Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017 S Welcome to Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare. The l content for this presentation was developed as supplemental training for the i Module 25: USDA-APHIS National Veterinary Accreditation Program (NVAP) by the Using Behavior to American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) Animal Welfare Division, d Assess Animal Welfare and the Animal Behavior and Welfare Group in the Department of Animal e USDA-APHIS National Veterinary 1 Accreditation Program (NVAP) Science at Michigan State University (MSU). The Center for Food Security and Public Health (CFSPH) at the College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University utilized the content to prepare this presentation. The content for this USDA-APHIS National Veterinary Accreditation Program module was finalized in May 2015 and was revised in June 2016.

Presenters: As designed, slide completion time ranges from 30 to 90 seconds each, such that the entire presentation can be completed in 60 minutes.

S Required A few important points about the renewal process, first you must sign in to get l credit for taking each APHIS Approved Supplemental Training Module. This • Sign-in will either be done using a paper sign in sheet that is being passed around or the i – iPad or paper d • Retain certificate of completion iPad that is being passed around. Second at the end of the presentation you will • Complete 2-step process to renew receive a certificate of completion, this is your proof you have completed the e accreditation 2 – Complete modules module. Please retain this for your records. Do not send it to APHIS as part of – Submit an application the renewal. You must submit an application for renewal as part of the two-step renewal process. This can either be done on-line or via paper. Both processes USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health are described on the NVAP website.

S iPad Sign-In Directions In order for the key pad to display the participants must first tap the first field l on the screen (first name field). This will display the key pad. The participant • Tap each field to enter data* must then either tap the sylus pen or their finger into each subsequent field on i • Select Submit d • Review information for accuracy the screen. The user must tap into each field. Enter your entire National – If not accurate, see me after Accreditation Number including leading 0’s. e presentation • Select 3 Confirm • Pass to next participant * If you don’t know your 6 digit national accreditation number, pass the iPad along and see us after session

USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health

S If No Match Found However if they have not entered the data the way it is entered into our database l they will get a No Match Found message. They should attempt to re-enter the • Your name must match what is in i our records. data two more times and then pass the tablet to the next participant. They must e.g. “Jim” not “James”, “McDonald” vs see the instructor after the presentation to ensure they do get credit for the d “Mc Donald” e • If “No Match Found” displays after module they have taken. Certain reasons their name is not displayed include: you attempt to re-enter your name Their name is not entered correctly – James vs Jim, McDonald vs Mcdonald vs 4 and NAN, pass the tablet to next participant and see us after session Mc Donald etc.

USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 1 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Paper Sign-In If a paper sign in is being used please make sure you print clearly or you may l not get credit for the AAST module. It is critical that we have your updated i • Print clearly email address to ensure you receive notifications from NVAP. If you do not • Complete ALL fields know your six digit National Accreditation Number (NAN), please see the d • If you do not know your 6 e digit National Accreditation instructor after the presentation. 5 Number, please see us after session

USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health

S Supplemental Training Presenters: Please make sure your audience understands the intent of this l information by reading what is written here. This informational presentation is • Familiarize accredited veterinarians with i animal health regulatory concepts and intended to familiarize accredited veterinarians with animal health regulatory activities d – Does not supersede the regulations concepts and activities. Information presented here does not supersede the • For the most up-to-date regulations and regulations. For the most up-to-date regulations and standards, please refer to e standards, please refer to: – Code of Federal Regulations the Code of Federal Regulations, contact your state or national Occupational 6 – OSHA Occupational health specialist Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), consult with your workplace’s – Local VS District Office occupational health specialist, or your local VS District Office. USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health

S Supplemental Training All modules are available on our website free of charge. If you want additional l information about any of the presentations you may check them out on our • All APHIS Approved Supplemental Training i (AAST) modules are also available on our website where additional resources are available. The NVAP website is Website with interactive features and links d to additional Web resources. available by typing NVAP into your preferred search engine. • Type “NVAP” into your search engine e.g. e Bing, Google, Yahoo. 7

USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health

S Overview Overview l This presentation will identify normal behaviors seen in many animal species • Identify normal behaviors seen under i conditions of good welfare under conditions promoting good welfare, describe how sickness behaviors can d • Describe how sickness behaviors contribute to improved or compromised animal welfare, and list basic contribute to compromised welfare approaches to reducing or eliminating pain and distress in animals. e • List basic approaches to reducing or 8 eliminating pain and distress in animals

USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 2 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017 S Using Behavior to Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare Assess Animal Welfare l As stated by the American Veterinary Medical Association, animal welfare is • American Veterinary Medical i Association (AVMA) states… used to describe how an animal is coping* physically and mentally with the d • Animal welfare used to describe conditions in which it lives. Societal concerns about animal welfare stem – How an animal is coping e with conditions in which it lives largely from the public’s belief that conditions that prevent animals from – Physically, mentally 9 expressing perceived important behaviors should be modified. Thus, many animal welfare assessment programs evaluate the animals’ opportunities to express normal behaviors. USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health *Coping is a measure of how well an animal is adapting to stressors within its body and the environment. In the field of animal welfare, coping can be considered successful when the animal maintains control of mental and bodily stability in a way that does not compromise fitness (Broom & Fraser, 2007).

S Using Behavior to Behavior can include all animal actions, whether observable or internal, simple Assess Animal Welfare l or complex, conscious or unconscious, learned or innate. Behaviors occur in • Directly observable behaviors i can be used to assess welfare response to both external stimuli, such as the physical environment or other – Normal behaviors animals, and to internal stimuli, such as the levels of hormones or chemicals in d – Abnormal behaviors e – Sickness behaviors the blood. As such, directly observable behaviors** can be used to help assess – Pain behaviors 1 animal welfare, including normal, abnormal, sickness, and pain behaviors. We will discuss each of these in more detail as well as how they relate to animal 0 welfare during this presentation. USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health **Behavior is defined as “the movement of an organism or of its parts in a frame of reference provided by the organism itself or by various external objects or fields of force” (Skinner, 1938). It is the response of the organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, voluntary or involuntary. Examples of behaviors include panting, ruminating, walking, or playing.

