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Dept. of Humanities, Social Sciences and Social Justice in Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto Rhetorics of Colonialism in Visual Documentation by Linda Kalli Paakspuu A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Dept. of Humanities, Social Sciences and Social Justice in Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto © Copyright by Linda Kalli Paakspuu 2014 Rhetorics of Colonialism in Visual Documentation Doctor of Philosophy 2014 Linda Kalli Paakspuu Dept. of Humanities, Social Sciences and Social Justice in Education University of Toronto Abstract The original face-to-face encounter of American Indians in portraits and pictorial field studies reiterates the encounter between the colonial state, settlers and Indigenous communities. Mechanical reproduction had extended visual technologies creating a revolution in communications which began with the early use of the woodcut (around 1461). A tradition of portraiture from the eighteenth century then re-imagined American Indian peoples for new social and political uses. This dissertation begins by introducing the frontier representations of artists Benjamin West, George Catlin, Paul Kane and William G. R. Hind. Attention then shifts to the collaborative relation between photographer and subject required by the photographic technology of the period. The pictorial contact moment was an interactive communication between photographer and subject. Hence the image-making contact moment is a dialogue, an interchange. Thus the image became a meeting ground where cultural processes were intersubjective and where the present interacted with the past. At the centre of these representations is a two-way looking within a dialogical imagination. As colonial powers expanded and increased control territorially, changes in the dialogic relations were marked in the subject’s presentation of self, the artists’ renditions and the photographer’s aesthetics. Earlier artists like Benjamin West in “The Death of General Wolfe” (1770) used the publishing industry to challenge monologic stereotypes. ii However, as colonial powers exerted greater repressions, lucrative popular culture industries like the Wild West Shows constituted an imagined frontier which called for several other perspectival approaches: Lakota Chief Red Cloud used the photographic medium for peace activism and community building, Harry Pollard’s photojournalism documented Indigenous communities in Alberta and Edward S. Curtis’s pictorialism became a genre of ethnography in the twenty volume, "The North American Indian". Using a historical framework and interdisciplinary methodologies, this dissertation examines early representations of the North American West in a dialogue as a frontier of difference iterated through technologies of illustration and photography. iii Contents 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………1 2. The Hypertext of Visual Documents and the Performativities of Culture…...14 3. Colonial Visual Rhetoric, Painterly Inheritance and Benjamin West……......33 4. Dialogue Without Words: George Catlin, Paul Kane and William G. R. Hind….....…………………………………………………..……..….....68 5. The Camera’s First Appearance: Geologies of Knowledge……….…...........116 6. Early Portraits and Tableau Photography………………..……………..…....134 7. Winning or Losing the West: The Photographic Act……........……..............158 8. Photojournalism: Whose Narrative Is It Now? ………...……………...........184 9. Negotiating the Apparatus for Indigenous Storytelling: Photographer Edward Curtis……………………..............……………………….....213 10. Conclusion……...…………………..……………………………………...254 11. Bibliography……………………………….………………………………271 iv List of Figures Fig. 1. Curtis, E.S. (1903) Chief Joseph–Nez Perce (The North American Indian; vol. 08). [Photogravure: brown ink; 46 x 32 cm.] Hienmot Tooyalakekt (1841-1904) (commonly known as Chief Joseph, the leader of the Wallamotkin band of Nez Perce. Retrieved from Northwestern University Library, Edward S. Curtis's 'The North American Indian': the Photographic Images, 2001, p. 28. Fig. 2. Theodor de Bry. (Engraver). (1564). How they till the soil and plant. [Engraving after a watercolor by Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues, 1564.] From de Bry, Brevis narratio eorum quae in Florida Americae. Retrieved July 7, 2013 from http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/awhhtml/aw05e/d04.html, p. 33. Fig. 3. West, B. (1761). Indian family [Oil on canvas, 60 x 48 cm] (The Trustees of the Hunterian Collection and the President and Council of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, London). Retrieved Aug. 27, 2013 from http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/ch-1-1492-1760-the-invention-and-mapping-of- america/deck/1163516, p. 39. Fig. 4. Bartolozzi, F. (1763). Indian family [after Benjamin West, Engraving, 17.5 x 11.5 cm.]. Biblioteca Nationale Centrale, Florence. Retrieved August 27, 2013 from http://s30556663155.mirtesen.ru/blog/43208759144/John-White (1585-1593).Pervyie- izobrazheniya-korennyih-amerikants, p. 40. Fig. 5. Artist/maker copy after Leochares (original, ca. 350/325 BC). Apollo Belvedere [Marble statue. Dimensions H. 2.24 m (7 ft. 4 in.)]