Terminalia Macroptera, Its Current Medicinal Use and Future Perspectives

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 137 (2011) 1486–1491

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnopharmacology

jo urnal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm

Terminalia macroptera, its current medicinal use and future perspectives

a a b a

Anh Thu Pham , Christina Dvergsnes , Adiaratou Togola , Helle Wangensteen ,

b a a,∗

Drissa Diallo , Berit Smestad Paulsen , Karl Egil Malterud

Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Section Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, The University of Oslo, PO Box 1068 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway

Department of Traditional Medicine, BP 1746, Bamako, Mali

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The tree Terminalia macroptera (Combretaceae) is widespread in Western Africa, and in this area, different

Received 29 March 2011

parts have been utilized in the treatment of various diseases. In this article, we report on the medicinal

Received in revised form 15 August 2011

use of T. macroptera in three different districts in Mali (Siby, Dioïla and Dogonland), based on interviews

Accepted 15 August 2011

with 78 healers in these districts. Roots, root bark, stem bark, leaves and fruits have all been employed

Available online 22 August 2011

by healers, as has parasitic Loranthus species growing on the tree. Major areas of use comprise treatment

of wounds and sores, infections, pain, cough, tuberculosis and hepatitis. Some of the medicinal uses of T.

Keywords:

macroptera appear to be rationally explained by its chemical constituents.

Medicinal use

1. Introduction Few university educated medical doctors are practicing in Mali,

and traditional healers occupy an important position in health care.

Terminalia macroptera Guill. & Perr. (Combretaceae) is a tree It is estimated that about 80% of primary health care in Mali is

which grows in Western Africa from Senegal to Cameroon, and done by such traditional healers, which usually use knowledge

occasionally as far as Sudan. The tree is mostly found in Guinean and that has been transmitted from generation to generation for cen-

Sudanese-Guinean savannahs, preferably in moist areas and clayey turies (Inngjerdingen et al., 2004). As part of our research on Malian

ground, where it is stated to be common (Burkill, 1985; Arbonnier, medicinal plants (School of Pharmacy 2011), we have carried out

2004). Traditionally, the plant has been used in combination with a survey of the use of Terminalia macroptera by traditional heal-

Anogeissus leiocarpa for colouring cotton fabric yellow or ochre. This ers in three different areas in Mali: 26 healers from the Siby area,

is then used for treatment of newly circumcised children due to its 14 healers from two different villages in the Dogonland district,

putative antimicrobial effect (Jansen and Cardon, 2005). The roots and 38 healers from ﬁve different villages in the Dioïla district. The

of the plant are regarded as an efﬁcient antimicrobial remedy and results are presented in this communication. To our knowledge, no

are sold in markets in Guinea-Bissau (Silva et al., 1996). In Burk- systematic study of the medicinal use of this plant by traditional

ina Faso, the plant is employed against malaria (Sanon et al., 2003). healers in Mali has been reported before.

The bark is used against diarrhoea and dysentery in Nigeria (Burkill,

1985). A decoction of the leaves is used against hepatitis, ringworm

2. Methods

and skin diseases (Maydell, 1990). The leaves are also used in gas-

tritis, colic and hypertension, against fever, lepra and tuberculosis

Structured interviews in the Siby area (SW of Bamako) took

(Arbonnier, 2004). The timber of T. macroptera is regarded as strong

place on November 24–25, 2008. A total of 26 healers were

and resistant, and is popular as building material and in furniture

interviewed; 18 men and 8 women. In Dogonland, 14 healers (all

(Winkler, 1912).

male) were interviewed from November 27 to 28, 2008. Due to

Chemical investigations of T. macroptera has led to the iden-

the variety of Dogon dialects, Mr. Akouni Dougnon was employed

tiﬁcation of ﬂavonoids (Nongonierma et al., 1987, 1988, 1990),

as interpreter during these interviews. In Dioïla (SE of Bamako),

triterpenoids (Conrad et al., 1998, 2001a), ellagitannins and related

38 healers, of which 4 female, were interviewed in four different

phenolics (Silva et al., 2000, 2002; Conrad et al., 2001a, b).

villages from December 10 to December 13, 2008. The healers

were those who were available at the time of investigation. The age

of the healers varied from 26 to 90 years. Interviews in Siby and

Dioïla were performed in Bambara. The high prevalence of female

∗

healers in the Siby area may be due to the presence of a center for

Corresponding author. Tel.: +47 22856563; fax: +47 22854402.

