A Triple P Review of the Feasibility of Sustainable Offshore Seaweed Production in the North Sea
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LEI Wageningen UR The mission of Wageningen UR (University & Research centre) is ‘To explore the potential of nature to improve the quality of life’. Within Wageningen UR, A Triple P review of the feasibility of Sander van den Burg nine specialised research institutes of the DLO Foundation have joined forces P.O. Box 29703 with Wageningen University to help answer the most important questions in the 2502 LS Den Haag domain of healthy food and living environment. With approximately 30 locations, sustainable offshore seaweed production The Netherlands 6,000 members of staff and 9,000 students, Wageningen UR is one of the leading E [email protected] organisations in its domain worldwide. The integral approach to problems and in the North Sea T +31 (0)70 335 81 29 the cooperation between the various disciplines are at the heart of the unique www.wageningenUR.nl/en/lei Wageningen Approach. Sander van den Burg, Marian Stuiver, Frans Veenstra, Paul Bikker, Ana López Contreras, Arjan Palstra, Jan Broeze, LEI Report 13-077 Henrice Jansen, Robbert Jak, Alwin Gerritsen, Paulien Harmsen, Jeroen Kals, Ainhoa Blanco, Willem Brandenburg, ISBN 978-90-8615-652-8 Marinus van Krimpen, Arie Pieter van Duijn, Wim Mulder, Leo van Raamsdonk A Triple P review of the feasibility of sustainable offshore seaweed production in the North Sea Sander van den Burg1 (ed.), Marian Stuiver2 (ed.), Frans Veenstra3 (ed.), Paul Bikker4, Ana López Contreras5, Arjan Palstra3, Jan Broeze5, Henrice Jansen3, Robbert Jak3, Alwin Gerritsen2, Paulien Harmsen5, Jeroen Kals3, Ainhoa Blanco3, Willem Brandenburg6, Marinus van Krimpen4, Arie Pieter van Duijn1, Wim Mulder5, Leo van Raamsdonk7 (ed.) 1 LEI 2 Alterra 3 Imares 4 Livestock Research 5 Food and Biobased Research 6 Plant Research International 7 RIKILT This research was (partly) funded by the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs. Wageningen UR Wageningen, September 2013 LEI Report 13-077 ISBN 978-90-8615-652-8 Burg, S. van den, M. Stuiver, F. Veenstra, P. Bikker, A. López Contreras, A. Palstra, J. Broeze, H. Jansen, R. Jak, A. Gerritsen, P. Harmsen, J. Kals, A. Blanco, W. Brandenburg, M. van Krimpen, A-P. van Duijn, W. Mulder, L. van Raamsdonk, 2012. A Triple P review of the feasibility of sustainable offshore seaweed production in the North Sea. Wageningen, Wageningen UR (University & Research centre), LEI Report 13-077. 106 blz.; fig.; tab.; ref. Dit onderzoek richt zicht op het potentieel van zeewier productie in de Noordzee, als een duurzaam uitgangsmateriaal voor productie van diervoeder en andere non-food toepassingen. Zeewier kan geteeld worden in zogenaamde multi-use platforms at sea (MUPS). Het onderzoek geeft een overzicht van kennis over zeewier productie en toepassingen. Resultaten laten zien dat Noordzee zeewier in potentie een duurzaam uitgangsmateriaal is. Diverse economische, ecologische en maatschappelijke uitdagingen zijn geformuleerd. Deze zullen geadresseerd moeten worden voordat het potentieel van zeewier ten volle benut kan worden. This study focused on the potential of seaweed, cultivated in the North Sea, as a sustainable and profitable resource for feed and non-food applications. Seaweed production can take place as part of multi-use platforms at sea (MUPS). A review of the state-of-the-art in seaweed production and its applications revealed that North Sea seaweed is a potential sustainable resource for feed and non-food applications. Various economic, ecological and social challenges are identified, which need to be addressed to utilise this potential. Keywords: seaweed, North Sea, sustainability, feed, green chemicals, risks, Multi-Use Platforms at Sea The pdf file is free of charge and can be downloaded via the website www.wageningenUR.nl/en/lei . © LEI, part of Stichting Landbouwkundig Onderzoek (DLO foundation), 2013 LEI is ISO 9001:2008 certified. • Acquisition, duplication and transmission of this publication is permitted with clear acknowledgement of the source. • Acquisition, duplication and transmission is not permitted for commercial purposes and/or monetary gain. • Acquisition, duplication and transmission is not permitted of any parts of this publication for which the copyrights clearly rest with other parties and/or are reserved. LEI Report 13-077 | ISBN 978-90-8615-652-8 Photo cover: Nico van Kappel /Hollandse Hoogte Contents Preface 7 Summary 9 1 Introduction to the Feasibility Study 11 1.1 Introduction 11 1.2 Botanic classification 12 1.3 Chemistry 13 1.3.1 Macronutrients 