1927-28, the NationalistPartyan-

. nounced the organic law ofthe national government at Nanking, Octobér 4, 1928.The main divisions of theGovernmentarefive yuanandoneof these, the executiveyuan,has 10 ministries,among them the ministry ofeducation. Colombia(Afinisterio de Educación Nacioii",0 ."Article 132 of the constitution of August 4, 188; statesthat the number, designa- tion, and precedence. of theministers shall be determined by law, and leaves it to thePresident to assign to each minister thebusiness atpertains to his department:Evidentlyaministry of public i\ttructionwasestablished shortlyafterthe 'adoption of theconstitution for JestisCasas Rojas,asminister, reported to thecon- gressin 1888. An organiclaw, No. 39 of 1903,reorganized eduvation in Colombia anddecree No. 491of 1904, issued to put law Ng. 39 into effect,fixed thepowersand duties of the ministryof .. public instruction.Laws 25 and 31 of 1917 and 17 of 1923,further defined its authority. About.1925;it became theminisiryof instruetion ahd public health(Ministerio de InstrucciónySalubridad Púb-

heft) and remainedsountil by Law 56 of November 10,1927,the : 'manewaschanged to the ministry of national'education. Costa Rica (Secretaria deEstadoenel Despacho deEducacrit5Th Públka).--In accordance witharticle 105 of the constitutionof De- _. r _ , 1..l',:...... kw, Ping Wen. The Chin*fte System of Public Education.Published by Teachers i

. .. College, Columbia University, NewYorkeity;\1915.209 pp. 3 b I. ,v11-"r-:-r( . . =: . 6. -0.4;: ; . I \ .;- ., z Ts . "- 4 .'s **. t* e 4 ; :. t . 4V:16 .r NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 139

cember 7,1871, and modified frequently since that date, administra- tionis carriedonby the president throughsevensecretaries of state, oneof which is thesecretary ofpublic education.Article 19 of the lawof primary instructionasconipiled in 1893 and covering theyears. 1886 to 1892provides forasecretariat of education assisted bya counci1.3 Cuba (Seeretaríd de Instruccen PúblicayBellas Artes).The constitution of February 21, 1901, provides foracabinet;thenumber of memberswasfixed Itt, eight by the organic law of executive powerpromulgated in 1909 and later increased to nine.Thepres- entsetretariat of public instruction and fine art is legally defined in chapter VII of the law of 1909.6 Czechoslovakia (MinisterstvaAfleolstviaNeirodni Osvéty).The ministty of schools and national educationwasfirst provided for in alaw of November 2, 1918, passed by the Czechoskivak nationalcom- mittee.The constitution of February 20, 1920, give.% the president powerto appoint and dismiss cabinet members and determine their

number. The competence ofaministry is fixed by law. . . Danzig (Senatsabteilung fiir 137i,ssenschaft,Kunst und Volkbild- ung)..-Article 25 of the constitution of August11, 1920, established' tilesenate-of the Free City;article 35 makes it the highest authority in the land mild gives it the right to cònduct the administration of the State in accord with the constitution.Thesenatedivision for science,art, and popular instruction is itsdivisisonfor administering education. 4 Denmàrk (Undervi8n1ngsminWerium). From1848 to 1916 the aaministrationof educationwasin the ministry of edwition and ecclesiastical affairs. On June 15, 1915, the Danish people adopted t, a newconstitutionor" GriAndlov " in which the executive'roweris vested in the Crown, which exercises its authority through itsap- pointed ministers.The ministry of instructionwascreated by Royal resolution of April28, 1916. Dominican, Republic (Secretaria de E8tado de JusticiaeInenw- ei4nAiblica).Th6constitution of November 18,184r,revisedon June13, 1924, provides in articles 54, 55, and 56 for the creation by lawof secretaries of state and the prescription of their duties and attributes.The report ofacommission sent by the Congress of the

. . ' United States in 1871to inquire into conditions in the Republic tells t'-

ofaministrof public instruction.In 1884 the central adFistra- ." ".1; ',Ileptiblica de Costa Rica.Compilación Legislativa de Instrucción Primaria,1886-1892. Edición oficlatAmérica Central.San Jose, Tipografta Nacional, 1893. sRepilbllca de Cuba.Secretarla de ,Ilbstrucción PtiblicayBellas Artes.Compilatift de Leyesy.Disposicionesquetienen ese Cariketer Vigentes en liateria de Instrucelon:

Primaria,Habana, Imprenta El Sligo XX,1918.56pp. :$ . :,

11. 140 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

I tive office concerned with educationwasthe ministry of justice, development, and public instruction.The organic code and regulations of public education publishedin 1915 setsout the work of thesecretary of state for public instruction.At present the secretariatof education is combined with that of justice.7 . Ecuador (ifini8terio deInstruc((-)n Pública, Correos., Teligrafo8, yBellas Artes).Ecuador becameindependent in 1830.Eleven different constitutionswereadopted between 1830 and1906.That of 1884, withmodificationsof 1887 and 1897, Kgmained inforce until the promulgation of the 'Constitutionof Dec'ember 28,1906.This wasin effect until the time ofthe militarycoupd'état of July,1925. In 1863alaw which providedforasystem of educationdefi- nitely modeledonthe French schemewaspassed.In the following 10 years. the lawwas sochangedasto beinedective.A ministry

of public instruetion, ecclesiasticalaffair's,etc.,wasfunctioning in , 1885. By virtue of the coristitution of1906, suchaministry isone of the five executivedepartments. Thereport for 1928 is issued by the ministry of publicinstruction, posts, telegraphs, and finearts. Egypt (Wizaret elilfaaref).---The first ministry of educationin Egypt was-éstablishedby Mohammed Ali in 1836. Royal'proclamation Nck 42 of1923, providing for the constitutionalgoignment of the EgyptianStatefauthorizes the Kingto exercise his potver through the medium ofministers. ADministry of education ferms pa'rt of.the government. England (Board ofEducation).National participationiiteduca- tion began in England withthe factorya.ct of 1802.In i 33, the House of Commons voted220,000, subsequently madeaninnual grantl " in aid of private subscriptions for tile,erectionO'ischool houses for the educationof thepoorerclasses' of Great Britain." An Order in Council, in1839 created thfe 'Committee of. the Privy CouncilonEducationto superintend the application ofany sums voted by Parliament for thepurposeof promoting publiceducation.SirfamesKay-.Shuttleworthwaschosenasitssecretary.The Forsta Act of 1870laid the foundation ofariational publicelemen- tary scht4, syseein andgal% thecommitieeof the council considerablepowers.The Royal CcimmissiononSecondary Education, the . BriceCommission of1894, recommended thecreation ofadepart- ment presidedoverbyaminister responsible.toParliament. Such aministrywasestablished by theBoard of Educationact of 1899: Apart from ciOtainmisce?laneouspowers'undervariousactsof Parliament, itsfiffictions andpowers are now set out 'in the educationact,1921, which consolidatedprevious legislation,and- the IL teachers' superannuationacts, 1918-4925. .