S l i d Normal Behaviors e 1 1

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 3 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Normal Behaviors Normal Behaviors l A complete welfare assessment requires an understanding of normal behaviors • Welfare assessment requires i understanding normal behaviors for that animal according to its environment, species, and life stage. Examples d – Environment of normal behaviors that can be used to assess animal welfare include – Species grooming, thermoregulatory, foraging, resting and sleeping, and playing e – Life stage 1 • Assess behaviors such as behaviors. By understanding what behaviors are normal, veterinarians can – Grooming, allogrooming, better identify variations that may occur and understand whether these 2 thermoregulatory actions, foraging, resting and sleeping, playing behaviors are likely to positively or negatively affect an animal’s welfare USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health (Mellor, 2009).

For example, sows in farrowing crates cannot build nests even though they still experience the underlying surges in prostaglandins that motivates them to do so (Špinka, 2009). Another example is the influence of human-animal interactions in cattle on fear-related behaviors. Hemsworth (2000) found cows were less likely to approach humans after being handled in negative ways (e.g., push, hit, tail twist). This section will explain some normal behaviors found in a variety of animal species.

Presenter: Full citations for the references included in the speaker notes can be found in the PDF or web version of this module.

S Grooming Behavior Grooming Behavior

l • Grooming is an Grooming has evolved into an important behavior observed across many animal important behavior i across many species species. Grooming helps prevent bacterial infections, stimulates wound-healing, – Helps prevent bacterial infections aids in thermoregulation, reduces stress, removes debris and parasites, and d – Stimulates wound-healing – Aids in thermoregulation encourages chemocommunication* (Hart, 1990; Hutson, 1979; Noguchi, 1991). e – Reduces stress – Removes debris, parasites Animals require a range of movement (e.g., wing stretching) and/or substrates 1 – Encourages chemocommunication (e.g., dust) in order to groom. The absence of grooming behavior can be 3 • Absence of grooming can be observed or inferred observed or may be inferred based on environmental design and coat, plumage, USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health or skin condition. For example, inadequate access to dust or mud can lead to preventable sunburn in some species such as swine.

*Chemocommunication involves the releasing of chemical signals by one animal (sender) and the perception of these chemicals by a second animal (receiver), typically using senses of smell and taste and, in some animals, the vomeronasal organ. An example would be deposition of a urine mark, which contains information about the sex, reproductive status, and possibly individual identity, by one cat and subsequent perception of this information by a second cat using olfaction and the vomeronasal organ. As the second cat is gathering information about the urine mark, it may make a characteristic expression , called gaping in felines and flehmen in ungulates, that is designed to funnel the signal to the vomeronasal organ.

Photo: A chinchilla grooms by dust bathing in volcanic ash. Nathan Gibbs, San Diego, CA

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 4 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Allogrooming Allogrooming Social animals will groom each other, a behavior known as allogrooming. l • Social animals may groom each other, Allogrooming is exhibited by a diverse taxonomy of animals, which include i allogrooming – Strengthens fish, birds, and mammals. Normal allogrooming is an affiliative interaction that d social bonds – Reduces tension, stress strengthens social bonds and reduces tension and stress. Allogrooming releases e – Causes pleasant 1 emotional state endorphins into the blood of the recipient. These endogenous peptides have an • Animals experience opioid effect on the body, which reduces the sensation of pain and causes a 4 emotions including pleasure, anxiety, fear pleasant emotional state* (Ribeiro, 2005). USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health *Emotions in animals can be described as subjective, conscious experiences characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. Emotions are described as discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events that have particular significance for the organism. Emotions are brief in duration and consist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include physiological, behavioral, and neural components. Emotions may have evolved to deal with predictable and recurring problems that have faced animals throughout evolutionary history. Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to write about the idea that animals experience emotions (Darwin, 1872). Numerous scientific studies have been conducted in a wide array of species (from fish to primates) that provide support that animals do experience emotions, including pleasure, anxiety, and fear (Boissy, 2007; Mendl, 2009; Panksepp, 1998; Phelps, 2005; Paul, 2005).

Photo: Rhesus monkeys and rabbits allogrooming. Sources: Janine & Jim Eden, New York, NY (Top); Joe Carroll, Tempere, Finland (Bottom)

S Thermoregulatory Behavior Thermoregulatory Behavior l No temperature is optimal for all animals at all times. Allowing an animal to • No temperature i optimal for exercise its thermoregulatory behavior allows it to attain the temperature that all animals meets its requirements under varying circumstances. Thermoregulatory d at all times e • Allow animals behavior may be as simple as moving toward or away from a heat source, or to exercise using a mister or wallowing. It also may be more complex, such as creating a 1 thermoregulatory behavior – May require social learning or exposure nest or burrow. Many animals are motivated to huddle in groups to stay warm. 5 to appropriate materials The development of effective thermoregulatory behavior may require social USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health learning or exposure to appropriate materials early in life.