E-mail address: [email protected] (K.E. Malterud). child care in the Jisumala village, since commonly, female healers

A.T. Pham et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 137 (2011) 1486–1491 1487 to male,

No bark No

side

M dosage

pregnant effects. going No

dose.

children.

effects. by

Pressed

plant. Same side teaspoon, on

effects. half

1 sugar. children. before

lower side

No used the

bark:

by used side

be day

for with bark,

be no

root all.

days.

used Can Children:

2 each

Children: used Can

stem for effects.

water effects.

improvement. pregnancy. for Inner

effects.

days.

once week. loss.

side hot Can

side name

effects.

side until until everybody, root

daily

No one

for No hair

effects. with

No by side

treatment drunk

local

drunk. for

all.

daily

be all. dose. No Twice daily

improvement.

side

effects. be

the

used for

Same To mixed

for

to daily No

once half

twice be pulverized

side until was dose.

times

effects. butter. cessation

effects.

3 days.

cup

No Can and

dose.

water. twice

half 3

side

side treatment Shea until

soap hot for woloba half decoction treatment

Children:

tablespoon

improvement. consumed Dried

Repeated

a of

healing. with

daily

Same days

area, daily

OR:

effects.

Same Children: until butter

drinking:

Half food.

days. days. liquid,

tablespoons

until

this once teacup improvement. Children: for for

side

days. week.

times Shea

daily days. days.

5–7 200–300 In

decoction.

3–4 with

4 massage 2 Two

3 4

and

One of

or improvement. until body

one for days.

daily

for

for with

for Children: for with

twice

Table. breakfast

water and 3–4 porridge all.

wash

until

daily

alone up

daily water.

twice

daily

daily daily to l the days.

along

for for

thereafter

hair mixed

for

eat with

before body daily 0.5 consistency.

tablespoon

once

twice

Twice four

once

times from 1

head in

improvement.

times decoction, daily

and for

added

daily wash,

for once

rinsed

decoction

the powder

Drink leaf

salt washing

drunk

three until once treatment

drunk

three

Used

morning mouth. of

times. body and

times daily

for omitted handful

syrup-like

be with

drunk

3 with Children:

little a

the

for

daily

to 3–4

Same a

are drunk glass

drunk

teacup.

area be tablespoon roots. teacup

every

one

drunk washing of

once

used

has 1 body

dosage

to of

wash

tea used

it for drunk

Add and one

and

drunk.

One twice

a sore

wash glass,

be in eaten fruits

glasses

rinsing Wash

body tea

until to used

half inﬂamed

decoction

to decoction

body

leaves

and for tea by

amounts,

to macerate of one

decoction practice, cleaned the leaves

of macerate

for Root. improvement.

of 2–3 decoction

pulverized. of leaves leaves to to women.

of bark

pulverized.

Four

teacup water

equal glass soup,

of of

for administration, bark,

their

bark:

until

roots

taste. and

with decoction of glass cup

and

or followed in

pulverized:

tea

stem

min). of

amounts little root half

applied applied

Stem a bunches One One

treatment.

pregnant and dried one drunk

bitter (10

dried

rinsed

bunches bunches

leaves

glass

decoction root:

inner 3 3 3–4 equal leaves leaves, is juice juice

and but with porridge parts days. of a

decoction

bark bark: bark:

same preparation,

dried or bark of of of of of of of bark:

tea

macroptera

root root

3–7 and T.

with bath

plant

stem stem stem root

root part, One Make Decoction Mouth decoction bark mixed

bark,

effects, effects. for

children use

Leaves Inner Root. Root Inner Root Inner Decoction Steam Decoction Bark mixed effects. Gingivitis: juice side Mixed Leaves bed side for women. not

did

interviewed in

foot in

gingivitis Pressed

sores children Decoction

dysentery children Decoction

healers

fever in

dysentery Root.

migraine

26 diabetic

mouth, mouth Root.

infertility tuberculosis Stem

the pains in in woundssores, sores Root, Root. wounds, wounds Decoction

pains

sores Incontinency, Female Headache, Chest Diabetes, Alopecia mouth children out

Three

area.

Siby

the

Djissoumana Inner Djissoumana Dogoro Djissoumana Djissoumana Kalassa in

healers

with

female.