, _ . ....,;,1 .1.-...,:,..-... w Santo Domingo.Lau, itatutestetc.C6dIgo Organ's°y Reglamentario de Educacite ..u.:.i. Comp 1 6108414 Santo.:7 Domingo,Imp..14 Cull& de Amdrica, 1915. 840 1 .. . pp, --...,40,--1,.. _.,,,,,, --_,k,____.,..z.,_-_,.--....-.1 . ,- _ - a - . , . _ . : ,,,, -,..__.:...... ,-d_4_-___:,-_.,..-__ii,i--.._...._-_--_-_---- , ...__._ e. PP' NATIONALAtIkISTRIES OF EDUCATION 141 E8tonia (Hariduministeeriurn).---Whenthenewrepublicwas organized in 1918, provisionwasmade for it ministry of public instruc- .tion to organize andpromoteall kinds of educational activitiesnot on y n sc oo sbut inery way0eve op cuturein genera. By the constitution of Jun 15, 1920, thenumber of ministries andtheir jurisdictionareestablis ed by speciallaw.Under suchalaw, the ministry of educationn wfunctions. . Finland (Opetunnini terio6:Undervial,ingeninisterium).---Dur- ing Russian domination themore orlessautonomous Finlandwas governet ythernpe ila enate for Finland. o It consisted, several departments. dir ctedby responsible headscalledsenators. One of the departments-asthat ofEcclesias4ca1Affairs and Edu- cation. By the constit tion, givenatHelsineorsJuly 17, 1919,' the executivepowerisested in the \andacouncil of ministers consisting ofteminister ofstate and others, theirnum- ber and jurisdictiontos fixed by law. In thetraiiiition from the oldto thenew governme It,therewaslittle change ih the. form of administration. Thesena ebecame the council of miniVersand its various departmentsbecatethe ministries.Theirgtatt\ishas since been altered somewhat'by law.Section 3 of the law ofMarch 30, 1922, which fixes thenum erof ministriesat 10, stipulaesthat the functions ofthe ministry tfeducationare :To administrmatters pertainingto education, teEvangelical LutheranClufch, other religious organizations,anmatters pertainingtothearts, science, ' andsports. .France(Afinigèrede'InstrudionPubliqueetde8 Beaux Art) .Thelaw of May11802, created three inspectorgen ls charged withvisiting the lys*annually.They constitutedakr d of directingcoins'..itee. ndecree of March 17,1808, provided that thegrandm:. erof thuniversity should bepresentedto the Emperor by-theMinistry of.he Interior tor thepurposeofreport- in on annually the univeitestablishments. .,..nd membersIti. At the-sametimeacouncil of the universityof 30 members was' created.Itwasdivided into fivesections reportingto the General Assembly,and the council,as áwhole, had welhdefined,important administrativeduties.The ephemeralorder of February17, 1815, suppressed thegrandmaster of the university and replaced thecouncil bythe RoyalCouncil of Public Instructionof 12 members, which was to submit is deliberationsto the Ministry of the Interior fot - ' 4 the approvalordisapproval of the King.The orderwas never Or 416. II execiited.That of August05 followinggavetoacommission, of 5 memberscalled the Commission ofPublic instruction alltin pow-ersof the formergrandmaster and of the council of the university andplaced it formally underthe Ministry of the Interio

. . 142 NATIONAL rITISTRIES OF 11DUCIATION

An ordinance of July 22, 1820, changed the number of membersto seven,andoneof November 1 of thesame'year, Ove to the commission thenameof RoyalCoun'cilof Public Instruction and fixed

the duties. of the members and of the council. On the21st .of December followingtwo orders were passed;oneconferringon M. Corbière the presidency of the Royal Council of Public Instruc- tion and the other making himaMinister-Secretaryof State and

amember of the Council of Ministers. The. ministerialerain French education had begun. In 1822, when Corbière became Minister of Financeanordinance of June 1 reestablished the title of grandmaster of the university andgaveit to the Abbot Frayssinous. Twoyearslater,onAugust 26; 1824, Louis XVIII created the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs and of public instruction andgaveit to thesameabbot.After the revolution of1830 the departMent of public instructionwas sepa-

, rated from that of re1igion.8 Thepresent Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts has its legalstatus in the constitutional law of February 25, 1875, which defines the duties of the President and of his ministers. Greece (Hypurgeion epiton EkkieffiaAtikon kai te8Den.iosias

Ekpaideu;seos).-4n, modern Greece the first ministry of public in- struNionseemsto have been established during theyears1821 to 1929, when Gieecewasgaining independence from Turkey.The t minister, M. Soutzos,wasappointed by the assembly of Trezene. a 6nderedareport dated ,January 14, 1828,onpublic intruction.. Thesameassembly appointed Jean Capodistrius of Corfu president 1 of the Government forseven years,1821 to 1833.Throughout his rule he furthered public education andgaveto the elementary schools much of the character which they still retain.With theéstablish-

. ment of the monarchy in 1833, the ministry-of public instructionwas retained and by 1880 the office had been held by 52 different mini4ters, someof them for twoorthree times.Greece becamearepublic-on April 13, 1924. .The ministry of public instruction is continued under the constitution published June 3, 1927. Guatemala (Secretaria de Educacitin POlica).--The secretariat of public instruction is provided for by the constitution of the Republic, promulgatedonDecember11,1879.Thepowersvested in the secretaryaresetforth in regulations concerning the different secretaries of state, dated October 27, 1897. The title of secretariat .r ofpubliCinstructionwaschangedto that of secretariat cif public education by executive decree dated January 15, 1924.The. duties - =1. , - t., . . Cournot,AkqtoineAugustin.DesInstitutionsd'Instr+tionPubliqueenFrance.Paris, Librairie 41) L. Hachette et Ct., 1864. 1 1 . : !

- O. ; :- . :*": " . . - d's . ..! . 1':'.)2:1 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 143 4 of thesecretariatareset forth alsointa.órganiclaw andregulatAons of publicinstructior published in 1912.v

