Spaces for learning An empirical model for measuring the effect of the built environment on learning

Arne Henden Aaraas Department of Design NTNU University of Technology

ABSTRACT

The development and design of learning spaces is receiving more attention because of a cultural shift in educational practices. By studying the effect of the physical space on the learner, this article develops a learner centered framework that can be applied in the design of a learning space. The design of learning spaces is evaluated by studying statistics and research on learning, creating the basis for the concept of spatial moderators; elements of the built environment that have a significant positive effect on learning. These moderators have been developed to provide evidence-based, practical guidelines that can inform the design of learning spaces.

KEYWORDS

Learning space, spatial moderators, student centered education

1. INTRODUCTION (The Future of Jobs: Employment, Skills and Workforce Strategy for the Fourth Industrial

Revolution, 2016). “The context of education is changing. […] the focus has moved From an outside point of view, a ‘Learning away from more traditional environment’ is an educational approach, methods of teaching to embracing cultural context, or physical setting in which a totality of experiences that will teaching and learning occur ("Learning equip young people to meet the Environment," 2013). As mentioned in the challenges of the 21st century» abstract, one of the key factors that (Scotland, 2015). determines the configuration of a learning space is the educational philosophy, which The shift from passive to active learning often materialises in seating arrangements, emphasising student participation, as well as learning resources, teaching strategies. new educational initiatives of the 21st century Evidently, these choices shape the activities are challenging the educational institutions, that take place in any learning space. from secondary school to university level. Meanwhile, educational institutions are With a shift toward a student-centered accommodating societal needs of education, it is compelling to define the competencies and skills in a time of rapid learning environment from the perspective of technological advances, globalisation of the the learner. Research on schools suggests that economy and shifting demographics social factors like having friends, having a high

1 learning pressure and the engagement of spatial moderators. The development and parents and their attitudes towards the school concept of spatial moderators will be are among the most influential factors in a explained in the research section. learning environment (Amundsen, 2015). There are several factors that influence the Consequently, we should be aware of the activities in a learning environment; in this limitations of the physical space, and keep in article, we will look at learning environments mind the context in which students interact from a broad perspective, focusing on with it. common themes and conclusions that can be So, are the physical spaces keeping up with drawn with the purpose of creating effective the societal requirements emphasising learning spaces. complex problem solving, critical thinking and 2. METHODS creativity (The Future of Jobs: Employment, Skills and Workforce Strategy for the Fourth This article is a literature review, with sources Industrial Revolution, 2016)? Some initiatives, from reports, articles and web sites. The including architectural projects and design research topic deals with physical learning pilots, have attempted to create spaces that environments and their influence on various address this new educational framework. This aspects of learning. involves designing a variety of spaces that The search criteria were divided between support different learning activities, thus theoretical aspects of learning – i.e. learning providing a network of spaces that gives the theories, subcategories of learning, etc. – and learner freedom in balancing individual practical aspects of learning –i.e. the design of studies with group projects (Van Merriënboer, learning spaces, influences on the learning McKenney, Cullinan, & Heuer, 2017). process, etc. Still, it remains unclear whether these The article research was conducted between initiatives are simply the physical September 7th and November 20th. Most of manifestations of a new educational the articles, including ones that deal with mentality, and whether the activities that take empirical studies about the influence of place are in fact supporting the learning learning spaces, were found through Oria and requirements and goals of the educational Google Scholar. Reports and other sources institution. were found through internet searches. Some work in recent years address the Important keywords in searches include: relationship between the physical environment and learning, including research Learning space, spatial characteristics, linking attributes of the physical learning influence, empirical research, guidelines. environment to cognitive load (Choi, 2014) The empirical evidence cited is based on and mental health and well-being (Ettema, findings in research papers and research- 2015). There is, however, limited research on based reports. Although a limited amount of how physical spaces affect learning, and the empirical research exists on the relation research that exists is not necessarily focused between space and its influence on learning, on the learning process. findings that were time-sensitive or that had a This article will explore the effects of spatial narrow application were excluded. Findings characteristics on the learner, and investigate that deal with learning theories have been whether these can be quantified and selected based on their relevance to the categorised. Research on factors in the physical learning environment. physical environment and their influence on 3. RESEARCH the learner is the basis for the development of