Photo: A pig wallowing to lower its body temperature (pigs have few sweat glands). Source: Andrew Stawarz, Bury St Edmunds, UK

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 5 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Foraging Foraging l Many animals are highly motivated* to spend a large amount of their day • Motivated to spend i large amount finding and consuming nutrients, even if food and water are provided to them in of day to find and quantities that meet their physiological needs. Providing outlets for all or part of d consume nutrients e • Outlets for foraging foraging behavior can satisfy an important behavioral need. It can promote satisfies behavioral good welfare in that it occupies the animal’s time with normal behavioral 1 need and promotes good welfare – Helps to avoid development of abnormal opportunities, thereby avoiding outcomes, such as boredom, that can lead to the 6 behaviors development of abnormal behaviors. USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health *Motivation is the desire or willingness to engage in a behavior (Immelmann, 1989). An animal’s motivation can vary in strength. Motivation is strongest for behaviors and outcomes that are rewarding to animals and reduced for behaviors or outcomes that are painful or stressful. Animals may have the opportunity to perform many behaviors at any one time. They will perform the behavior associated with the strongest motivation, and will stop performing that behavior (and begin doing something else) as motivational strength changes. For example, an animal may simultaneously have opportunities to eat, drink, and rest because it is housed with food, water, and a resting area. A hungry animal will eat first, and once hunger has been satisfied, may then drink or sleep depending on which of the other two behaviors it is most strongly motivated to perform.

Photo: A giraffe browsing can spend much of its day using its long tongue to strip leaves from branches. Source: Pete Lambert, York, United Kingdom

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 6 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Resting and Sleeping Resting and Sleeping l Most animals have a circadian rhythm of regular wake and sleep cycles over a • Hours spent sleeping i varies with species 24-hour period. This rhythm helps regulate the frequency of eating and – Total hours slept d – Hours per session drinking, body temperature, secretion of hormones, and the volume of • Regulate body function urination. The number of hours that animals sleep in total and during each sleep e and daily activities • REM sleep is crucial session per day depends on the species. For example, in a natural environment, 1 • Comfortable and secure resting area rats are crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk), while chickens and giraffes are 7 is vital to good welfare diurnal (sleeping at night). Many carnivores nap throughout the day. Cattle and USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health horses can sleep standing up,* but do not experience full REM sleep** unless they lie down. Because of the variability that is present in the normal sleep of animals, understanding what is common for the species or individual of interest is critical. Providing animals with comfortable and secure resting areas is vital to good welfare.

*The “stay apparatus” is a unique mechanism that allows animals, such as horses, to "lock" both the front and rear limbs. It is most commonly discussed as a mechanism that allows the horse to sleep while standing.

**During REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, regions of the brain involved in learning are active. REM sleep may be particularly important for normal brain development and appears to be necessary for certain types of learning because deprivation of REM sleep can impair formation of new memories. When animals are deprived of REM sleep, a compensatory increase in REM is seen during the subsequent period of sleep. This rebound effect, as well as mild psychological disturbances, such as anxiety, irritability, increased brain activity in response to sensor stimulation, and difficulty concentrating, suggest that REM sleep is a crucial sleep phase for proper brain functioning.

Photo: (Top) A cow can “doze” for a few minutes at a time while standing up, but they typically lie down to sleep or rest, usually leaning forward on their chest and forelimbs or lying completely on their sides. (Bottom) A horse can sleep standing up due to engagement of the stay apparatus in the limbs. Source: (Top) Mathieu Chevron, France; (Bottom) Wikipedia.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 7 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Playing Playing l Many animals naturally engage in play behavior. Play behavior is described as a • Voluntary, inherent, i motivated activities range of voluntary, inherently motivated activities normally considered to be associated with pleasure, enjoyment associated with pleasure and enjoyment. Animals play to practice important d – Practice important behaviors – Develop social bonds behavioral sequences and develop social bonds within a group. Play benefits an e • Play benefits an 1 animal socially, animal not only socially and physically but also chemically. The brain needs physically, and chemically opiates to make the proper neurological connections. As with allogrooming, 8 • Presence of play indicates good welfare play results in the production of endogenous opioids by the brain (Ribeiro et al., USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health 2005). In many species, the amount of time spent playing peaks around puberty and drops off as animals mature. However, adult animals may also play, especially when needs for survival and reproduction are met. For example, this can happen when food is abundant, which occurs more often in captivity than in the wild. In social species, play may function to promote group cohesion. Because play typically occurs when other needs are met and is suppressed when conditions are considered to be stressful, the presence of play is often used to indicate good welfare (Held and Špinka, 2011).

Photo: (Top) An elephant playing with an inanimate object. (Bottom) Rats wrestling. Source: (Top) Jon Phillips, Montreal QC, Canada; (Bottom) Rebecca Lai, Glasgow, Scotland.

S l i d Abnormal Behaviors e 1 9

S Abnormal Behaviors Abnormal Behaviors l Many natural behaviors, such as investigation and aggression, can occur at a • Natural behaviors at a frequency i or intensity that becomes harmful frequency or intensity that becomes harmful to the animal. An example is when to the animal the receivers of the behavior are unable to effectively retreat to avoid continued d – Stereotypies e • Repetitive, functionless behavioral sequences attacks, resulting in the receiver experiencing distress and harm. More extreme • Pacing, head-bobbing, tongue rolling behavioral abnormalities include stereotypy and self-injury. Stereotypies are 2 – Self-injury • Self-directed behavior causing injury repetitive and apparently functionless behavioral sequences, such as pacing, 0 • Self-biting, feather plucking sham-chewing, tongue-rolling, or vomiting and re-ingestion. Self-injurious USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health behavior is any apparently volitional,* self-directed behavior causing injury, such as self-biting or feather plucking.

*Volition is the act of making a choice or decision (Merriam-Webster dictionary).

