Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum Finbarr Barry Flood
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Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum Finbarr Barry Flood He turned his head like an old tortoise in the sunlight. "Isit true if the destruction of pagan images by Christians in late an- that there are many images in the Wonder House of Lahore?" He tiquity, the mutilation of icons in ninth-century Byzantium, repeated the last words as one making sure of an address. "That the iconoclastic depredations of the Reformation, and the is true," said Abdullah. "It is full of heathen bfits. Thou also art an events of the French Revolution could all be accommodated idolater." under the single rubric Christian iconoclasm. "Nevermind said Kim. "Thatis the Government's house him," The methodological problems stemming from the natural- and there is no idolatry in it, but only a Sahib with a white beard. ization of historical acts need hardly be highlighted, and they Come with me and I will show."-Rudyard Kipling, Kim are compounded by three further aspects of traditional schol- arship on Islamic iconoclasm. The first is the idea that Islamic In other words, the unique value of the "authentic"work of art iconoclasm is the product of a specific theological attitude, location of its use value. This has its basis in ritual, the original with only secondary political and no aesthetic content. A ritualistic basis, however remote, is still recognizable as secular- second, closely related assumption is that the iconoclastic acts ized ritual even in the most profane forms of the cult of beauty.- of medieval Muslims were primarily directed at the (reli- Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical gious) art of the non-Muslim "other."7 The third, and most Reproduction"1 striking, peculiarity of the existing discourse on iconoclasm There can be little doubt that the recent destruction of the in the medieval Islamic world is that, remarkably for a prac- monumental rock-cut Buddhas at Bamiyan by the former tice that concerns the physical transformation of material Taliban government of Afghanistan will define "Islamic icon- objects, such discussions are almost always confined to texts, oclasm" in the popular imagination for several decades to making only passing reference to surviving objects, if at all. come (Figs. 1, 2). To many commentators, the obliteration of Moreover, the dominance of the text has been marked by the the Buddhas seemed to hark back to a bygone age, reinforc- essentialist approach to Islam and the image referred to ing the widespread notion that Islamic culture is implacably previously, with a corresponding failure to interrogate or hostile to anthropomorphic art. Even those who pointed to problematize the vocabulary of iconoclasm. Despite the outbursts of image destruction in medieval and early modern abundant material evidence, there is, as yet, not a single Europe saw these as stages on the road to Western moder- systematic survey (textual or material) of what precisely was nity;2 the persistence of the practice in the Islamic world done in any region of the medieval world to images by seemed to offer implicit proof of an essential fixation on Muslims who objected to them. As a result, rhetorical claims figuration fundamentally at odds with that modernity. of image destruction have often been taken at face value, Common to almost all accounts of the Buddhas' demoli- even when not borne out by archaeological or art historical tion was the assumption that their destruction can be situated evidence.8 within a long, culturally determined, and unchanging tradi- In this short paper, which deals with a broad sweep of tion of violent iconoclastic acts. Collectively or individually, material, I want to draw attention to some of the problems these acts are symptomatic of a kind of cultural pathology with the traditional paradigms that I have just outlined, to known as Islamic iconoclasm, whose ultimate origins, to illustrate some of the many paradoxes that complicate our quote K.A.C. Creswell's telling comment, lie in "the inherent notion of Islamic iconoclasm, and to highlight areas for temperamental dislike of Semitic races for representational future investigation. Although there are other facets of the art."3 The iconoclastic outburst of Afghanistan's rulers thus history and historiography of Islamic iconoclasm that merit confirmed the status of that country as out of time with analysis,9 my aim here is twofold. First, I want to undertake a Western modernity, by reference to an existing discourse critique of essentialist conceptions of Muslim iconoclasm that within which image destruction indexed the inherently me- draws attention to the fact that figuration has been a con- dieval nature of Islamic culture.4 As Carl Ernst has noted tested issue even between Muslims and that emphasizes that recently, the traditional one-dimensional portrait of Muslim there have been iconoclastic "moments" in Islamic history iconoclasm "does not acknowledge its subjects as actors in when the debate (and its physical correlate in image destruc- historical