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3.1 Ideologies affect the design of learning plan model whilst providing flexibility through spaces spatial differentiation, often measured in terms of focus and collaboration (source). ‘The student-centred learning environment However, statistics on work satisfaction has the student need satisfaction as its indicates that for ABW to be effective for primary focus whereas the subject-centred workers, the work culture should be aligned environment has the transmission of a body of with the work environment: knowledge as the primary focus.’ (Clasen & Bowman, 1974) ‘Statistically at face value, the benefits of ABW environments are difficult to see. Comparing The concept of student-centred learning is them to a control group of non-ABW spaces, gaining momentum, and has been shown to they show lower Leesman effectiveness scores be effective, especially in higher education and average satisfaction agreement against (Wright, 2011). Here, the curriculum and the both productivity and pride key indicators. learning activities are determined by the Presented with these results in isolation, it student, enabling pursuit of their own learning would be difficult to build a case for ABW interests, developing problem solving skills, adoption. However, those averages mask a and equipping them with the tools to become dramatically diverse picture that is concealing lifelong learners (Nanney, 2004). how ABW environments deliver significant In many ways, it is the antithesis of the performance improvements on multiple prevailing teacher-centered, authoritarian measurement lines for those employees who model that dominated in the 20th century. adapt to their new surroundings. But a Arguably, the classroom interior archetype – number of these spaces are populated by in which all the students have an appointed large numbers of employees stuck in desk facing the teacher and the blackboard - traditional workstyles, in effect, in conflict embodies an educational philosophy that is with their new setting.’ (Leesman, 2016) modelled on the industrial principles of the To conclude, the functioning of a learning early 20th century, favouring efficiency and environment relies on the successful uniformity. alignment of the learning culture, the The teacher’s passing of knowledge is still a pedagogical ideology and the learning space. core activity in modern schools, but in a This is especially important in a time when student-centered environment the teacher education is responding to rapid technological acts more like a facilitator, supporting and societal changes. students in their self-directed learning In the following chapters, we study how processes. Data from OECD shows that on learning spaces support various learning average, teaching time is highest at primary activities, with an emphasis on skills and school, and decreases for higher levels of competencies that have been established as education (OECD, 2017), correlating with essential for the future work force. higher degrees of learner autonomy and influence on the learning process. These are 3. 2 The function of learning spaces characteristics that are associated with active ‘The [learning environment] also learning environments. encompasses the culture of a school or class— The architectural framework of student- its presiding ethos and characteristics, centered learning has a lot in common with including how individuals interact with and the activity based working office model treat one another—as well as the ways in (hereby called ABW), which brings together which teachers may organise an educational elements from the social democratic open setting to facilitate learning—e.g., by

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conducting classes in relevant natural allows people to interact and coordinate ecosystems, grouping desks in specific ways, socially to perform tasks in a shared mental decorating the walls with learning materials, space. or utilising audio, visual, and digital Cognitive research indicates that the best technologies’ ("Learning Environment," 2013). learning takes place in a close simulation of Learning spaces provide a wide range of the realistic environment, which has been learning experiences for different learner shown to be effective in medical training groups, with a diverse set of goals for learning (Lateef, 2010). This also has important outcomes. Therefore, it is not straight forward applications to learning environments in to determine what the general function of a general, with benefits reaching beyond the learning space should include. Still, we may cognitive realm of learning. Furthermore, it is point to certain forms of learning, as well as widely acknowledged that a cognitive model aspects of learning processes, that are alone cannot explain the complex process of facilitated by or rely upon the built learning. environment. In the following chapter, we will introduce Situated learning is a learning theory that research that attempts to determine the emphasises the role of physical and social effectiveness of practices within a learning surroundings in the learning process, originally environment. proposed as a model of learning in a 3.3 Measuring learning community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Learning activities that apply this theory In a report by the SCRI, principles from SCRI’s include workshops, role playing, field trips and Senses, Brain and Spaces (SBS) research work music practice. In addition to providing an “suggest direct connections between sensory alternative to the traditional classroom, this stimulations, learning and physical space.” theory stresses the role of contextual factors (Peter Barrett, 2009). in learning processes. In the words of Paula Vincini, “Learners must use tools as The report states three design principles to practitioners use them and become ‘cognitive inform the development of effective learning apprentices’ in that discipline’s community environments in primary schools: and its culture” (Vincini, 2003). • Naturalness – addressing biological The theory of situated cognition relates requirements for light, air and safety. interaction with the environment to skill training and execution, arguing that knowing • Individualisation – each person is inseparable from doing (Brown, Collins, & perceives and responds to Duguid, 1989). Going one step further, environmental stimulus differently. distributed cognition argues that “cognition and knowledge are not confined to an • Stimulation – by providing peripheral individual; rather, it is distributed across sensory stimulation, the surrounding objects, individuals, artefacts, and tools in the space can engage without diverting environment (Hollan, Hutchins, Kirsh, & attention. Grudin, 2000). This perspective acts as a In a 2012 article by Barrett et al., the impact of theoretical basis for understanding the school building design was measured across importance of the physical environment in any ten design parameters in seven different learning activity. schools. Of all the factors influencing learning Interestingly, digital media represents its own progression, factors of the built environment ecosystem of distributed cognition, as it