Haiti(Départemente de' InstructionPub lique).Haitiwas koclaimed independent of FranceJanuary 1,1804.Inthe governmentmaintained under the constitutionof October 9, 1889, therewas asecretaryof state for publicinstruction.The present constitutionwasratified June 12, 1918.Article 25 gives the Presi- dentauthority to appoint and dismiss theministers of state.A. law of May 30, 1924,provides for the Government departments; apresi- dential decree of December 10. 1924,fixes the functions and dutiesof each departmentincluding that of education. Honduras (Secretaría de E8tad9 ednyiDespacho de Instruccián 4 Miblica).The administration of the educational systemof Hon- duras is vested by the constitutionof October 3, 1824, in the secre: tariat of public instruction.The various bodies through which he exefcises his authorityareprovided for in the Code of Public Instruction published in 1923." Hungary (V aiMs-fsKözoktatisgyéi Ministerium).Hungary first becameanindependent kingdomin1001.From 1689, when the crownsof Hungary and Austriawereunited, to 1848 education in the twocountries developed along similar lines.In the brief independ- encewhich Hungary attained in 1848anational assemblywascreated and Baron Joseph Eötvöswasmade first minister of education.He proposedanelementary education law but thewarof independence and the absolute rule that followed prevented Eötvös's plan from being adopted until after the compromise of 1867 when he agairr became minister of public instruction and tookupthe work broken off in 1848.Since thenaministry has been constantly maintained, with the exception possibly ofafew months in 1918 and 1919 during the régimes of the Republic and the soviet." . Iraq (Ministry of Education).Iraq, freed from Turkey during the World War,wasrecognizedas anindependent state and placed .., underamandate to Great Britain.On Recember 14, 1927, by treaty with Great Britain, it became entirely indtpend§nt. The organic law passed bythe Constituent Assembly in June, 1t124, provides for alimited monarchyandaresponsible government.Education is in charge ofaminister,amèmber of the cabinet. Irish Free State (An Roinn Oideachais) .--Bytreaty of December, 1921, with the British Government, the Irish Free Statewasgiven thesameconstitutional status in the commúnity of nations, knownas .- I, sloeOrgiinicayReglamentaria de Inatrucción Pública,Guatemala, Tipografta Na- clonal, 1912. 740 wo lo Códig0 de Instruccibu Pública.Tegucigalpa, Tipografta Nacional, 1923.99 pp. . lt Fiongrie.Ministère des.Culteset de !Instruction publique.Exposeour ledevelloppe- . . ment (11167-1877)et our riStat actuel de l'Instruetlon Publique, ete.*Budapeet?1131- prImerie dejiTh1vera1t41Royal Hongroise, 1878, . . 144 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUUTION the British Empire,asthe self-governing dominions.The ministry of education is provided for in articles51, 52, 53, and 54 of theconstitution act (No.1 of1622);and section 1 subsection 5 of themin- e isters' and gecretaries'act (No. 16 of 1924).

. Italy (MinWero della EducaziomNazionale).The ministry of public instructionwascreated by royal patent of November 30, 184T....

The first incumbentwasCesare Alfieri di Sostegno.12 Byroyal , decree of September12, 1929, No. 1661, thename waschanged from ministry of public instructiontoministry of national education. Japan (11f6.mbu-Sho,Nippon).---Therestoration of the Meiji and the beginning of thenew erafor Japan took place in 1868. An.educational officerwasappointed immediately %and various schoolsestab- lished.Threeyewslater the department of educationwasinstituted for the control ofthe educational affairs of the wholecountry. In 1872acode of education modeledonthe Frenchsystemwas adopted.Thepresent .organization of the department of education isfixed by imperialordnance No. 279 of1896. Latvia (Izglitibas lifinistrija).---Theconstitution of Latviawas passed by the ConstituentAssemblyonFebruary 15, 1922.It does not provide specifically foraministry of education but foracabinet of ministers whosenumber and dutiesaretobe prescribed by law. Under the Russianlaws efrectie before the sovereignstate of LatviawasproclaimedonNovember 18, 1918, therewas adirector of education and the dutiesof that officeareexpanded and vested in the ministry of education. 40. Liberia (Departmentof Public Instructio0.--The general author- ify foradepartment of education is given insections 1 and 5 of Article III of theconstitution of July6, 1847. No system of schools wasprovided until1869 and from thatyearuntil 1900 the department ,of the interiorwasthe executive office concerned with education. was . The 6partment of public instruction created by legisla- tiveenactment in January, 1900; andonFepruary 5, 1912, the vneral educationact, superseding all previous acts relating to education,.becamealaw. The department is under the direction of acabinet officer, the seckilry of public jngtructiori. Lithuania(Ministerija- Srietimo).Lithuaniawas=proclaimed independent February16, 1918.Section 56 of the constitution of August 1, 1922,.. provides that the number of ministers and their duties shall .be prescribed by law. By the public Kliool laveriof Octobr 6, 1922, the ministry of enlightenment ischarged with the administration of. fill schools, . Mexico (Secietaria de Educcrei4n, Pública).---Mexico becamea republic in 1824.tittlewasdone for public education and the . d

7 , la Italy.Minletero della Pubblica IstrusloneMemorla,1927.Ropla, Pfovvedltotate . . °morale dello Eltsto. 1927.(V)

1 1 . -., - -t tits; _ 11-:7;EJ .1ta_ 4 '5 0

NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION . 145 constitution of 1857 didnot gkre the-Federal Governmentpowerto developanational schoolsystem. A secretariat of justice and public instructionwascreated about1857 and continuedto function until onMay 16, 19'05, when PresidentDiaz acting in accord with laws previously passed by the Congress,issuedadecree creating the secretariat of state for public instructionand fine arts.Justo Sierra wahosen to he the firstsecretary.The secretariatwasabolished by the constitution adopted in1917.Article 90 provides for the creation by law ofthe secretariatsnecessaryfor administration;a law of April 13, 1917, prescribesthe functions of each secretariat. A decree of September29, 1921, reestablished the educational office under the title ofsecretariat ofpuf)liceducation. Netherlands (finisterievan.Onderwijs, KumtenenWetenschap- .pen).The constitutionof the Neth6rlands, by whichit isaconstitutional and hereditarymonarchy,wasfirst promulgated in 1814 and has been revisedsevendifferent times, thelatest in 1922. Byalaw of 1857 the generalsupervision of educationwascommittedto the ministry of the interiorand continuedto be with that ministry.until by royal decreebf September25, 1918, the ministry of education, science, andartwasinstituted. Nicaragua(iitinifteriode In 8tiiicci($n lica).Nicaragua became anautonomous republic in 1847. A constitutionwasPromul- gated August 19, 1858; anotheronJuly 4, 1894, with amendments of December 10, 1896 and others in1905, 1912, and April4,1913.The first educational decreeonrecord is that of September 20, 1877.It provided forasystem of public school difection and inspection under the minister of public instruction.The regulations published in 1884 governing the national institutes provide fortwo central offices of education both under the ministry.Under the constitution of 4 March30, 1905,aministry of foreign affairs and public itruction was oneof the five executive departments.Itseemsto have functioned until aker the adoption ofthe present constitution of April 5, 1913.The office isnowthe-ministry of public instruction,oneof the six 'executive departments.

1 New Zealand (Department of Education).TheProvinces of New i Zealandwereabolished in 1876, but the provincial schoolsystems . remained in operation until1878, when the present§y§te.m cameinto ii

force.Under the *educationact, 1877,adepartment'of education s. ... 41 presidedoverbyaminister of educationwasestablished and has continued . . I to the present time. Norway (DetKongeligeKfrice-ogUn4ervi8ning8départentent). The RoyalEcclesiastical and Educational Departmentwasestab- .. , t..lishedin 1814, shortly after the adoptionof the Grundlov of May . ..4 17,1814, article. 12 of whichaeciarettinageneralwaythat "the ':::::-:.; , King will aiportionthe Government's.. activities.. amongthe members , . . _;. .. - s ;.,2,-. :-.74,..:.e 1 a ; r . . ..- % I "!ri''.,ti.__ ... ;* ..-...... t.".i.....4. %." Z':* 't'l.\-.: .- '''t .1-1¡;:**.1.-1' a"..:-1. ...%,.....1/: -P`' WI ':--. '... ;..-% '.:%1 g -IA.. 71..1'.4t.*;;-71,4t t'''4'I. . ._ . ..r... - ' 71,k i - ..4.1' .%14.et '' ; e -..t."`-'-;;.- .00:?..,..."'',`:'-'-',.,%.1.. i7.-.-: A.:444,...»..... --3 _ ...... : --,6...... --.....1,,-- _'_-.....,-...... ------,..,,, ,-4- _71. '1.,:_i_.1.;.- .±.4_,!..-...t2 .1,..!, - ..4_44-,,,..,:v Y, -.r._ -__I 1 L >,..e...... "; ,... 1.1,-.):1_,-.2.r..----ggr-a. -s.,,....of 146 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION A

