Chapter 1

CALIXTUS II: IMPERIAL MOTIFS IN SANTA MARIA IN COSMEDIN

The Greek basilica of Santa Maria in Cosmedin graced the southern end of the Schola Graeca, a region stretching north along the Tiber from the foot of the Aventine.1 The Schola was one of the more populated areas of twelfth-century Rome. In classical times the Roman forum and the Capitoline and Palatine hills had formed the center of the city, but at the time of Calixtus those regions were only sparsely populated. In this later period inhabitants clustered along the east bank of the Tiber on the field of Mars, extending southward near the theater of Marcellus and on through the Schola Graeca. On the west bank, technically outside of the city, they dwelt across from these areas in Trastevere and northward to the Leonine City encompassing St. Peter's basilica. Much of the interplay among the popes and emperors in this period took place in these regions and around the Lateran far to the east. The character of each region was greatly influenced by the. aristocratic families that lived there, and dominated that quarter. For example, the Frangipani controlled the heights of the Palatine near the arch of Titus, and the areas spilling over the side toward the Coliseum. The Schola Graeca formed the southern border of an area dominated by the Pierleoni. Its northern boundary was the Jews' bridge west of the theater of Marcellus leading to the isola and on to Trastevere. It was the ninth of Augustus' twelve regions of Rome, and had been called the forum holitorium.2 In Christian times it was primarily inhabited by Greeks,

1 Richard Krautheimer, Wolfgang Frankl, Spencer Corbett, Corpus Basilicarum Chris- tianarum Romae. The Early Christian Basilicas of Rome (IW-IX Cent). Monumenti di Antichità Christiana pubblicati dal Pontificio Istituto di Archeologia Christiana. 5 vols. (Vatican City, 1937, 1959, 1967, 1970, 1977), vol. 2:2-3 (1959), p. 3045. 2 In the twelfth century twelve regions existed within the city, and in addition, those of Trastevere and the isola. See the life of Gelasius II, Liber Pontificalis, ed. Louis Duchesne 2 vols., 2 (Paris, 1886-1892) p. 313: "... regiones duodecim Romanae civitatis, Transtiberini e Insulani ..." The Liber Politicus written by Benedict, a canon of St. Peter's during the reign of Innocent II, speaks of papal processions in which marched "ante crucem milites drachonarii, portantes XII vexilla que bandora vocantur." Liber Politicus of Benedict Liber Censuum, ed. Paul Fabre & Louis Duchesne, 2 vols., 2 (Paris, 1905) pp. 141-169 at p. 146. For a general discussion of Rome into ecclesiastical and military regions see the note by Duchesne, Lib. Pont. 2, n. 7, pp. 253-254. See also Ferdinando Castagnoli, Carlo Cecchelli, Gustavo Giovannoni, Mario Zocca, Topografia e Urbanistica di Roma pt. 2 Cecchelli, Roma Medioevale, pp. 169-341 (Bologna, 1958), pp. 193-195. Cecchelli says that the twelve regions were divided into twenty six in the Middle Ages; De Nominibus Regionum Urbis Romae, ed. 2 SYMBOLS AS POWER

Jews, and other orientals, and its churches were dedicated to Greek saints. Like many other Jewish families which had settled in Trastevere and then prospered, the Pierleoni moved across the Tiber to this quarter. There they occupied the fortress in the decaying theater of Marcellus, and several houses in the vicinity. After their conversion to Christianity they virtually adopted San Nicola in Carcere, located on the south side of the theater, as their private church.3 On the north side of the theater stood the basilica of St. Angelo, built into the Porta Octavia.4 Since at least 1116 Gregory Papareschi had presided as its cardinal deacon. In retrospect it might be thought that Gregory chafed under the Pierleoni presence, but before 1130 all outward signs indicated harmony.5 The Pierleoni quickly moved into the position as the strongest suppor• ters and defenders of the reform popes. Gregory VII sought succor from them, Urban II died in one of their houses, and Paschal II relied upon them in multifarious ways.6 Given Urban's penury, the Pierleoni must

Valentini & Zuccetti, Codice Topografico 3, pp. 169-171, from a MS. written between 1220- 1227. Usually each region contained two comrade. In this listing number XII is the Regio Ripae et Marmoratae. The Schola graeca, which roughly corresponded to the area domi• nated by the Pierleoni, was the ancient Foro Boario. The churches in this area were dedicated to cults of the Orient, and especially Greece—e.g. San Giorgio and Santa Maria in Cosmedin, derived from the name of a quarter in Constantinople. 3 Among other evidence Lib. Pont. 2, p. 294, and the dispute at Farfa arbitrated by Petrus Leonis in 1104. Gregorio di Catino, Chronicon Farfense, ed. Ugo Balzoni 2 (Rome, 1903), p. 232: "altercantibus vero causidicis utriusque partis in placito apud Sanctum Nycolaum de Carcere ..." 4 Rudolf Hüls, Kardinäle, Klerus und Kirchen Roms 1049-1130. vol. 48 of Bibliothek des deutschen historischen Instituts in Rom (Tubingen, 1977), pp. 223-224; Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum 1, pp. 66-76. 5 For example, it was he, who handed Gelasius the insignia of his office after his coronation, and who, along with Petrus Pierleoni, accompanied Gelasius to Cluny. Cia- conius, Vita et Res Gestae 1, pp. 930-931: "... mox Episcopus consecratus [Gelasius], suae Coronationis insignia suscepit, per manus Gregorij Diaconi Card. S. Angeli, S.R.E. Archi- dioconi cuius fides imprimis eo tempore perspecta est, quo Vrbanus a Giberti Antipapae factione in Insula Tiberina Romae inter duos pontes obsessus est, solus enim, cum Petro Leone viro clarissimo, sanctissimum Pontificem numquam deseruit." 6 For Urban II see Lib. Pont. 2, p. 294: "Qui Christi confessor et bonus atleta apud sanctum Nicolaum in Carcere, in domo Petri Leonis, IUI kl. aug. animam Deo reddidit; atque per Transtiberim propter insidias inimicorum in ecclesia beati Petri, ut moris est, corpus eius delatum est et ibi honorifice humatum." Flavio Biondo, who lived between 1391-1463, wrote: "Consulto gli amici, e il romano Pietro di Leone, allora potentissimo, temendo che il papa non potesse essere difeso abbastanza negli appartamenti solitari di san Pietro in Laterano o di Santa Maria, lo tenne due anni in casa sua presso la chiesa di san Nicola al carcere Tulliano." Le Decadi (Historiarum ab inclinatione Romanorum Decades) Libri XXXII, tr. Achille Crespi (Forli, 1963), p. 353. Even though Biondo describes Petrus Leonis as potentissimo, Petrus was not powerful enough to assure that Urban's body would not be desecrated if born through the center of the city to St. Peter's: "La sua [Urban] morte fu causa di non lieve mortificazione al popolo di Roma, perche il feretro dovette essere trasportato dal palazzo di Pietro Leoni, in cui quel grande papa s'era tenuto nascosto per due anni, alla basilica di san Pietro. Il clero poi temendo offese alla salma, evito il centro délia città, solo pochi la trasportarono di corsa attraverso il quartiere di Trastevere." p. 372. See also η. 5 above.