Age/sex Village Indication Plant 45/M Djissoumana Inner 29/M Djissoumana Cough 80/M Djissoumana Inner 80/M Guena Sores 80/F Djissoumana Gingivitis Pressed 80/M 59/M Djissoumana Inner 70–80/F 26/M Djissoumana Cough Inner 55/M 49/M Djissoumana Cough, 46/M 58/M 60/F Djissoumana 56/F Djissoumana Dermatosis 67/M Djissoumana Inner 72/M Djissoumana Cough Inner 79/M Djissoumana Sores 80/F Djissoumana Diarrhoea Decoction 35/M Djissoumana Diarrhoea, 50/M 50/F Djissoumana Body 55/M Djissoumana Epilepsy Decoction =

Table Interviews F

1488 A.T. Pham et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 137 (2011) 1486–1491 female.

four

wash. F to

body male,

effects. Three

for

side

mixed. No used

effects.

used.

improvement. all.

side

were for

until

decoction

sormentosus

days. bath

improvement.

Fig. 1. Prevalence of use (%) of T. macroptera in the practice of healers in different Rest treatment

3–4

macroptera

districts. until

steam T.

for butter.

days.

on Same Strophantus

3 daily

daily

above. specialize in paediatric care. Most of the male healers were general Shea

for

practitioners. Commonly, the healers had been trained by a parent. thereafter times

bark

with growing

twice 3

days.

daily

The healers were asked for knowledge about the tree, informa-

5 wash

root days,

skin tion about indications for its use, which part was employed, how the

spp.) 2 for

improvement.

twice drunk

preparation used was made, and how the preparation was admin- and body

and

for

handfuls

until and istered and dosed. T. macroptera is a common tree and local names daily

for

dosage

day

3–4 nose

were used to ensure that the healers were talking about the correct a

Loranthus handfuls ( to daily

used

twice

species. Interviews were carried out individually, usually taking leiocarpus

once porridge 3–4

drunk:

and

15–20 min for each healer to give all their answers. Before being twice plants

drunk be applied

interviewed, the healers were informed about why the interviews with is

to drunk

administration,

drunk: drunk

were carried out and how the material from the interviews would and Anogeissus

, this be be

washed

parasite

be used. Each healer was at liberty to take part in the interview or mixed of

leaves to to leaves

refuse, but only one healer refused to be interviewed. The names of Eyes that

plants

the healers have been omitted in this article to protect their privacy. pulverized out

preparation,

macroptera

decoction T. leaves: Loranthus Loranthus Loranthus Loranthus

a bark Decoction

tree,

of parasite 3. Results and discussion of of of of of

of turned

it the

stem

bark: bark

The information given by the healers is summarized in

these,

Tables 1 (Siby area), 2 (Dogonland) and 3 (Dioïla). Most of the heal- Part Bark Stem Outer Stem Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction Leaves Loranthus handfuls of

ers (67 out of 78) used T. macroptera in their practice (Fig. 1), but

the frequency of use varied between areas and between healers. some

In addition to medical use, some of the healers mentioned use for

as animal feed and for colouring cloth. “Woloba” (bambara) and but

“bosokugu” (dogon) were the most common names for the tree.

Terminalia macroptera was used against a variety of ailments

– 31 different indications were mentioned by the healers. Sores

Hepatitis Unconsciousness Hepatitis Conjunctivitis Hepatitis Hepatitis Hepatitis Rheumatism

Indication

and wounds, pain, cough, tuberculosis and hepatitis were the macroptera

most common indications, as demonstrated by their ﬁdelity index

(Table 4). Fidelity index (FI) is deﬁned as (Np/N) × 100 where Np is used

the number of reported uses against any speciﬁc condition and N is

plant

the total number of uses reported (Togola et al., 2008). Stem bark

and root, alone or in combination with other parts or other plants,

were most frequently used. There may be some geographic vari- interviewed,

ation in the use of different parts of the tree. Thus, in Dogonland,

Vernacular Bosokugo Bosokuko Akouko Baskogo Basokugo Bosokugo Bosokugo Baskugo name

Loranthus spp. (parasitic creepers on T. macroptera) were often used,

healers

while stem bark and roots were more common in Siby and Dioïla 14

(Table 5). Preparations of parts of the tree were usually made as of

decoctions and administered orally. However, in some cases, use Out

in a steam bath or for washing the whole body or the body part

responsible for symptoms was recommended. In some instances,

the dried and pulverized material was applied to the skin, directly

Village Iriguili Iriguili Iriguili Banani

or as an ointment in Shea butter (fat from the seeds of Butyrosper- Dogonland.

mum parkii).