of the cabinet in the mosteffective manner.".Thedepartmentsuc-

ceededaboai'd of 'three members(firectlyresponsible to the King, 1. that from 1805 had had controlof all schools preparing for university entrance. Panama (Secretaria de InstrucciónPúb lica).----Panama asserted its

independence from Colombia in 1903, and adoptedaconstitutionon P= February 13, 1904.The constitutionwasamendedonDecember 16, 1918. From the timeof the establishment of the first government, asecretariat of public instruction has beenoneof the five'executive departmenis.It functions under article 636, Title V,of the Adminis. trative Code; Law 35 of 1919; and Law 41 of 1924. 41%,

Paraguay (Mini8terio de Ju4icia,Cultoe1)18truggión):The " istry is provided for in article 8of the constitution of November 25, 1870, which reads.: " Primary education isobligatory and shall be given preeminent attention by the Government.Congress shall hear annally the report of the minister concemedregarding this matter in order toftirther. byevery meanspossible the instruction of the--citizens."By law of October 18, 1889, secondaryand university educationarealso placed under4pe jurisdiction of theministry of education.The present school'organization follows theplan adopted in 1896; the plan of studies is that approved by decree No. 2814 of February, 1915;the national council of education isorgan. ized1;3:-law of July 15,4899. Per8ia (V ozarat Moaref).Thet-constitutionwasapproved De- cember 30, 1906,Article 19 provides that" The foundation of schools. at theexpenseof the State and the people, and compulsory education, 'must be in accordance with the law -of the ministryof education.All primary and secondary schools must be under the diiection and suiweillance of the ministry of education." Peru (Minigerio de Justicitz, Instrucción, Culto, Ren4cenci4y Prisione8).Peru declared itsindependelicefrom Spain in 1821 and fivallywonft in .1824.Constitutionswerefranied in1828, 1933, and 1938.From 1844 to. 1879 the countrywas,for .tlie most part, atpeaceand'sprosperous.Since 1879 it has frequently. been involved in foreignwars orinternal distIrbances.The presidency wasseized bya coupd'é,tat in 1919 andainew constitution progiul- gatedonJanuary 18, 1920. From 1821 to 1850 the system of public instructionwasin themaiii undertheadministration of the executive authority actingthrough the ministry of public instruction."Inoneformoranother'ir... education ministry has been. maintained since 1850.Its authority

yascorisiderably strengthened by the school law of 1905.Article 125 1 of theconstitution of January 18, 1920, provides that ublic adminis- . , , g1 I!1- Ade - - 'IsEducación.Nacional.Trabajos de laCornish%Especial de lustrucc Boletin N. 1 .A ... Fabrt,4911. .167p, . Wok Litografist Tip- ICarlos I . 4.1)4;;;,:

1!:1 . AI; - -; - . . - lo": "r . . A *** ,41t.. "' - $ ' 1, . - - - , 4,1 t NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF. EDUCATION 147 trationis incharge of ministers of state, -*hosenumber,aswellas thebureauscomprehended under eachministry, shall bedesignated by law.One of thesevenministries is that ofjustice, instruction, worship; publicwelfare, and prisons. Poland (Afini8ter8two117yznati Religijnych iOgutiecenia Publi- cznego).Bypapal bull of July 21,1773, theJesuits we'resup- pressed and theirwealth, holdings, andschools became the property of the-nation. A ,c9nstitutional.amendmeri passedby the Diet.on October 14, 1776,createdacommission of national educpion, among .11 the first ofthe national.ministries of 6ducation ofits kind *to be created in thehistory of modern education.About 1776 itwasgiven full control of thewealth formerlybelonging to the Jesuits.It -functioned actively untilthe partition in 1795a.nd in its actsantic- ipatedpallyof themoreimportant provisionsin present-day public-school systems. Durina.the time of thepartition (1795, to 1918) education iheach annex'atewasin the control ofGermany, Austria,orRussia.The independenceof Polandwasproclaimed od-. November 9, 1918; the present constitution wasadoptedon March 17; 1921. By its termsthe Presidentexercises his authority through ministers responsible to theSeim.. The number,competence andmutual relations ofthe ministers isaetermined by special statute.The status of the presentministry of religiouscreeds and public education is ba.4edupon alaw of 1920. Portugal (Minigterio de In8trucçãoPublica).From 1844 to1880 the schoolsysteitof Portugalwasadministered in accórdwitha 'decreeof 1844.In 1859 the decreewasamended to providefora direction general of publicinstruction in theministry of the interior. A brief hiatus occurred in 1870when, under the dictator government, alaw of August 16 createdaministry of publicinstruction but this ,did not endure ind the niinistryfell with the dictatorship.The law of' May 2,1878, which took effect in 1880continued the central administration in theminigtry of the interior.A separate.ministry of public instructiónwas.created by decree ofpril 5, 1890, ahdsup- pressedonMarch 3, 1892.The reformsOfDecember 22, 1894, which wereplaced in .forceonJune 18, 1896, leftethe administrationof ..,.. education in the ministry ofthe interior where it remaineduntil after the establishment of therepublic and the adoption of theconstitution August 20, 1911, By thatconstitution t4epr6identexer- cises his authority throughministries created by the, Congress.A

arateministry of .publicin4ructionwasestablished in 1918.. . Rumania(MimieterdInstruefiwnii).The twoprincipalitier

- Wallachia andMoldavi.;proclaimed their unionasRumaniaon December23, 1861.The publicinstilictionlaw of 1864, given under-

, the reign..of Primp Alextindru Joan I,provided.e thatwiinistry ; :

. overpublic and private,i4istruptior should be 'supreme authority,. , ; I ould exercise. itspoverthrough'41peq4nent.council-- A°' .!.; ex . e - 47.,.0..