. Credit line found in the 16th century Accession number inv. 1015. Museo Pio-Clementino, Octagon, Apollo Hall. Retrieved Aug. 27, 2013, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Belvedere_Apollo_Pio- Clementino_Inv1015.jpg, p. 42. Fig. 6. West. B. (1771). The Treaty of Penn with the Indians. [Oil on canvas, 190 x 270 cm]. Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts] Retrieved Aug. 27, 2013 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_W est.jpg, p. 43. Fig. 7. West. B. (1766). The Indians giving a talk to Colonel Bouquet [Engraving]. Library of Congress. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Indians_giving_a_talk_to_Bouquet.jpg, p. 45. v Fig. 8. West. B. (1770). The death of General Wolfe [Oil on canvas, 151 cm x 213 cm). National Gallery of Canada. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Benjamin_West_005.jpg, p. 49. Fig. 9. West, B. (1776). Portrait of Colonel Guy Johnson and Karonghyontye (Captain David Hill) [Oil on canvas, 201.93 x 37.92 cm]. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Guy_Johnson_by_Benjami n_West.jpg, p. 56. Fig. 10. Houle, R. (1992). Kanata [Acrylic and conté crayon on canvas, 228.7 x 732 cm; panels: 228.7 x 183 cm] National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa. Accession No: 37479.1-4. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://www.gallery.ca/en/see/collections/artwork.php?mkey=43533, p. 66. Fig. 11. Catlin, G. (1826). Red Jacket [Oil sketch]. In B. Eisler, The red man’s bones: George Catlin, artist and showman, New York, W.W. Norton & Company, 2013, p. 70. Fig. 12. Catlin, G. (n.d.). 71 Ka-pes-ka-da, the shell. Brave, of the Oglala band, upper Missouri. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://amertribes.proboards.com/thread/963/lakota-portraits- catlin?page=1&scrollTo=6690, p. 72. Fig. 13. Catlin. G. (n.d.). 83 Tchon-su-mons-ka—The sand bar. Woman of the Teton band, upper Missouri. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://amertribes.proboards.com/thread/963/lakota-portraits- catlin?page=1&scrollTo=6690, p.78. Fig. 14. Catlin, G. (n.d.). 66 Ha-won-je-tah—One Horn, first chief of the tribe. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://amertribes.proboards.com/thread/963/lakota-portraits- catlin?page=1&scrollTo=6690, p. 80. Fig. 15. Catlin. G. (1846-1848) Catlin and his Indian guide approaching buffalo under white wolf skins [Oil on canvas 50.9 x 69.2 cm]. Smithsonian American Art Museum. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://americanart.si.edu/collections/search/artwork/?id=3984, p. 81. Fig. 16. Catlin, G. (1837-1839). Wi-jún-jon, Pigeon's Egg Head (The Light) going to and returning from Washington [Oil on canvas, 736. 6 mm x 609.6 mm]. Smithsonian Art Museum. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:George_Catlin_-_Wi-jún- jon,_Pigeon's_Egg_Head_(The_Light)_Going_To_and_Returning_From_Washington_- _Google_Art_Project.jpg, p. 84. Fig. 17. Kane, P. (1845). Ojibway Chief Mani-tow-wah-bay or “He-Devil” [Oil on paper]. Collection of Glenbow Museum. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from vi http://farm5.staticflickr.com/4042/4616000586_d70e789111_o.jpg Mani-tow-wah-bay or “He-Devil” at Mackinac, p. 88. Fig. 18. Kane. P. (Later 1848 -1856). CAW-KEE-KA-KEESH-E-KO, The Constant Sky. July 5, 1846 [Oil on canvas, 25 x 30”]. Collection, Royal Ontario Museum. In I. S. MacLaren, trans. Journal of Paul Kane’s Western Travels, In The American Art Journal, Vol XXI (2), p. 29. p. 90. Fig. 19. Kane, P. (n.d.) Mick-Cranium. A Cree from Fort Carleton. Stark POP6; CRIV- 103, p. 92. Fig. 20. Kane, P. (1848). Winter travelling in dog sleds (a wedding party leaving Fort Edmonton) [Oil on canvas, 19 x 29”]. Collection, Royal Ontario Museum. In I. S. MacLaren, trans. Journal of Paul Kane’s Western Travels, In The American Art Journal, Vol XXI (2), p. 95. Fig. 21. Kane, P. (1846). Wounded buffalo bull [Watercolour on paper. 4 1/8 x 5 3/8”]. Collection. Stark Museum of Art. In I. S. MacLaren, trans. Journal of Paul Kane’s Western Travels, In The American Art Journal, Vol XXI (2), p. 27, p. 98. Fig. 22. Kane, P. (1845). Coe-coosh or “The Hog”, a Potawatomi, Fox River. Oil on paper, 11.625 x 9.375 inches, Stark Museum of Art, Orange, Texas, 31.78.193, p. 100. Fig. 23. Hind W.G.R. (1861-1862). A visit to Otelne in his lodge [Waterclour, pencil on paper, 16.5 x 30.8 cm]. Agnes Etherington Art Centre. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://www.aeac.ca/mobius/detail.php?t=objects&type=browse&f=CATEGORY1&s=FI NE+ART&record=14, p. 105. Fig. 24. Hind, W.G.R. (1862). Overlanders expedition sketchbook, p. 14 of 92. McCord Museum. Retrieved on Aug. 27, 2013 from http://www.mccord- museum.qc.ca/en/collection/artifacts/08725, p. 108. Fig. 25. Hind, W.G. R. (about 1863). Crossing the Battle River, north western prairie Saskatchewan District [Watercolour, graphite and opaque white on wove paper, 21.8 x 30.6 cm].
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