From our investigations, it is apparent that the uses of T.

macroptera among traditional healers are multiple. The lower per- healers

centage of users in Dogonland may be due to the tree being less with

common in that district. While bark and leaves are used medici-

nally in all three districts, use of the roots is common in Siby, but 2

unknown in Dogonland. Use of Loranthus creepers is common in Age/sex 55/M 38/M Banani 70/M Iriguili 66/M Banani 58/M 69/M Banani 64/M 84/M Table

Interviews

Dogonland, but much less so in Dioïla and unknown in Siby. Thus,

A.T. Pham et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 137 (2011) 1486–1491 1489 No 3

half

tannin stem for

glass.

until

to days. eaten

2 tea

daily a

due Alternatively:

Children: for

half

pulverized improvement. decoction twice

taste

porridge,

days.

daily

days.

overdose. in

and

until with

3–4

bitter

times with 15–20 applied

Children:

effects. for

mixed children. Dried

but

for

1–2 and

for washed side

daily

female. decoction days.

month. daily

= week.

effects, powder 1 F dose

body

butter the

days. of constipation twice

for of once

for 3

15–20 side

dose.

Half and

application. with male,

for for = No

half effect: daily days.

daily

3 effects. speciﬁed. washed

possible

weeks.

decoction daily

mixed daily topical

decoction

tablespoon

Side 2

twice

of side plant.

times for

body for

with

one 3 once within

roots

twice Children:

No fat

amount the

rest

much and

improvement. daily

food children. No for

improvement. day. as bark:

days. topically cured drunk with

with

washed

for

until days. total. drunk

with

root for used until children. food. twice

decoction Powdered

used week.

improvement.

or 15–20 wash body 1

mixed

dose for

drinking

for

daily with daily with for

name

Condition for

decoction to

until drunk

and

bark

times stomach

or body

week.

dose

Same

decoction daily

leaves days.

consumed

daily decoction twice twice 3 daily

daily. daily

and

cup Stem Half for

three

drunk

washed days. alone

days. for improvement.

addition bath

twice improvement.

Leaf

5 once tea decoction

vernacular ear glass

drunk. spoon, daily

twice

drunk 3–4

times

daily body teacup of week.

week.

for

3 eaten

until

daily

topically

tea

the the

until 1 One tea 1

for food Carbonized

steam

above. a be glass

and

to one twice improvement.

decoction

for glass twice improvement.

daily region, head

One was as

daily

and

. times daily with

handfuls tea topically

body for

half application

3 tea applied

until

the

drunk daily drunk until salt.

the

dysmenorrhea

drinking:

addition: twice

One

applied daily

to twice

birrea

daily twice

One

Three

woloba

teacup In

washing senegalensis .

for stomach plants,

daily

topical

drunk applied

and

with possible.

body treatment twice

bath

powder

as once

consumed once

for time): One

eaten area,

butter,

and

. of wound

the dosage washing once

applied birrea

water.

eaten.

decoction

decoction lower

foot above

topical

Same teacup fat mixed

this of long

for

teacup drunk

as Erythrina

Sclerocarya

for

often washing Shea

and spoon,

the a

little

In and

applied

of drunk

leaves

ﬁngers One

as sapinda and

treatment cleaned with one litre

for

tea

porridge, week. washing salt

bath

with a

to 1

bark

bark bark

Sclerocarya topical Two

for handfuls with

drunk

bark small concentrated)

decoction Same with for decoction of decoction 2 with Blighia

Half

half

mixed practice.

for

drunk:

root

administration, steam (boiled washing

mixed

of of stem decoction stem

used overnight. roots. stem

from be

or applied

(very as

pulverized,

bark mixed

daily of for teacup

bark: bark: bark.

their

mixed plants

to roots mixed bark weeks.

root

bark

plants,

with

in and powder and

of bark juice

teacup one

root root Loranthus stem root used once glass

1–2 effects.

root

roots stem with juice

root leaves Decoction above

One tea

preparation,

for and and decoction and and and macerated or powder mixed decoction dried

mixed stem parasite

of of pulverized pulverized

side

root effects. pressed

the

one

mixed powdered and and No part, bark bark bark bark bark bark bark bark bark bark bark: bark bark bark. bark Decoction

daily macroptera

decoction decoction decoction: effects.

side T.