k}, 148 NATIONALMINISTRIES OFEDUCATION'. 1. .1

struction'.The law isdated November25, 1864, and signedby N. Cretulescli;ministersecretary of state for diedepartment of justice. 'religion,and publicinstructioii.About 1866justice becamea separate department andthe educationalofficewasknownasthe Ministry of publicinstruction andreligictn(MinisterulInstructiuneiPub lice §i al Cultelor). From July19, 1864,to July 7,1900, the office washeldon43 differentappointmerits."Asaresult of theWorld :War, Bessarabia,Bukovina, andTransylvaniawerejoinedto Ru- mania in1918 makingakingdom thatinareaand popillationismore than doublethat ofpre-warRumania andnecessitatingsomechanges ingovernment. By theconstitution ofMarch 28,1923, the exectitive poweris exercisedin thenameof theKing byministerialdepartments anyof whichmaybe createdorsuppressed bylaw.Among the12 departmentsis the ministryof education.Apparentlythe depart,- . ment of religionwasseparated fromit at thetime of the.adoption of theconstitution. Salvador (Mi.Werio Rela('ioncs Keeriores,Justicia,Instrue- ción,Pública,BeneficenciaySanidad).TheCentralAmerica Fed- erationwasdissolved in1839 andSalvador becameanindependent republic.ItsconstitutionwasproclaAedonJune 12,1824, and has been modified.sevetaltimes since,the latest ill1886. A ministryof justice andpublicinstructionwasfunctioningin thai,year.The executivepoweris vestedin thePresident whoacts thrbugh four ministriesoné of whichis the ministryof foreignaffairs, justice, publicinstruction,charity, and stinitation. ..Jugoslavia(MinistarevoProsvete).'rheindependenceof Serbia from Turkeywassigned July13, 1878, andproclaimedonthe 22d of thefollowingAugust.During thestruggleforindependence whichbegan in 1804and ...previousto thetreaty therewas a minister of publicinstruction in1811, againin 1837,and in1865. A law voted in182, which tv'ent intoforce in1883,reorganizedpublic instructionin Serbia andoutlined thepowersandduties ofthe minister of.publicinstruction.Withsome modifications in1898 this lawcontinued ineffect until 1.904whenalawpromulgatedon April19 changed thesystem of educationconsiderablybut continued theministry. On December1, 1918,a*union withthe CroatsandSloveneswas proclaimeddonJune 28,1921, theconstitutionof theKingdom . of theSerbs, Croats,and Slovenes wasadopted.Thename .was , -officially changedto Yugoslaviain October,1929.Article90pro- vides foraministerialcouncilcomposedof alltheministers and :. resp-onsibleto the King ándtheNationalAssembly.One ofthe 18 '..i ministries noviin opikation -'1... is thatof education.

.1.-. . . 1 1 efr : .. :... laRumania.Laws, treatjestetc. _; .. Colectlunealegilor,regulamentelox,programlor ql 11.-4Iferitalordeclelonl `11 dispoOtiunigenerals ale :;_it,:::. acestaldepartament, de la 1864-1901. 1., ..,4t,...::Buturet4 ImpaimarliStatul . ..!. 1901. r.:*: t ... ". . . 7.' 1-::*n -.i. .';r °::....' II-,.'-u:'4.-*: ,.. t : ' ---7?'"L--P 1 71 '141. 7"' NATIONAL 411INISTRIES OF EDUCATION 149 Siam (KrastuangDhamaleara).In1891 Prince Damrong, director of the departmentof education,wassenton atour to Europe to study western methods of administration.In 1893, following his return,the department of public educationwasraised to the rank of aministry and entitled " the Ministry of Public Instruction." The name waschanged to ministry of education in 1919and again changed to ministry of public instruction in 1926. S pain, (Mini8terio de Instraccién, PúblicayBe1la8 Art.e8).By the constitution of June 30, 1876; Spain isaconstitutional monarchy, the executive authority resting in the king and being carriedoutby responsible ministers. A military directoratewasestablishedon September 15, 1923, and superseded byacivilgovernmentonDecem- ber 3, 1925. The education law of September 9, 1857, prpvidedfor acentral educationaltiuthorityin the ministry of the interior..The censusof 1900 showed 63percent of the total population unableto read and write and because of thisaseparate ministry of public instruction Was constituted in éonformity witharOyaldecree of April 18, 1900, andaninvestigation ol primary educationordered. This ministry,nowknownasthe ministfy of publicistruction and finearts, continues to beoneof main branches of executive division of the Govermnent. S (Ecklesiastikdepartementet).---The constitution of1809, )r still in effeet, provided for nine ministriesone of which is the depart- 11 mentof educaton and of ecclesiastical-affairs.Its.dutiesweremodi- fied by the first public elementaryeducationstatute in 1842, the world in 1897, and thestitutenowin' force enacted in1921. A central board for th6 supervision of secondaryschoolsWasformed in it in 1905 andasimilar board for elementaryschbols in 1913. Turkey (Afaarif'7dcalete).--Aminister of public inAructionwas appöintedasearlyas1857 by Sultan Abd-ul-Medjia,A form of constitutionalgovernmentwasprocláirnedin 1876;itwasset aside ill 187B byanautocracy andwasnot restored until July 23, 1908; This constitutional farm coutinued uritilafrdamental lawwas voted by the Grand National Assembly,Jahuar 20, 1921, and revised by law of April 20, 1924.Throughout the p6riod from1876to the establishment of the republic in 1924,amin' try of public instruction

was a partof the Sultan's administrative organization.By thepres-. . ent constitution the executivepoweris v ested in the President who

exercises it throughaprime minister and other ministers,whose . number and dutiesarefixed bylaw,chostnfromamongthe members

of the National Assembly.The minister,orcommissar, of public .-11 instruction,isoneof them. .

Union of South Africa (Miniititryof the Interior; of Public Heath . ,

.and ofEducation).---linderthe terms of the South Africaactof 1909, .

the . self-governing colonies of the Cape qf. .Good. rive,. Natal, the . . ; . . . ./ 'r .d , :1I; :'ZZ : A"'";. J. "tr. .:; , - ; - -0 - ... .. a _ 150 NATIONALMIN,ISTRIES OFEDUCATION Transvaal, andthe Orange RiverColonywereunitedonMay 31, 1910, underonegovernmentby thenameof thernion of South Africa. The originalcolonies becameProvinces. At theformation of the 'Union theProvinceswen;given legislativeandadministrativepowers overeducation exclusiveof highereducation foraperiod of five yearsand thereafteruntil theParliament shoulddecree otherwise. A Union departmentof education wasimmediately created toadmin- ister highereducation.It isretained withconsiderably .widened powers. Utruguay (Mini8teriodeInstraccit;n Públiea).Uruguaydeclared its independencefrom SpainonAugust 25, 1825;theconstitution was swornJuly 18, 1830.The firstimportant lawfor public educa- tionwaspassed in 1877largelythrough theefforts of JOséPedro. Varela, sometimesknownasthe HoraceMann of Uruguay.,whowas inspector ofschools inMontevidvo and hadfounded theSociety of of PublicEducation.That law created adirection general ofpubM education attached tothe ministryof home affaips.Sefior Varelawasthe first director.Forsome yearsitwas agaitof the -ministry ofpublic development.In1008 itwasattachedtothe ministry ofindustry, laborand publicinstruction, butitwas continued from 1877 to1918when itwasreplaced sbythe councilfor elementaryeducation andthe trainingof teachers.By the Constitu- tion ofJanuary 3, 1918,the executiveauthority inUr4guay is divided betweenthe President,with theministries offoreign affairs, warand marine,and theinteriorontheonehand 'aifdacouncil af nationaladministrationofhinemembersonthe otherwjlicll has authority overthose matters, notexpresslyreservedfoi the President, sucha§publicinstruction, industry,the treasuryand public health.The authorityis exercisedby secretariesof state created by law.Among themis therministry ofpublicinstruction. Venzuela (Ministeriofle.lustrueeik: Pública).---TheRepublicof Venezuelawasformed in 1830.Its fifteenthconstituti zt.spro- 4's molgatedonApril 22,1904.Thiswasfollowed by others othe dates August 5, 19091June 13, 1914;and June 19,1922.The e no* inforce is that ofJune 24, 1925.The first attempt atnatio 1 control ofeducationseemstohave beenanationaldirection ofpr publi ,maryeducation established as apartof theministry of development (eFamento)by presidentialdecree of Jupe27, 1870. , By law ofMay24, 1881,which enumeratedthe ministriesof the Federal executive,thedministry ofpublic instructionwascreatedand the first minister,AnibelDominici,wasappointedonMay 31.The ministrywascontinued and is at present partof the executivebranch

of the government. .41; .