14 1.3.2 Micronutrients 16 1.4 World seaweed market 17 1.5 Relation to European seaweed research 17 1.6 Purpose of the feasibility study 18 1.7 Reading guide to the feasibility study 19 Part I: STATE OF THE ART 21 2 Growing conditions and production of selected seaweed species 23 2.1 Overview of North Sea species 23 2.1.1 Laminaria digitata 23 2.1.2 Saccharina latissima 24 2.1.3 Palmaria palmata 24 2.1.4 Ulva lactuca 25 2.1.5 Overview of North Sea species 25 2.2 Production systems 26 2.3 Synthesis 27 3 Integrating seaweeds in production systems as tool for nutrient management 29 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 The concept of integrated aquaculture 29 3.3 Species selection for IMTA in the North Sea 30 3.3.1 Finfish culture 30 3.3.2 Shellfish culture 30 3.3.3 Seaweed culture 31 3.3.4 Deposit feeders 31 3.4 Synthesis 32 4 Processing of seaweed 33 4.1 Introduction 33 4.2 Composition 33 4.3 Biorefinery routes 33 4.4 Processing of seaweed 34 4.4.1 Dewatering 34 4.4.2 Recovery of carbohydrate fraction from seaweeds 35 4.5 Synthesis 36 5 Use of seaweed and seaweed functional components in diets of farm animals and fish 37 5.1 Introduction 37 5.2 Nutritive value of seaweed as a dietary ingredient 37 5.2.1 Growing finishing pigs 37 5.2.2 Poultry 38 5.2.3 Fish 38 5.3 Functional nutritive characteristics in livestock 39 5.3.1 Sows and piglets 39 5.3.2 Beef and dairy cattle 40 5.4 Effect of seaweed on quality of animal products 41 5.4.1 Oxidative stability of animal products 41 5.4.2 Colour of animal products 41 5.4.3 Physicochemical characteristics 41 5.5 Review 41 5.6 Synthesis 43 6 Hazards of seaweed in feed and food production 45 6.1 Introduction 45 6.2 Legal framework 45 6.3 Contaminants or metabolites 47 6.3.1 Heavy metals as listed in Directive 2002/32/EC 47 6.3.2 Other heavy metals and minerals 48 6.3.3 Iodine 49 6.3.4 Nitrite 49 6.3.5 Halogenated components 49 6.3.6 Toxic metabolites 49 6.3.7 Seasonal influences 50 6.4 Balance between risk and benefit 50 6.5 Synthesis 51 7 Non-food applications of seaweed fractions 53 7.1 Introduction 53 7.2 Protein and its applications 53 7.3 Seaweeds as feedstock for biological production of fuels and chemicals 53 7.3.1 Ethanol production from seaweeds 54 7.3.2 Butanol from seaweeds 54 7.4 Non-food application of proteins 55 7.5 Synthesis 57 Part II: FEASIBILITY FROM A TRIPLE P PERSPECTIVE 59 8 PROFIT: Economic feasibility of a North Sea seaweed value chain 61 8.1 Introduction 61 8.2 Global and European production volume and value 61 8.3 Expected cost of North Sea seaweed aquaculture 62 8.4 Potential seaweed uses and utilisation 64 8.4.1 Industrial gums 65 8.4.2 Animal feed 65 8.4.3 Chemicals 66 8.4.4 Biofuels 67 8.5 Synthesis 67 9 PLANET: Sustainability 69 9.1 Introduction & objectives 69 9.2 Nutrient management models for offshore aquaculture 69 9.2.1 Mono-culture of seaweed 69 9.2.2 Co-culture of seaweed and bivalves 70 9.2.3 Integrated Multi Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) 71 9.3 Risk assessment models 71 9.3.1 Cumulative Effects Assessment (CEA) 71 9.3.2 Eco-Optimisation models 72 9.4 Eco-efficiency analysis by Life Cycle Analysis 73 9.5 Synthesis 74 10 PEOPLE: Planning challenges and stakeholder perspectives for developing MUPS at the North Sea 75 10.1 Introduction 75 10.2 Legislation for MUPS in the North Sea 75 10.2.1 Policy objectives for aquaculture 75 10.2.2 Policy objectives for offshore wind 76 10.2.3 Marine spatial planning 76 10.2.4 Obstacles and opportunities 77 10.3 Governance arrangements for the emerging innovations 77 10.3.1 Planning and governance of the North Sea and MUPS development 78 10.3.2 Governance styles 78 10.3.3 System innovations 80 10.3.4 Optimal governance arrangements and metagovernance 80 10.4 Perceived obstacles in planning for investing in MUPS 81 10.4.1 Identification of stakeholders 82 10.4.2 Stakeholder perceptions on conditions for participation in MUPS development 82 10.4.3 Stakeholder perceptions on the process design of MUPS and business cases 83 10.5 Synthesis 84 11 Conclusions and R&D challenges 85 11.1 State of the art 85 11.2 Feasibility from a Triple P perspective 86 11.3 R&D challenges 87 11.3.1 Profit 87 11.3.2 Planet 87 11.3.3 People 88 References 89 Annex 1 General information on biochemistry of seaweeds 100 Annex 2 Chapter 3 103 Annex 3 Chapter 9 104 LEI Report 13-077 | 5 Preface As the world population and consumption levels grow, efficient use of natural resources becomes more important. Feeding the world within the carrying capacity of Planet Earth requires an open eye for the sustainable food production at sea, as seas cover more than 70% of the planet.