Powdered Leaf Stem Plant Root Stem Stem Stem Stem Stem Carbonized Leaf Leaf Bark Loranthus days. Leaves once dose. bark Dried No improvement. side content. used

feeling vaginal Roots

children

interviewed,

hemorrhage Stem burning

region

mouth Decoction mouth

in in healers hemorrhoids, wounds

nightmares

head Freshly syphilis pain Stem

infections cerebral 38

stomach pain ailments,

women Stem

pain Stem teeth, baby back

eye

children wounds, external of infections Dried fungal infections

Out

lower infections infections

and in wounds Stem pains

infections Stem

feet area.

Rheumatism Body Infertility Indication Fungal Amenorrhea Chronic Vaginal Fever Vaginal in dysmenorrhea, children, Inﬂammation Carbonized Pain Vaginal Deformed Dioïla

the

Village Dioïla N’Dia Dougou- tiguila N’Dia Dougou- tiguila Bancò Dioïla Dioïla Dougou- tiguila Dougou- tiguila Dougou- tiguila Dougou- tiguila Dougou- tiguila healers

with

Age/sex 72/M Bancó Malaria Roots 51/M Dioïla Growth 62/M 39/M N’Dia 63/M 38/M Bancò Diabetes Stem 69/M Bancò Hepatitis Pressed 65/M Bancò Fungal 73/M Bancò Hypertension, 65/M Bancò Neurological 60/M Bancò Chest 76/M Dioïla Cough Decoction 55/M 40/M N’Dia 50/M N’Dia 36/M Bancò 51/M Dioïla Ear 34/M N’Dia 70/F Dioïla Inner 83/M N’Dia 50/F Bancò Menstrual 43/M 66/M Beleco Diarrhoea Roots: 72/M 37/M Dioïla Dermatitis Stem 55/M Dioïla 52/M 62/M Dioïla Chronic 40/M Bancò Hepatitis Stem Table Interviews

1490 A.T. Pham et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 137 (2011) 1486–1491

Table 4

Fidelity index (FI, in %) of T. macroptera use. Uses with a total FI of more than 5% are shown. side

children.

body.

Indication Siby Dogonland Dioïla Total

for

Pain, rheumatism 13 13 28 21 lower improvement. week.

dose Wounds 38 0 8 16

1 of

Hepatitis 0 63 5 10 until for Half

Cough, tuberculosis 17 0 5 9 bath

Diarrhoea, dysentery 13 0 3 6 daily daily days.

Fever, malaria 4 0 8 6 3

steam

for

twice twice improvement.

daily

Table 5 until

drunk drunk addition:

Medicinal use of different parts of T. macroptera in different districts. In

times daily

Siby Dogonland Dioïla Total powder powder

above.

three

Root 15 (50%) 0 12 (27%) 27 (33%) twice of of

Stem bark 6 (20%) 3 (37%) 19 (43%) 28 (34%)

eyes

eaten

Leaves 8 (27%) 1 (13%) 6 (14%) 15 (18%)

ﬁngers ﬁngers

days.

Loranthus 0 4 (50%) 7 (16%) 11 (13%) the

5 3 3

Fruits 1 (3%) 0 0 1 (1%) of of

for

teaspoon days.

washing daily

all.

One

for Infusion Infusion

for

it appears that the part of the tree used is to some extent geo- salt. times

daily

used

graphically determined. The fruits are virtually unused, with only

1–2 with

one report from Siby and none from the other districts. addition: addition: and

twice treatment

In In

The difference in use between districts is reﬂected in the ﬁdelity drunk

mixed

index of plant use. As can be seen from Table 4, the ﬁdelity index water body

l Same

wash. wash. and

for all three areas combined is fairly low for the uses reported, but

the parts

when calculated for each area, some major uses such as treatment days.

body body with

3 water

l plant of wounds in Siby and hepatitis in Dogonland are evident. The dif-

for for

for

washing times. ference in use in the three areas might be due to different plant 1/4 the

mixed 3

used used

for

parts being used (Table 5). Pain and rheumatism is the only indica-

daily dosage

with

tion reported from all three areas. From the data in Tables 4 and 5, and and body child.