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 8 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Abnormal Behaviors (cont’d) Abnormal Behaviors, continued l A change in behavior is often the first sign of a change in the animal’s • A change in behavior may be first i sign of change in circumstances circumstances and alerts caretakers to identify the cause of the behavior and any d • Determine cause threats to the animal’s welfare. The more the animal's behavior deviates from • Deviations due to normal (for that species or that individual) or leads to distress or harm to the e – Genetics 2 – Environment animal, the greater the effort that should be made to determine and mediate the – Learned behavior cause(s). Deviations in behavior may have a wide range of causes including, but 1 – Toxins – Disease or disorder not limited to, genetics, the immediate environment, learned behavior, toxins, USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health and disease or disorder.

Photo: Two Golden conures. The one on the left has signs of feather plucking. Source: Benny Mazur/Wikimedia-Creative Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Two_Golden_Conures.jpg

S Sickness Behavior l Poor animal health contributes to compromised animal welfare (Broom, 2006; i Cockram, 2011). Sickness is the state of an animal with a disease or disorder, d Sickness Behavior excluding trauma. Observation of changes in behavior occurring as a result of e sickness dates back to the dawn of the veterinary profession and continues to be 2 used to identify ill animals and assist in diagnosing disease (Broom and Fraser, 2007). However, the evaluation of these behavioral changes is often intuitive 2 and subjective and would benefit from being explicitly recorded and quantified to ensure welfare assessments are uniform and thorough (Weary et al., 2009). The next sections of this module will discuss the role of the immune system in sickness behavior, various sickness behaviors and their causes, the management of sick animals, and the implications of sickness for animal welfare.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 9 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Behavior Changes With Sickness Behavior Changes with Sickness l Changes in behavior are often the first indication that an animal is ill with • Often first sign – Loss of appetite or subtle changes in behavior sometimes occurring weeks before clinical diagnosis i reduced feed intake – Reduced activity or (Weary et al., 2009). Deviation from good health may cause an animal to d social interactions • Subcategories of exhibit a classic array of behavioral and physiological signs associated with e sickness responses – Malaise illness, including loss of appetite and reduced feed intake, reduced activity, and 2 – Discomfort and pain – Disorientation attempts to withdraw from social contact. While sick, animals may experience 3 and confusion – Fear and anxiety anhedonia, an inability to experience pleasure from normally pleasurable life USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health events, such as eating, exercise, and interacting socially or sexually. This reduces their performance of normally pleasurable behaviors (Balcombe, 2009), such as grooming, playing, or exploring. These general signs of illness are common across all animals and are not disease-specific (Hart, 1988). While these signs serve as an alert to the animal caregiver that an animal may be ill, the signs may have limited utility in determining the diagnosis. However, in addition to these general signs, animals may also display very particular changes in behavior that can be used as diagnostic criteria. For example, sheep and cattle that have foot rot often kneel to relieve pressure on their painful hooves. Within the array of general sickness behaviors commonly displayed by sick animals, animals may show certain behaviors to a greater degree, depending on the predominant subjective experience of the unwell animal. Common ways to subcategorize these responses are malaise, discomfort and pain, disorientation and confusion, and fear and anxiety.

Photo: (Top) The unkempt fur, closed eyes, and hunched posture of this cat are typical of the appearance of a sick animal. (Bottom) Sheep and cattle with foot rot often kneel rather than stand in an attempt to avoid putting weight on their feet. Source: (Top) William Whyte, Dublin, Ireland; (Bottom) Dave Lonsdale.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 10 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Malaise Behaviors Malaise Behaviors l Many conditions, especially an infectious disease, will cause the animal to lose • Resting minimizes i energy use and its appetite, withdraw, and rest (Hart, 1988; Johnson, 2002; Langhans, 2000; exposure to predation Dantzer & Kelly, 2007). These responses may reduce transmission of the d • Elevation of body temperature (fever) infection to other animals and promote recovery of the individual. Resting e promotes action of the 2 immune system minimizes energy use as well as exposure to predation. Elevation of body • Dramatic decline in temperature (fever) improves immune responses by reducing pathogen growth 4 biological functioning and facilitating pathogen death via promotion of the action of the immune USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health system, including neutrophils, lymphocytes, antibodies, and the complement cascade. The need to increase body temperature causes the animal to seek and then stay in a warmer environment, using postures that minimize heat loss such as lying with legs curled under the body. In conjunction with the characteristic behaviors of sickness and development of a fever, animals will often experience a dramatic decline in biological functioning, including growth, reproduction, or productivity (Johnson, 2002). In some cases, interfering with withdrawal and sickness behaviors and physiological responses in the acute stages of illness, such as by forced feeding, reducing body temperature (except in the case of very high fevers), or preventing the animal from sleeping, may reduce survival rates* (Kluger and Vaughn, 1978; Murray and Murray, 1979; Hart, 1988). More recently, research on neurobiology and immunology have demonstrated clear relationships between increased high quality sleep, fever, and recovery. Sickness behaviors promote fever and sleep, and are therefore adaptive (Toth et al., 1993; Kluger et al., 1996; Blatteis, 2003).

*For example, when Murray and Murray (1979) forced sick mice to consume the same calories as healthy mice, the force-fed mice had higher mortality rates and shortened survival times compared to sick mice that were not force fed. Sick mice voluntarily consumed only 58% of the normal energy requirement of healthy mice but experienced 43% mortality compared to 93% mortality in the sick force-fed mice. The researchers concluded that sickness-induced anorexia had an important role in early immune defense of the host animal.