contexts."5 tion) waxed in intensity. Second, I intend to highlight some The conception of a monolithic and pathologically Muslim complementary political aspects of what has largely been response to the image, which substitutes essentialist tropes conceived of as a theological impulse. Both of these concerns for historical analysis, elides the distinction between different inform the historical overview of iconoclastic practice in the types of cultural practices. It not only obscures any variation, first two sections of the essay, which provide the context for complexity, or sophistication in Muslim responses to the an analysis of the Bamiyan episode that follows in the third image but also a priori precludes the possibility of iconoclas- and final section. tic "moments" in Islamic history, which might shed light on The primary focus will be on the iconoclastic practices of those complex responses.6 To use a European analogy, it is as Muslims living in the eastern Islamic world, especially Afghan- 642 ART BULLETIN DECEMBER 2002 VOLUME LXXXIV NUMBER 4 . I s '. .W . ; -41A _ _ es,, 1 Large Buddha, 5th- 7th century, before destruction, Bamiyan (photo: Richard Edwards, courtesy of ACSAA Color Slide ~41 Project, University of Michigan, #2871) istan and India. If I ignore the relationship with Byzantium here, Levant in the eighth.10 The discussion is intended to construct it is primarily to compensate for an ethnocentric bias that has a context for the final part of the essay, in which the destruction led to the discourse on figuration in the Islamic world being of the Bamiyan Buddhas will be reconsidered. It will be argued dominated by the arts of Christendom and the Mediterranean. that their obliteration indexed not a timeless response to figu- These are, in any case, less relevant to the eastern Islamic world ration but a calculated engagement with a culturally specific in the tenth through twenty-first centuries than they are to the discourse of images at a particular historical moment. BAMIYAN, ISIAMIC ICONOCIASM, AND THE MUSEUM 643 .v~ ~ ~ -A ?'4 '- -' 14-*. - ? - 4, 2 Large Buddha, after its destruction .. in 2001, Bamiyan (photo: Corbis.Com) .'.? . *,' Proscriptive Texts and Iconoclastic Praxis representations that have shadows (whose defacement is The opposition to figuration in Islam is based not on obligatory), and some schools of thought go so far as to liken Qur'anic scripture but on various Traditions of the Prophet, artists to polytheists.' Such proscriptions were undoubtedly a the Hadith.'1 The two principal objections to figuration in factor in both promoting aniconism (the eschewal of figural the prescriptive texts are a concern with not usurping divine imagery) and motivating acts of iconoclasm (the destruction creative powers12 and a fear of shirk, a term that came to or mutilation of existing figural imagery), but their impact on mean polytheism and idolatry but originally meant associat- the arts in general varied greatly according to time and ing other gods with God.'13 Both suggest a concern with the place.17 After initial experiments, the substitution of text for materialism of worship in non-Islamic traditions. While Mus- figural imagery on gold coins in 696-97 (and on silver two lim polemicists frequently accused those of other faiths of years later) marked a decisive moment in the development of indulging in polytheism and idolatry, however, it is important an official iconography, with the epigraphic issues of the to remember that such accusations were a stock-in-trade of Umayyad caliphate establishing an enduring precedent for medieval religious polemics, even monotheist polemics.14 Islamic numismatics."8 Even after this date, however, varia- Muslims themselves are often accused of idolatiy in Christian tions in attitudes to figuration existed, for some later Islamic and Jewish polemical texts, which might compare Muslim rulers issued coins bearing figural imagery.'1' veneration of the Ka'ba and the practices associated with it to The decoration of early Islamic palaces, lavishly ornamented those of the (self-evidently idolatrous) Hindus. ' with sculpture and paintings containing anthropomorphic ele- There is a general consensus in the Hadith forbidding all ments (including Christian priests and churches), stands in 644 ART BUI..ETIN DECEMBER 2002 VOLUME LXXXIV NUMBER 4 Detailed studies of figural ornament in medieval Islamic religious architecture are few and far between (medieval Anatolia being better represented than most other regions of the Islamic world in this respect),24 but as a general rule, figuration continued to be eschewed in the decoration of medieval mosques and madrasas (religious schools). Occa- sional exceptions include pre-Islamic monuments converted for use as mosques, in which figural ornament was often, but not always, defaced.25 In those mosques and madrasas where figural ornament did appear,26 it was generally avoided in the area around the prayer niche (mihrab), in accordance with specific injunctions, but even here exceptions exist.27 By contrast, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic images pro- liferated in the secular arts.