used

handful

twice it is seen that in the Siby area, the roots were used against wounds

the the mixture 1

boiled

water water and the bark (in some instances deﬁned as the stem bark) against

wash

coughs and tuberculosis. Against pain and rheumatism, the leaves with with decoction

washing eye washing

administration,

were commonly used. This was also found in Dioïla, but there,

Powdered Loranthus Loranthus

for for for

stem bark was also employed against these ailments. In Dogon- mixed mixed

land, hepatitis was the most common indication, and stem bark Loranthus leaves.

and/or Loranthus was used. The widespread use against wounds and parts

preparation, and and pulverized pulverized

decoction powder powder decoction decoction

infections may point to the presence of antimicrobial substances

plant in the plant. This could be related to the presence of ellagitan- and and

part, bark bark

nins, which are known antimicrobial compounds (Adesina et al., Loranthus Loranthus Plant Loranthus Loranthus Dried Loranthus Stem Stem Mixed

effects.

2000). We have recently isolated the ellagitannin corilagin from T.

macroptera leaves (Pham et al., 2011). Interestingly, this substance

has been reported to potentiate the activity of ␤-lactam antibi-

otics against methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus

(Shimizu et al., 2001). Combination of T. macroptera preparations

with antibiotics might be worth while to study in future research.

Tannins may also be involved in the anti-dysenteria and anti-

diarrhoea effects of T. macroptera preparations. Such effects are well pregnancy

dysmenorrhea Dried

infections

pains known (Heinrich et al., 1992; Schulz et al., 2001). Other uses of T. by

children

eye macroptera by healers might well be worth further investigation.

birth,

back

pains

Since inﬂammatory diseases and diabetes are wide spread through- caused

fever

and

pains

out the world, ﬁnding leads towards new and effective medicines

catarrh, infections

against these diseases would be highly valuable. Night Indication Body Eye Tuberculosis Chest

4. Conclusion

In conclusion, we have found that T. macroptera is widely used )

Village Bancò N’Dia Dougou- tiguila Bancò

against a variety of diseases in different areas in Mali. Some of

the major medical uses of this plant may well be rationally con-

nected with its constituents. Some of the effects reported have Continued (

been mentioned in earlier literature, though in less detail. How- 3

ever, the analgesic activity and wound healing properties appear Age/sex 70/M Bancò Nausea 50/M Bancò 54/M 70/F 70/M Dioïla Eye 40/F Bancò Stomach 38/M 48/M Dioïla Premature 75/M Dioïla

Table

to be poorly known previously for this plant and if effective, might

A.T. Pham et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 137 (2011) 1486–1491 1491

well be useful in future therapy. These and further uses seem to Maydell, H.J., 1990. Trees and Shrubs of the Sahel: Their Characteristics and Uses.

Verlag Josef Margraf, Weikersheim.

merit investigation.

Nongonierma, R., Proliac, A., Raynaud, J., 1987. 2 Mono-C-glycosyl ﬂavonoids from

ﬂowers of Terminalia macroptera Guill and Perr (Combretaceae). Pharmazie 42,

Acknowledgements 871–872.

Nongonierma, R., Proliac, A., Raynaud, J., 1988. Vitexin and isovitexin in Terminalia

macroptera Guill et Perr ﬂowers (Combretaceae). Pharmazie 43, 293–300.

We are very grateful to the healers of Mali who generously Nongonierma, R., Proliac, A., Raynaud, J., 1990. O-glycosyl ﬂavonoids from the ﬂow-

ers of Terminalia macroptera Guill and Perr (Combretaceae). Pharmaceutica Acta

shared their knowledge with us. We also acknowledge the work of

Helvetica 65, 233–235.

Mr. N’Golo Ballo, who accompanied the ﬁeld workers as a botanist,

Pham, A.T., Malterud, K.E., Paulsen, B.S., Diallo, D., Wangensteen, H., 2011. DPPH radi-

helping in identifying the plants. Likewise, the services of Mr. cal scavenging and xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity of Terminalia macroptera

leaves. Natural Product Communications 6, 1125–1128.

Akouni Dougnon, who acted as interpreter in the Dogonland dis-

Sanon, S., Ollivier, E., Azas, N., Mahiou, V., Gasquet, M., Ouattara, C.T., et al., 2003.

trict, are acknowledged.

Ethnobotanical survey and in vitro antiplasmodial activity of plants used in tra-

ditional medicine in Burkina Faso. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 86, 143–147.

School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 2011. The Malian medicinal plant project.

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