).* Bibliography ao.

In addition to the- official bulletins,annual reports, and unofficfal periodicals dealing .with educationalmatters,ihefollowing listed publicationsarehelpfulin gainingaknowledge of'conditionsinthe various countries of the world, their formsof governmeht, their educational systems, and thewaysin which educationis administered. The list is arranged under theclassifications:General; government;constitutions;general educational; histpryof education;countries with national ministries ofeducation, listed inalphabeticalor- der;and countries wIthout nationalminist*s of education,listed in the order of population size, thelargest first. Most of the referencesgiven in thetextare notrepeated in the bibliography. A -ty . . , . 1V . General ,f. Niue .4.

Davis, Malcolm W., and 'Mallory,Walter H., .Ed8.Political handbookof the world %parliaments,parties andpress as of January 1, 1929, New Haien, ., : TaleUniversity Press, 1929. i

Slosson, Preston William.TwentiethceniuryEurope.. New .York,13aughton i .I Mifflin Co 1927.480p. // Harris, Norman Dwight.Europe and tile East.International politics.Vol, 2.

New York, Houghton MifflinCob, 1962. 677p; . Harris, Norman.Dwight.EuropeantiAfrica.International politics.Vol. 1.

New York, HoughtonMifflin Co., 1927. . 480p. II OfficeTermaneut de l' InstitutInternationQ de Statistique.Aperçu de la demographie desdivers payiirc)iimonde, 1925. La Haye,Sociéte Anonyme Ancienne Librairie: 192k 48:y ix' . Eisenmann,Louisl'áizdothers./ The problem ofminorities.eardegieEndow- ment for International Peacie.September, 19%.No. 222.Worcester, 1926.

Barker,Ernest.NaNnal !Character .and thefactorsinitsformation. . . London, Methuen &Co., Ltd.1927.288p.

Goverriment Harris, G. Montagu. 1 government inmany lands. A comparative study. . Lonaon,P. S. King Son, Ltd, 1926. 33_471). :.,s;;'. James, HermanG., find Martin, PercyA. -The republics of LaiinAmerica; eh' history, govrnments, andeconomic conditions. NewYork and Lon-

da14 :! rana'Brothers,1928. .. 533p. ...e t Graham, MalboLWW.New governments of CentralEurope.New York, HeRry , i . . ; Holt &611., -''. ,) : ,1 104.683p. . ,

Graham, MalboueW. New governmts ofEastern Europe.New York, Henry.. -..1'. .. : . Holt &Co.,1927.826p. .. :,. ... . 1..... 1147 41- 411 , t*:,,r i 11 '.i.' . 151 ,''J . :1111i`. .ii*- 1. : 0 . .. . . g. .. i.4, 1 . i .*Ii.... \.k.:?...... r . ./...... 1,...: ...... :"....Vr A 'i .. 4 . r sr : 1 . :j.s,' .:" 1 ' -** ''' - .1 i ,.j. . It...... 1 , 4 , ,..1 .7, , -, -,..0.:,____!: -LA i__,,...._:-.2_---N- -.-_,._-_____,.-_._-'s. ..", e: 152 NATIONAL 'MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION . f 4

Constitutions Select constitutions of the world.Prepared for presentation to the Pail Eireann by order of the IrishPiovisionalGovernment, 1922. May bepur- chased through Eason &, Son, Ltd., 0"Conne1l Street, Dublin. Mc Bain, Howard Lee,alaiRogers, Lindsay.Thenewconstitutions of Europe. New York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1922.

General Educational Buisson, Ferdinandtdouard.Nouveau dictionnaire de pédagogie et d'instruction primaire.Paris, Librarie Hachette et Cie., 1911.2087p. Monroe, Paul, Ed. A cyclopedia of education. N0w York, Macmillan Co., 1425.5 vols. Kandel. Isaac L.. Ed.Educational yearbook of the Internathmal Institute of Teacher.l. College, Columbia University, 1924. New York, Macmillan Co., 1925. _47-- The yearbook is published also for theyears1925, 1926. 1027, and 1928.

History of Education eh. Cubberley, Ellwood P.A brief history of educatioh. New York, Houghton MIMI Co., 1922. . --a.Readingsin the history of education. NewYork.Houghton Muffin Co., . 1920. 684p. \ A Jennings, Henrietta Cooper. The political theory of State-supported elementary education in England,. 1750-1838.Lancaster. Pa.. Lancaster Press, Inc., 1928. 159p. Countries With National Ministries of Education Argentina Argenrinik.- Consejo Nacional de Educación.Historia de la instrucción pri- mariaonlaReptiblica Argentina 1810-1910.2:sv. Buenos Aires, Jacob Pewser, 1910. Austria

ailustrla..Laws, statutes, etc.Sammlung der Landesgesetze und Verordnun- genfiber das Volkschulwesen.OsterreichischeiBundesverlag. Wien nnd Leipzig, 1927. .

4Nr. Facing, Viktor.Zehn Jahre SchulreformundSchulpolitikinOsterreich.Ruck- hilek Itnd Ausblick.litSchulref(4m.8 .Tahrgang.Heft 4.April,19*.i9.

Belgium

Royaume deBelgique:.Almanach royal.Ofticiel, publié depuis 1840en exe- onion de l'arrké royal du 14 octobre, 1839.Anné 1927.Bruxelle?,Impriu merle E. Guyot, 1027.1250p. Bauwens, LOon.Manuel de legislation scolaire.I. 1.41 organique.IL Coin- f wntaire. IlL Arrêttis d'ilxecution.1Othedition.Becuxelles, Albert/ Dewit, 53.rueRoyale, 1924.130 p. e Ro144a. um'

. - .If .SAW... . Ministro deInstriteclOn Pt161iizayAgricultura. .Memorla que preienta

el Ministro* *. * al Congreso Nacional de. 1920. La Paz,Imprenta "Rellatimiento," 1926.113.p. . NATIONALMINNTitIESOF EDUCATION 153

O Bulgaria

r Russel,William Fletcher.Scljools in Bulgaria, withspecial referencqto the Influence of the agrarian party oip elementaryand secondary education. New York City, Teachers College, ColumbiaUniversity, 1924.101p. .

V Chile

Diario Oficial de la República de Chile.Oficinn de la Imprenta.Nacional, Calle San Diego, Num. 67.Ailo LI.Santiago, Martes 27- de Diciembre de 1927.Num. 14957. Pligina 5182.

China . O Yin, Chiling.Reconstruction of moderneducational organizations inChina. Shanghai, 1924. Edmunds, Charles K.Modern education in China.U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1919, No. 44. Washington,Government PrintingOffice, 191A.