Photo: To conserve body heat birds, such as this swallow, fluff their feathers to trap heat. Source: Keith Williams, Whitehorse YT, Canada.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 11 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017 S Discomfort and Discomfort and Pain-Related Behaviors Pain Behaviors l Discomfort and pain may elicit behaviors that protect the damaged area, relieve • Protects damaged area i • Relieves discomfort/pain discomfort or pain, and/or allow escape from noxious stimuli. Protective • Allows escape from Behaviors: Animals will adopt a stance to reduce pressure on a painful part of d noxious stimuli • May scratch, kick, lick, the body or protect it from stimuli that increase the pain. An animal might shift e or look at area of discomfort its weight off a painful limb, hunch due to abdominal pain, or stand rigidly 2 • Sudden uncharacteristic or aggressive behavior (“saw horse” as in the case of acute laminitis in horses). Animals also may 5 may indicate pain attempt to address the source of the discomfort by scratching, kicking, licking USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health or looking at the affected area. Fish may show “flashing” behavior, where they rapidly rub their sides on hard surfaces in an attempt to remove external parasites. Unusual vocalizations and struggling during normal moving and/or handling of animals may indicate pain. Pain may also be indicated by sudden or uncharacteristic intractable or aggressive behavior.* An animal with a chronic condition requiring multiple treatments involving discomfort may become intractable in its attempt to avoid treatment.

*The relationship between pain and subsequent aggression was first investigated in animal and human subjects in the 1960s and 1970s. While aggression is not always elicited by pain, animals that are unable to escape the pain or that have linked a human handler to the presence of pain, may respond aggressively (Berkowitz, 1983).

Photo: (Top) A dog is shifting weight to its left hind and front limbs to reduce pressure on a painful right hind limb. (Bottom) A horse is avoiding bearing weight on its right hind limb and is also displaying a lowered head turned away from the viewer and ears held slightly down, postures that are indicative of pain. Source: Sheilah Robertson, AVMA (Both).

S Disorientation and Disorientation and Confusion Behaviors Confusion Behaviors l Sickness can disrupt an animal’s ability to receive and understand stimuli • Sickness can disrupt an i animal’s ability to receive, and/or maintain normal postures and gaits. This disorientation can result in understand stimuli and/or maintain normal confusion and sometimes frantic efforts to re-establish proper posture and d postures, gaits • Animals may also suffer orientation. This behavior may be indicated in mild forms such as a tilted head e mental confusion – Loss of normal posture in animals with inner ear infection, or the staggering gait of cattle with 2 behavior patterns – Failure to respond to lead poisoning, thiamine deficiency, or listeriosis. Animals may also suffer 6 previously well-known cues, routines mental confusion from age-related conditions such as dementia. Mental USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health confusion is indicated by a loss of normal behavior patterns and failure to respond to previously well understood cues and routines. For example, dogs with canine cognitive dysfunction (colloquially called “doggie dementia”) may wander aimlessly, exhibit lapses in house-training, have difficulty navigating even in familiar places, or fail to respond appropriately to familiar people and commands.

Photo: Pregnancy toxemia or thiamine deficiency in sheep can result in a characteristic posture called stargazing, where the head is held up above the withers as though the animal were looking into the sky. Source: OLIVER Collection, University of Sydney, Australia

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 12 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017 S Fear and Fear or Anxiety Behaviors Anxiety Behaviors l Fear or anxiety* behaviors may be secondary to the malaise, pain, or • Behaviors may include – Hypervigilance, hyperreactivity, i low body posture (cowering), disorientation that is directly caused by the disorder the animal is experiencing aggression, feigned sleeping, hiding or may be a result of other clinical signs, such as weakness or breathlessness. d • May occur secondary to – Malaise, pain, disorientation, Alternatively, fear may relate directly to the aversive, subjective experience or e or other clinical signs • May be directly related to – Aversive experience to vulnerability produced by the loss of bodily function (e.g., paralysis, 2 – Vulnerability from loss of bodily function – Handling or treatment blindness) or concomitant events such as handling or treatment associated with 7 associated with sickness sickness. Fear and anxiety behaviors are diverse, species-specific, and vary USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health according to the nature of the sickness. Such behaviors include hypervigilance, hyperreactivity, low body posture (cowering), aggression, feigned sleeping, and hiding.

*Anxiety is a general sense of apprehension that can result from the animal experiencing aversive sensations, whereas fear relates to a specific object or situation of which the animal is afraid. For example, a sheep with scrapie may seem generally apprehensive (anxious) and may show an exaggerated flight response to a dog (fear).

Photo: Fearful animals often attempt to hide or escape detection by making themselves look as small as possible and holding extremely still (freezing). Source: Seth J, Wichita, KS

S Observation to Detect Observing Animals to Detect Sickness Behavior l Sickness Behavior Detection of sickness behavior requires familiarity with normal behavior for the • Detection requires i – Familiarity with normal behaviors individual animal, breed, or type; consideration of the context in which the • Individual, breed, or type animal is observed; and elimination of other explanations, such as fatigue d – Consideration for context in which animal is observed resulting from exertion. Every animal in a group should be observed, and its e – Elimination of other explanations 2 reaction to relevant stimuli assessed. Sick animals usually behave differently from others in the group, but it is also possible that all animals in a group are 8 sick. Expression of sickness behavior may be less obvious in social or stressful USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health environments. Animals often show only subtle signs of sickness to avoid predation or social conflict* (Cirulli, 1998; Cohn, 2006; Fishkin, 1997). They may not show obvious changes in behavior unless the illness is severe or prolonged. Some changes, such as reduced feed intake, may be difficult to spot when animals are housed in large groups and fed free-choice or ad libitum, or caregivers do not spend time observing animals in each pen or group. Consideration should always be given to alternative explanations for apparently abnormal behavior. For example, stress can cause animals to display sickness behaviors or result in complete collapse. These responses are more likely to occur under extreme stress, such as a juvenile isolated in an unfamiliar location (Hennessy et al., 2004) or an animal with a metabolic condition that predisposes it to extreme stress responses (e.g., porcine stress syndrome, Judge et al., 1992). Because these animals have no other underlying disease or disorder, they will recover rapidly when allowed to rest in a low-stress environment.