4 were estimated to account for around 25% evaluation can be interpreted and customised (Barrett, Zhang, Moffat, & Kobbacy, 2013). to suit a specific learning environment. Furthermore, as a strategy to facilitate Among the attempts to characterise good learning, it can be backed up by research and learning environments, one of the most statistical data. comprehensive studies is by the school researcher John Hattie. In his Visible learning This is the theoretical basis that inspires the (Hattie, 2009), the relative effect of learning concept of a spatial moderator; an aspect of practices is measured based on meta-analyses the physical surroundings known to have a of schools, relating to the influences on positive effect on learning. There are some achievement in school-aged students (Miller, challenges related to the description and 2010). John Hattie defines a moderator as an effect measuring of spatial moderators, which ‘effectual measure known to have a positive will be addressed in the following chapters. effect on learning’ (Hattie, 2015). 3.4 Developing spatial moderators Influence Effect (d) Teacher estimates of 1.62 First, it is crucial to understand the achievement educational framework that affects behaviour Collective teacher 1.57 and activities in physical learning spaces. To efficacy implement any of these spatial moderators is Self-reported grades 1.33 not necessarily going to ensure better learning Piagetian programs 1.28 Conceptual change 1.16 by itself; every learning environment is programs different. Response to intervention 1.07 Teacher credibility 0.90 Second, some of the attributes that Micro teaching 0.88 characterise good learning environments are Cognitive task analysis 0.87 not restricted to learning, but influence other Classroom discussion 0.82 aspects – i.e. wellbeing and physiological Fig. 1 - List of influences that have been shown needs – that have an indirect influence on to have the largest positive effect on learning learning. (Hattie, 2017). Here, d is the effect size (Cohen’s d) defined as the standardised Third, there is no comprehensive statistic difference between two means. linking spatial characteristics with their relative influence on a learning environment. This statistical overview links a practical Nor does this article attempt to develop one; measure in the learning environment with its instead, we will look at some spatial attributes relative effect on learning, providing a fact- that have a proven effect –directly or based overview of the most successful indirectly – on learning. We will use this list as measures that can be taken to facilitate a theoretical framework for understanding learning. As such, it is independent of any and developing spatial moderators. specific pedagogy, as it may point to certain universal truths about how learning happens. The formal characteristics of a (learning) space It also provides an informed basis for consists of temperature, ventilation, views, prioritisation of teaching resources. natural light, light, acoustics and finishes (Wikipedia, 2017). While this describes the For example, the high rank of ‘Formative elements that constitute a physical Evaluation’ suggests that informal and environment, it does not provide information ungraded settings facilitate student learning about how the learner experiences their (Learning, 2017). A key characteristic of these environment. Within the scope of spatial moderators is their relative definition; for moderators, components in the learning example, the implementation of formative

5 environment – e.g. colour, displays, furniture • ‘The learning environment should – are also included. incorporate the actions and practices of real life environments.’ (Vincini, 2003) In the following section, we will present a list of findings that address various aspects of • ‘Generally, teachers who want to spaces and their influence on the learner. This maximise the on-task behaviour of their list is a collection of research findings from students during independent work should disciplines such as neuroscience, consider utilising rows rather than groups environmental and developmental as their primary seating arrangement and psychology, social anthropology and cognitive moving desks into other positions to science. The purpose of this list is to exemplify facilitate interaction when it is desired.’ how multidisciplinary research could act as a (Wannarka & Ruhl, 2008) foundation for developing spatial moderators.