Cressy, Earl Herbert.Christian 'highereducation in China. A study .fortbe year 1925-26.Shanghai, China ChristianEducational Associatio-n.1928. 306p. (Bulletin No. 20.) Colombia e Colombia: Instrucción PübUca.Disposiclonesvigentes.Exposiciones de motivos.Hogotii, Unprenta Nacional,1927.277p. Costa Rica lb Repilblica de Co4n Rica.AméricaCentral°.C6d1godeInstrucción 1920.San Jos6 de CostaRica.

Czechoslovakia

Mauer, Jean.L'Enseignement dans laRépublique Tchecoslovaque. PubM aecleconcours iu Mint$tère de l' InstructionPublique.Prague, 1923. Bach. Theresa.Education in Czechoslovakia.Bureau of Education Bulletlii, 1922. No. 39.Washington, D. C., GovernmentPrinting+Mare,1922. Danzig \

Rudy. A.Educationalprogress in the FreeCityoPDanzig. Bureauof Education, ForeignEducationLeaflet No. 3.Wasbington, Go'ernment Printing Office,1927. 10p. Doimiirk .- Foght,Harold W. Théeducational system *of ruralDenmark. Bureau of itducationBulletin, 1913, No. 58.Washington, Govermpent PrintingMee, 1913. .0; "ND e Dominican Republic a I e RepúblicaDominicana; Servido nackinal ,deInstrucción pablioa.Colección de Ordenesde la Secretarla de Estadode JusticiaeInsirtitciónPública,

del .,27 r de Septiembre al 81de Diciem4re, .1918. Edición oficialSanto

Domingo,R. D., 1919. . . .

... ,, .3,....-_,,: ._:-- . -1-N,:.:,:e,,.x,:krA ' - - - - 154 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

. Ecuador \ Ecuador, Laws statutes,etc.Cplección deleyes,decretos,acuerdosy iesoludonesde la Junta de GobiernoProvisional. Tomo 10, Julio 10- diciembr5 31 de 1925.Tomo 2°, enero 1marzo 31dé 1926.Publicación. Quito, ImprentayEncuadernación Nacionales, 1927.

Empt

Egypt.Journal officielGouvernement Egyptien.34tneAnnée. Jeudi16 juin, 1927.No. 52. Also Jeudi 13 octobre 1927.,No. 86. 'England and Wales

Selby-Bigge, SirLev;visAmherst.The Board of Education.London and New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, Ltd., 1927. 300 p. Wilson,J.Dover,Ed. The schools of England.A study inrenaissance. London, Sidgwlck & Jackson, Ltd., 1928.368.p. Clarke, John Joseph. Outlines of local governmentof the United Kingdom including the Education Act, 1921, etc.London, Sir Isaac Pitman& Sons, Ltd., 1922. 183p. E8tonia

411.. Annusson, Juri. Public instruction inEstonia.#Bureauof Education.For- eign Education Leaflet No. 2.Washington. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1926. 24p. Finland 0

Finland,the country, its people and institutions.IV. Education.Helsinki, Otava Publishing Co., 1927.50p.

France

Richard, Camille.L'EnseignementenFrance.Paris, Librairie Armand Colin, 1925. 580p. .Handel, Isaac L.The reform of secondary.'education in France. New York, Teachers College, ColumbiaUniversity, 1924.160p. e, Guatemala

'71 Guatemala.Secretor% de Educación Ptb11ca. Memoria presentada a laMam- blea Nacional Legislativa, en sus sesionesordinarlas de 1925.Guatemala, Tipograffa Nacional, 1925.141p. 9 Honduras

Honduras.Laws, statutes, etc.C6digo de Instrucción púbtica..Tegucigalpa,

Tipograffa nacional, 1923. 90p. .10 lakt

Huengarm Ait

6 f litingary.Ministry of Cults and. Public Instruction. gnement Elongrie.Budapest, Imprimerie VictorHbrnyanszky, 1900. 540 p. . f 1.1.." .0 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION 155 Irish Free State -a Irish Free State.Department of Education.Education in the Irish Free State! Bureau of Education, Foreign Education..Leaflet No. 1.Washington, Government Printing Office, 1925. 10p. Italy Marraro, Howard R.Nationalism in Italianeducation.Italian Digest and NewsSeri:ice,Inc., New York City. . Japan Japan.Department of Education.A general survèy of education hi Japan. Tokio, [1926]. Akagi. Roy Hidemichi.The educationalsystem in Japan.Issued by the Jap- anese Students Christian Association in North America. New York City, 1926. Latvia e

Lettonie.Ministère des Affaires ttrangères.L'Instruction publiqueenLet ionie.Riga, 1925.47 p. Mexico

S5enz. Moises. seña de la educaciÓn pblicaMexico.a1927.. Mexico,

D. F.. Talleres 0Jrfificos de la Nación, 1928.76p. Sfienz. Moisés, and Priestly, HerbertI.Some Mexican problems (Lectureson tile Harris Foundation, 1926).Cbicago, University of Chicago Press,-1926. 17,-)I. Nicaragua

Shoens, George T.Reportonthe public-whool system, includinga surveyfor recommendations.Minister of Public Instruction.Managua Nicaragua, 1920. New Zealand 14. New Zealand.Education Department.The Education Act, 1914,-asamended by the Education Act, 1915;The Ed . on Amendment Act, 1915 (No. 2); ,The Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917;The War Legislation and Statute Law AmendmentAct, 1918; The Appropriation Act, 1919; and .TheEdu- 33 718- cation Amendment Act, 1919.Wellington, Marcus F. Marks, 1920.92p.

I. Norway t Arent. Emma.The relation of the State to private education-in Norway, New York, Bureauof Publications, Columbia University, 1926.94p. Panama

Reptíbilcade Panama. Oldigekidniinistrativo.Titulo V.Instrucción públfca 1

Edición Oflcial.Panama, 1916. 01,

.7Paraguay ...iii . . -....-. Paraguay. . Messages, reports, etc.Mensaje del PreSidente dela Repdb4ca del . ''.... Paraguay al H...Congreso Nacionai.Abrilde 1929.Asupción14litiOiihn.J2:4..:',....,, s ...... ,... ..;..---j . ...:...,"....t. Nacional, 1920.100.p. .,....- , .. , ,.. - . . * , 4. F h ::. . . a .t: . I . .. i ., "k.... ./ *-.2 .t. t,'...1;:.:4114n ...... 4 ..., :' 6 ., .'i' e .. '' 4 t ,.: ' ' . .4 .* 1. : . '.. ::' :: ...- . r . ' 4% .. ..., N.. r . - - t :.-- 10. IAV .. :` ',.., 1 , y N. 1: .-.t 1 '...:! 14.4. ....I.. ! ? .s. .. * ' 1- -it3, .' ..I 47t ' ,t-- -''- ---At_ ....Z.2.-__4 --.-:_; --'------. -.'-s_,-- 4 i'--- f!';-.'4:17s.; -:1.1 '-.,tt 14.-_.*111- r. 1 156 NATIONAL MINISTRIES 0 EDUCATION. Peru s, República Peruana. Laws, statutes. etc.Ley orginica de enseilanza pr9mul- gada por el poder ejecutivo en climplimiento de la Ley No. 4004.FAlleión

k&dal. Lima, Imprenta Americana, 1920.184p. Oliveira. Pedro M.La renovaciba de las Universiddlis Nacionalest:Y estatuto universitario declaradoenvigor de acuerdoconla Ley No. 6041.Decrete tiprentode 23 de Julio de 1928.Lima, Impresoenlos Talleres G1'Atic(1: de La RevI4ta."