*Social conflict involves competition between two or more conspecific (member of the same species) organisms, that have non-identical genetic interests (Animal Behavior Desk Reference: A Dictionary of Animal Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution. 2nd edition. New York, NY: CRC Press, 2001).

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 13 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Sickness Behavior is Adaptive Sickness Behavior is Adaptive l It was once thought that sickness behavior was merely a result of physical • Helps animal recover and i maintain homeostasis weakness due to diverting energy from maintenance activities to the immune • Neural, immune, and system to fight infection. Sickness behaviors were thought to occur passively in d endocrine systems work together to response to depleted energy reserves and to be of little value to the host. e fight infection – Alter behavior Instead, it appears that sickness behaviors are part of a well-organized adaptive 2 – Activate immune defenses response to infection that helps the animal recover (return to) and maintain 9 – Alter physiology homeostasis. The neural, immune, and endocrine systems of the body work in USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health concert during sickness by respectively altering behavior, activating immune defenses, and altering physiology to fight infection.

Photo: Sick animals, like this sheep with a low grade fever, tend to isolate themselves to recover. Source: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University

S Sickness Behavior is Adaptive Sickness Behavior is Adaptive, continued l Healthy animals are motivated to eat and reproduce. However, the motivation i • Sick animals • Preventing or of sick animals changes deliberately to facilitate recovery and resistance – Isolate themselves inhibiting sickness – Rest more than behaviors can (Johnson, 2002; Dantzer & Kelly, 2007). Sick animals, ranging from birds and d normal slow recovery – Conserve or – Develop treatment fish to mammals and reptiles, typically seek to isolate themselves, rest more e generate heat to complement – Show less interest self-recovery than normal, and conserve or generate heat to produce a fever during the initial 3 in food or potential mates phase of the sickness response. At the same time, sick animals typically show 0 less interest in food and potential mates. Such strong, consistent behavioral USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health responses to sickness across the animal kingdom mean sickness behaviors have been highly conserved by evolutionary pressure (when evolution generally promotes diversity), and therefore, general sickness behaviors must confer a strong biological advantage to the animal (Hart, 1988). Thus, preventing or inhibiting sickness behaviors could slow recovery, and there is evidence to this effect in laboratory animals (Murray and Murray, 1979). Intensive monitoring and support is critical when animals are exhibiting sickness behaviors. Treatment plans should be developed that complement an animal's effort at self- recovery, while supporting the animal's essential physiologic functions and minimizing its pain and distress. An animal's efforts toward self-recovery do not remove the responsibility of veterinarians and caretakers to render assistance.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 14 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Immune System Communication Immune System Communication l In the mid-1980s, when it was proposed that the immune system communicated • Cytokines communicate with the brain and other body systems with the brain, the idea was extremely controversial. At the time, the main i – Proteins or peptides that regulate the immune system function of the immune system was believed to be the production of cells and d • Mononuclear phagocytic cells – Phagocytic white blood cells proteins that protected the body against pathogens. It is now generally accepted e – Produce pro-inflammatory cytokines • Glial cells that the immune system communicates with the brain and that hormones and 3 – Perform range of essential functions in support of neurons neurotransmitters from the brain also regulate the immune system. The immune 1 – Produce cytokines system uses cytokines to communicate with the brain and other body systems USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health about infection or other disease states (Johnson, 2002). Infectious pathogens stimulate mononuclear phagocytic cells* to become active and to produce soluble proteins called pro-inflammatory cytokines.** Cytokines can also be produced by several types of cells in the central nervous system, including glial cells,*** in response to information from the endocrine or nervous system related to pathologies that may or may not have infectious origins (e.g., pancreatitis).

*Mononuclear phagocytic cells are large, circulating, phagocytic white blood cells, having a single well-defined nucleus and very fine granulation in the cytoplasm. Monocytes constitute from 3–8% of the white blood cells in humans. The percentage of monocytes in the blood differs among other animal species.

**Cytokines are proteins or peptides secreted by cells of the immune system that serve to regulate the immune system. The cytokine family consists mainly of smaller water-soluble proteins and glycoproteins (e.g., proteins with an added sugar chain). They are important in both innate and adaptive immune responses. Due to their central role in the immune system, cytokines are involved in a variety of immunological, inflammatory and infectious disease responses.

***Glia and neurons are the two major types of cells in the nervous system. While glia are non-excitable cells, neurons are excitable and generate electrical impulses that transmit information throughout the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Glial cells are dynamic elements of the nervous system that perform a wide range of essential functions in support of neurons. The different types of glial cells can collectively be considered as supporting and protecting neurons in the healthy brain and also defending it against pathological insult.