• Availability of green space corresponds • ‘Although exposure levels at schools were with lower frequency of mental health below 60 dB […] multilevel analyses problems (van Den Berg et al., 2016). This revealed that increasing exposure was finding could be generalised to an innate linearly associated with less positive orientation to all living things, often ratings of quality of life, increasing noise referred to as biophilia. annoyance, and decreasing reading performance.’ (Klatte et al., 2017) • ‘Computer and video games are suggested 3.5 Categories of spatial moderators to increase the motivation and engagement of players because they Spatial moderators affect several factors that include elements such as play, fantasy, must be present in a good learning curiosity, challenge, competition, environment, addressing physiological needs cooperation, and learner-control’ (Barab, as well as social interaction and cognitive Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005). requirements. “Game-based environments afford It is also worth pointing out that some spatial activities for experiential, situated, moderators are easily introduced to existing problem-based, and active learning.’ learning spaces, i.e. introducing plants in the (Boyle, Connolly, & Hainey, 2011) environment or rearranging furniture. Others

require changes in infrastructure or learning • ‘In times of declining resources and material, which could be resource intensive. increasing public demands, schools are Nonetheless, spatial moderators are only often tempted to reduce or abandon concerned with the relationship between aesthetic experiences in the curriculum. spatial factors and their relative effect on These experiences (e.g., art, music, learning. movement, etc.) offer the most obvious opportunities for children to play. Because Further, a comprehensive list of moderators play appears to affect other desirable listed in order of effect type and relative patterns of intellectual functioning like effectiveness could provide a framework for divergent thinking and problem solving, evaluating and developing learning spaces. we argue that play may have a more basic This would require meta-analyses in which function in education than many elements of the physical learning environment educators believe. The concept of basic were defined as influences on learning. Below education perhaps should include is an example of how items in a list of spatial aesthetic experiences that encourage moderators could be structured: play.’ (Christie & Johnsen, 1983)

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Influence Learning Effect (d) ‘Mobile internet and cloud technology’ has activity been listed as the primary technological driver Natural Processing, 0.6 of change toward 2020 (The Future of Jobs: light thinking Employment, Skills and Workforce Strategy for Fig. 2 – Example of influence categorised the Fourth Industrial Revolution, 2016). The according to learning activity and relative mobility and connectivity that comes with this effect. Here, the effect size (d = 0.6) is assumed change has implications for the function of to be calculated as Cohen’s d (see Fig. 1) physical learning spaces. 3.6 Towards a holistic understanding of Over the last decades, technology has evolved learning spaces from presentation mediums (monitors, The motivation for developing spatial projectors) to research, generative and moderators is not to formulate a definitive collaborative tools (Wikipedia, 2017). With answer to what constitutes the optimal virtual learning environments, there is a sense learning space, but to provide information of augmented cognition, in which huge that links specific elements of the space to amounts of information is accessible. This specific influences on the learner and, by development is consolidated by augmented extension, their learning process. Research on reality technology, giving us access to new spatial moderators can complement research layers of information integrated in our on other aspects of learning, from teacher- physical environment. student interaction to the learning strategies Mobility in learning is also a direct result of of students. this technological shift. Computer rooms are By looking at learning spaces through the lens becoming obsolete, as mobile devices offer of spatial moderators, there is an inherent freedom in study space. Through mobility and focus on the effectiveness of learning connectivity, there is an opportunity for environments, as opposed to the traditional customising the learning experience, to paradigm of measuring learning. Also, by accommodate different learning styles and approaching the subject from a different learning trajectories. Although there multidisciplinary research point of view, we exists a lot of software for e-learning today, can identify subtle aspects of learning spaces - there is work to be done bridging the gap like levels of noise and the extent to which the between the physical and the virtual world. physical environment provides mobility - that In a personalised learning environment, the have a profound effect on learning. progression is based on interests and Some spatial characteristics, such as colour competence, not a predetermined curriculum and choice of furniture, have influences which or assessment. In the ecosystem of a learning are difficult to assess in a rigorous, environment, technology can provide the quantitative manner, although we know that traditional knowledge transmission while these are crucial factors in the perception of providing new platforms for collaboration and space, and what we experience as the communication. atmosphere of a space. Thus, learning This provides opportunities for restructuring environments should not only accommodate the layout of classrooms for other purposes. A and facilitate learning, they should be settings natural way for learning spaces to respond to for a broad range of experiences that support this change would be to specialise on social personal development beyond the realm of platforms of different kinds. As discussed academic achievement and curricula. previously, the acquisition of skills and 3.7 Technology and its impact on learning competencies is often bound to the physical spaces