Pola nd s Drobka, Frank.Education in Poland, past and present.Washington. D. C.. 1927. Polish Sub-section OrganizatioN Committee of the DidacticalExhibitionin FlorenvePublic instruction in Poland.Warsaw, 1925.

Pori ugal dr*

Portugal.La*s.statutes. etc.Mario do Governo.. Saba& 2 de outubro de 1926.I serie----Numero 220.Decreto No. 12:245.Promulgaoe%.tatutsi da instrucOo.Lisboa, 1926. vs,. R umania

Rumania, tenyearsafter.Boston, Mass., Tlw Beacon Press, Inc. 19:28. 143p. Rumania.DM's,rat:antes,etc.Ministerul instructiunii.LegenInvAtAmAntului

secumhir din 1928 precedath deexpunereade motive..Bucurevti, Imprimeriile Statului, 1928. Salim dor El Salvador.El Presidente de la Repúblifa.Mensaje dirigidoala asamblea illusionalde El Salvailor * * * enta solemne apertura de las seslones ordinarias de 1928.Period() constitutional 1927-1931.San .Salvador. Im- prelim nacional, 1927. Siam de' Slam. Ministry of Education. Reportonthe work of the ministry of education (4the Siamese Government B. E. 2465 (1923-24) and major statistics B. E. 2407 (1924-25).Bangkok. BangkokTimes''Press, Ltd.,1926.52p. Spain Spain. Laws, statutes, etc.Ley de instrucción pública.SancionadaporS. M. en 9de Septiembre de 1857.Madrid, Imprenta Nacional, 1857. Spain. Ministerio de Instrucción PriblicayBellas Artes.Institutos nacionales de segundaensefilinza.La reforma de 1926. Estado actual de la enseAanza enEspafla.Madrid, Talleres gspasa-Calpe, S. A., 1928. Spain. Reforma universitaria.Real decreto-ley de 19 demayode 192$.En elBoletin.leficial del ministerio de instrucción pública y bellas artes.Aìo XIX.Silbado 26 demayo de1928. Ntlmero extraordinarioytaw XX. Viernes 23 de agosto de 1929. NC= 68. 4, Sweden H. :...17844;x63,fir-, , . 7. i ,` . I .. ! .. :- 1 .Borgeson, Frithiof Carl.The administration of elementary and ifecondary edu- :.=. -%...=,: ,.--:¡:....cation in Sweden. New York City, Bureau of Publications, Teachers Col-.ii(ii, 161..r.154,- . , Univertity, 1927.231p. ... . i:-.,.lege, Columbia . ..) :,.....,-,t..-..).,-:.,-.:,..ti,,-.,.....,,..7... A ....,.,.-.-. . . , ilk-,21---:._,.....4 istili _...... " y 4 t,-.4..0.1.0 AA.C.-...`,-,.. .,_-ta--....,::",-,7.,...! _,_4_...,,.._..r&viiio, ,.:.:L ,,e.. ..4. , ii . _ _ _ _4W- . . 4174 I *. NATIONAL MINISTRIESOF EDUCATION 157 "141./0"...4 Turkey

wars, E. G. Modern Turkey. :NewYork, MacmillanCo., 1924.

O nion of South Africa Mallierbe, Ernst G.Education in South Africa(1632-1922). A criticalsurvey of thedevelopmentof educationaladministrationon the Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and theOrange Free State.Cape Town findJohannesburg, :Inta and Company, Ltd., 1925. 3/4* Uruguay Aranjo, Orestes.Historia de In escuelaUruguaya.Montevideo. Imp." El Shno Illustrado," 1911.703p. Venezuela Estados Unidos de Venezuela.Ministro deInstrucción Pública.Memoriaque el ....presenta al CongresoNacionalen sus sesiones ordinarias de 1927.Con- , tiene la actuacióri deldespachoenel afto civil de 1926.Caracas, Lit.yTip.

0 (lel Comercio, 1927.708p. Venezuela.Laws, statutes,etc.Ley de Inst rucciónsuperiory especial. Mayi) 30 de 1924.En Gaceta Oficial.Afio III, MesIX.Ntimero 15.315. Caracas, manes 17 de juniode1924. s.

k Countries Without NationalMinistries of Education toms I ndia Eal Indiaprogress and condition.Statement exhibitingthe moralandma- terialprogress and condition of India during theyear 1927-28.Sixty-third V. number.London, H. M. StationeryOffice, 1929.461p. LittlOailes, R.Progress ofeducation in India 1922-1927.Ninth quinquennial review.Vols. I and II.Calcutta, Superintendent11 GovernmentPrinting,

Union of SovietRepublics R. S. S. R.People's Commissariatof Education.Public educationin the sitiSocialist Federationof SovietRepublics.Introduction by A.Luna-

' charsky.Moscow, 1926. .. Pinkeritch,A. P. New education inthe SovietRepublic. New York,John 'Day Co., Inc., 1929. United States of America

Or. United States.Bureauof Education.Education inthe United Statesof America. *tb Prepared under thedirection of theCommissioner ofEducation. Washington,Government PrintingOffice, 1927. German Reich

FA, Aletander,Thomas, andParker, Beryl.Thenew education In the German *e Republic. New York,John Day Co., 1929. Kandel,Isaac L., and Alexander,Thomas, The reorganizationof education in IPrussia,basedonoffiCialdocuments and publications.New York,Bureau of Publications,Teachers College, ColumbiaUniversity, 1928. , DosdeutscheSchulwesen, Jahrbuch,1928/29, mituntersttitsung des Reichs- . ministerlumdes Innern. Herausgegebenvom Zentrahinstitut far Ertigehung

. und Unterricht.;Berlin, E. S. MittlerOs flohni 1.980. 6 '1 - ./ 4. .0(4 1r ", S., 01 . $1. -; .4-111.:` _ /6 : 4 oe..4 171 :01111%..Ak 41/4.146. - va-58 4.6 NATIONAL MINISTRIES OFEDVCATION Brazil

Brazil.Ministerio da Justica e Negocios Interiores.Decreton.16.782-A. de 13 de Janeiro de 1925.Establecéo concursoda Un1Io para n diffusAù do ensino primario, organiza o DepartimentoNacional de Ensino, reorganizao ensino secundfirioesuperior e da ,outras providencias.Rio de Janeiro, 1925. Canada Dominion of Canada.Dominion Bureau of Statistics.Historical statNical surveyof education in Canada.Ottawa, Thomas Mulvey, 1921.120p.

Morocco Morroco. Laws, treaties, etc.Tra1t6s, codes et lois du Maroc. Tome deuxii.me. Paris, Librairie de le Societé duRecueil Sirey, 1923.

e Australia

Browne, G. E., ed.Education in Australia.A comparative study of the educational systems of the six Australian States.LondoR, Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927.461p. Switzerland

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