S Cytokines in Behavioral Sickness Cytokines In Behavioral Sickness l Important cytokines in the behavioral sickness response include interleukin-1β • Cytokines i – Interleukin-1β (IL-1β)  (IL-1β) [yellow circles], interleukin-6 (IL-6) [blue circles], and tumor necrosis – Interleukin-6 (IL-6)  factor-α (TNF-α) [red circles]. These cytokines are present both in the brain and d – Tumor necrosis factor  (TNF-α) in the periphery. Release of these cytokines into the blood or central nervous e • Released into blood or central nervous system can result in sickness behavior even though the animal has not 3 system • Results in sickness  contracted a disease. 2 behavior

USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health Graphic: This graphic depicts cytokines accessing the brain in a variety of ways. Cytokines are shown as colored circles. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 15 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Cytokine Access To The Brain Cytokine Access To The Brain l Cytokines are produced by immune cells in the body and gain access to the 1. Active transport i across blood-brain  brain in a variety of ways. Some cytokines are actively transported across the barrier  blood-brain barrier while some cause other cytokines to be expressed in the d 2. Expression within  the brain brain. Some convey messages to the brain via the vagus nerve, which has e 3. Neuronal via the vagus nerve binding sites for IL-1β, and then some cytokines diffuse slowly across the 3 4. Passive diffusion  blood-brain barrier. See Johnson (2002) or Dantzer and Kelly (2007) for more 3 details on how cytokines transmit messages from the periphery to the brain. USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health Graphic: This graphic depicts cytokines accessing the brain in a variety of ways: active transport across the blood brain barrier, expression within the brain, the vagus nerve, and passive transport (or diffusion) through blood vessel walls. travelling across the blood-brain barrier. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

S Other Impacts of Cytokines Other Impacts of Cytokines l In addition to their role in the sickness response, cytokines also influence the • Sickness response sensitivity of the stress response and alter pain perception (Millman, 2007). i • Influence sensitivity of stress response d • Alters pain perception Even after concentrations of cytokines in plasma return to baseline, levels • Concentrations can remain elevated remain elevated for up to 48 hours in areas of the brain and body associated e up to 48 hours after plasma returns 3 to baseline with the stress response, such as in the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal – Animal is more reactive and gland. During this period, animals are more reactive to stressful stimuli than 4 hypersensitive during this time they would otherwise be. Cytokines can also act on cells in the spinal cord, with USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health the effect of making animals hypersensitive to stimuli that otherwise would result in little to no pain.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 16 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Management of Sick Animals Management of Sick Animals l Sick animals may be deemed unfit to keep in their current environment or unfit • Hospital Pens – Segregate sick animals for transport or slaughter. In many cases, animals are treated and recover in i for treatment, reduce disease transmission d – May need social contact place. However, housing and management practices are typically designed to to avoid stress – Keep far from loud noises meet the needs of healthy animals, and sick animals may have unique needs and e – Keep warm and comfortable to facilitate resting preferences (Millman, 2007). For example, a sick puppy may be unable to rest 3 • Euthanasia – To avoid suffering adequately if its littermates are constantly tumbling over it or soliciting play. 5 – If recovery is unlikely or uneconomic Alternatively, a sick dairy cow may be pushed away from the feed bunk by USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health healthy herd-mates any time she attempts to eat. Accordingly, animals may need to be moved to a recovery area (e.g., hospital pen). Hospital pens allow sick animals to be segregated for treatment and reduce disease transmission. However, normally social animals may need some social contact (i.e., sight, sound, or smell of other animals) to avoid becoming stressed. With non- contagious conditions, social housing (pairs or small groups) should be considered. Well-designed pens should accommodate the behavioral needs of sick animals and be placed away from sources of loud noise or other disturbances. As appropriate, the animal may be provided with warmer ambient temperatures, heating lamps or mats, or deep bedding that may help increase or retain heat and aid the febrile response. To encourage the deep sleep necessary to facilitate recovery, pens should be designed with comfortable resting areas, including solid floors and deep bedding suitable for the species. Sick animals should be provided with a secure and safe environment as suitable by species (e.g., dim lighting, enclosed shelter). Animals may become sick to such a degree that they will experience severe and unavoidable suffering and/or their recovery is unlikely, uneconomic, or otherwise not indicated. When treatment is attempted, caretakers and veterinarians must determine humane endpoints for animals that do not respond. When possible, animals should be euthanized in place without further disturbance or transported for euthanasia in a manner that minimizes pain and distress.

Photo: This hospital pen has bedding and ample floor and trough space. Source: Kristy Arbon, Barre, MA

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 17 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017 S Implications of Sickness for Implications of Sickness for Animal Welfare l Animal Welfare When sickness is examined from an economic perspective, the emphasis is • Perpetuating loop i usually on diseases that result in reduced productivity, increased morbidity and Discomfort Reduces rest and sleep d Weakness Reduces food and water intake mortality, are zoonotic, or affect large numbers of animals or those that are Impaired perception Reduces ability to avoid attack important because of their genetics and breeding potential. The most important Reduces movement to food, e Lameness water, shelter ways in which sickness can reduce animal welfare can include pain, distress, 3 Prolonged recovery Results in further injury Immobility Prevents seeking shelter fever, nausea, thirst, and inappetence. For example, the agent of foot-and-mouth 6 Reduced vigor Reduced or loss of function disease (FMD) may cause the animal to display classical signs of FMD and USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health result in the affected animal developing lesions in the oral mucosa that make eating and drinking painful. Similar lesions on the feet cause lameness. Sickness and welfare can be a perpetuating loop; poor welfare can cause immunosuppression and increased susceptibility to disease, which may reduce the ability of the animal to cope with stressors. This loop can lead to poor welfare or even death (Broom and Fraser, 2007). Sickness may impact animal welfare in several ways. Discomfort may reduce an animal’s ability to rest comfortably or sleep deeply, weakness may also reduce an animal’s ability to compete for access to resources like food and water, or to avoid aggression from members of its own group. Impaired perception may reduce an animal’s ability to avoid attacks from predators. Lameness can reduce an animal’s ability to move to food, water, or shelter, or cause stress when animals cannot move away from perceived threats. Prolonged recovery may result in pressure injuries or damage to an animal’s skin and muscles, and immobility may keep an animal from seeking shelter from drafts, rain, or intense sun and may result in thermal discomfort. Reduced vigor resulting from an animal’s emaciation may result in reduction or loss of function (e.g., paralysis, blindness, etc.) Poor welfare may make an animal more susceptible to disease, and disease may cause poor welfare and makes animals less able to cope with additional welfare or sickness challenges.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 18 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Sickness Behavior Summary Sickness Behavior Summary l Veterinarians prevent, diagnose, and treat animal diseases. Behavioral • Behavioral i observations observations and an understanding of the behavioral changes that occur in sick or changes animals can greatly assist in the diagnosis and treatment of sick animals. When d – Assist in e diagnosis possible, normal and specialized sickness ethograms* for the species should be and treatment consulted before an assessment is performed (e.g., Ashley et al., 2005 or 3 • Use ethogram to catalog Kalueff et al., 2013). Where sickness behavior is detected, but the behavior is 7 behaviors not diagnostic in itself, further steps should be taken by the veterinarian to USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health identify the underlying cause of the illness using clinical and laboratory approaches.