7 and social context in which the learning Consequently, being able to support a variety activities take place. of learning activities appears to be a requirement for the future. Whether the focus 3.8 Future work requirements will be on facilitating complex problem It is estimated that the majority of the jobs of solving, developing social skills or something the future do not yet exist (Scott McLeod, else, learning spaces should be flexible enough 2017). Along with the fact that changing jobs to respond to changes in society, changes in is increasingly common (Number of jobs, labor learning activity and changes in technology. market experience, and earnings growth As mentioned in the introduction, new skills among Americans at 50; results from a and competencies make their way into the longitudinal study, 2017), there are compelling curriculum, many of which are difficult to arguments for emphasising interdisciplinary assess by traditional means. When moving skills and competencies in educational away from a highly formalised and structured strategies. learning space, one of the challenges is to Below are the skills families expected to be measure the learning outcomes of activities most important in 2020, according to the 2016 like collaborative problem solving. This Future of Jobs report by World Economic problem has been addressed in ‘The Nature of Forum: Problem Solving’, which provides a research- based overview of problem solving in general SKILL % and assessment in particular (Griffin, 2017). Complex Problem Solving 36 Studies like these are necessary to understand Social Skills 19 how new learning activities can be Process Skills 18 implemented effectively in learning Systems Skills 17 environments. Resource Management Skills 13 3.9 The future of learning spaces Technical Skills 12 From an outside point of view, a learning Cognitive Abilities 15 environment is ‘an educational approach, Content Skills 10 cultural context, or physical setting in which Physical Abilities 4 teaching and learning occur’ ("Learning Fig. 3 - Demand for skills: industry overall | Environment," 2013). In this article, we have 2020 (The Future of Jobs: Employment, Skills dealt with learning spaces as a physical and Workforce Strategy for the Fourth setting, looking at how they are designed, how Industrial Revolution, 2016). Here, the they are used, and how they influence percentage (%) indicates the share of jobs learning. requiring skills family as part of their core skill The increasing presence of virtual set. environments, as well as increased mobility in In the larger perspective, we may consider the learners is the context in which future settings main function of learning as preparing for the for learning will take place. Perhaps one of the future. One of the challenges for educational main challenges of the digital age is to balance institutions is to adapt to shifting societal things that happen in the digital world with needs. Regardless of any specific skillset, it is things that happen in the physical world. evident that even the near future holds a lot One experimental approach to incorporating of insecurity, especially related to what sort of information in the physical surroundings was things we will work with. developed by the MIT Media Lab in 1997:

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‘The ambientROOM allows users to be aware expense of the wellbeing and motivation of of background bits using ambient display the learner, as these have been shown to be media such as ambient light, shadow, sound, integral factors in cultivating learning. airflow, water movement in an augmented Lastly, learning is a term with multiple architectural space.’ (Hiroshi Ishii, 1997) definitions and subcategories, which this Whether this is a realistic interpretation of article does not go to great lengths to how the virtual and the physical world might distinguish. It becomes important, however, integrate, can be discussed, but it certainly to determine the type of learning activity that provides an original viewpoint, is involved, when describing how the physical reconceptualising the function of the built environment affects various aspects of environment by providing information directly learning. to the senses. 4.2 The essence of the article A more recent attempt to create social and By looking at factors influencing the design of immersive experiences is the phenomenon of learning spaces, both external (societal and escape rooms, in which elements from game technological changes) and internal (learning design is applied in a setting for collaborative ideologies and strategies), the aim is to problem solving. Efforts to create engaging contextualise the role of the learning space in and immersive spaces could be beneficial a modern educational reality. Evidently, a when applied in a learning environment. successful and effective learning environment 4. DISCUSSION relies on a holistic approach to learning strategies, that may inform the physical space 4.1 About the research material and as well as learning activities and objectives. definitions used Efforts to reconceptualise the meaning and This article gathers research from multiple function of a learning space, whether they be disciplines, combining studies that are related reflexes to external changes or explorations of to the influence of the physical environment possible future scenarios, can be useful on the learner. In this context, the learner is a discussion points for the development of generic term that covers any person involved learning spaces. in a learning activity. Through the development of spatial Because children and their requirements moderators, this article proposes an informed change over time, it is essential to understand discussion about the influence of the physical the influence of spatial moderators in the environment on learning, as well as the context of age as well as learning activity and function of a learning space in different the overall learning environment. As such, the learning activities and processes, now and in research findings are not universal truths that the future. apply to everyone; information about the demographic and learning activity used in the studies is provided when available.

Importantly, we should also emphasise the role of positive learning, which happens in a collaborative (rather than competitive) environment that encourages self-directed learning and wellbeing among learners (Chen & McNamee, 2011). The implementation of effective learning should not be on the

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