*An ethogram is a catalog or inventory of the behaviors exhibited by an animal. Ethograms are used in the scientific study of behavior (ethology) to ensure that all observers or readers of a study are defining behaviors the same way for accuracy in data collection, assessment, and interpretation. Ethograms can be used to check for the presence of normal behaviors as well as to detect the occurrence or prevalence of abnormal behaviors. For example, ethograms can be used to create visual assessment scales for detecting pain in animals such as cats. Cats in pain alter their behavior by becoming less responsive to humans (mild to moderate pain) or by avoiding human contact (moderate to severe pain). Cats in pain will also respond to palpation by trying to avoid contact to the painful area (mild to moderate pain) or by withdrawing completely or becoming aggressive (moderate to severe pain) (Cambridge, 2000).

Photo: A sample ethogram for determining pain scores in cats is shown on this slide; it can be found at http://www.cliniciansbrief.com/sites/default/files/PainScoreHandout.pdf.

S l i d Pain Behavior e 3 8

S Pain Pain is defined as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated l with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage” • “an unpleasant sensory and emotional i experience associated with actual or potential (International Association for the Study of Pain, 1994). As defined, pain has an tissue damage or described in terms of such d damage” International Association for the Study of Pain,1994 initial physiological component, in which a noxious (and potentially harmful) • Pain can arise from e – Housing design, husbandry, trauma, surgical stimulus affects sensory receptors (nociceptors). It is difficult to assess animals’ procedures, disease, disorder cognition of pain, particularly of lower vertebrates and other life forms. 3 • Assessment includes physiological and behavioral responses Regardless, pain in animals can arise from housing design, husbandry, trauma, 9 • When diagnosed, immediate action should be taken to ensure well-being surgical procedures, or be a consequence of a disease or disorder. To assess USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health pain, physiological and behavioral responses should be used. When pain is diagnosed, immediate action should be taken to ensure the well-being of the animal.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 19 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Types of Pain Types of Pain l Acute or adaptive pain (also sometimes referred to as “physiologic” pain) • Acute or Adaptive Pain i – Respond to stimuli that are harmful or benefits the animal’s overall well-being. It rapidly changes the animal’s potentially harmful to the body behavior so that the animal is moved away from the source of harm, and healing d – Alters behavior to avoid or minimize further e damage, allows healing can begin. Acute pain begins when specific receptors (free endings of primary • Chronic or Maladaptive Pain sensory neurons) are stimulated. The receptors respond to stimuli that are 4 – Persists beyond expected healing time – No underlying pathology, serves no harmful or potentially harmful to the body. Depending on the type of receptor, 0 physiological function for animal – Malfunction of neurologic transmission stimuli may be mechanical (e.g., pressure, stretch, or vibration), thermal, USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health electrical, or chemical. Acute pain serves a biologic purpose during healing and is self-limiting.

Chronic or maladaptive pain is pain that persists beyond the expected healing time or has no underlying pathology and serves no physiologic function for the animal. This type of pain represents a malfunction of neurologic transmission and can be characterized as a disease affecting nociceptive structures, including the brain, in the nervous system. Both acute and chronic pain have been associated with immune system compromise, which leads to increasing vulnerability to disease.

S Pain Subtypes Types of Pain (Cont’d) l Depending on the origin of the painful sensation, pain may be classified into • Somatic Pain i – Originates from specific parts of body several subtypes: – Activated by pressure, vibration, stretch, d cold, heat, inflammation, ischemia • Somatic pain originates from specific parts of the body (e.g., skin, bone, • Visceral Pain e – Originates from internal organs muscles, tendons, or tissues). Somatic pain receptors are activated by – Activated by stretch, inflammation, ischemia pressure (e.g., touch), vibration, stretch, cold, heat, inflammation, and 4 • Neuropathic Pain – Originates in nerves/spinal cord/brain ischemia. This type of pain is often sharp and localized. The sensation can 1 – Caused by nerve degeneration, pressure, inflammation, infection usually be reproduced by touching or moving the damaged area or tissue. An USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health example of somatic pain would be the sensation of pain that follows a burn or cut. • Visceral pain originates from internal organs (e.g., gastrointestinal tract, heart, lungs, or reproductive organs). The specific receptors for this type of pain include those activated by stretch, inflammation, and ischemia. Visceral pain is more difficult to localize. “Colic” and “bloat” are examples of conditions that result in visceral pain. • Neuropathic pain originates in nerves, the spinal cord, or the brain and therefore may be peripheral or central in origin. The causes for this pain are the result of nerve degeneration, pressure, inflammation, or infection. When a nerve becomes injured or inflamed, it may become electrically unstable, signaling in a spontaneous or random manner. Amputation (including procedures such as tail docking or beak remodeling) is one of the most common causes of neuropathic pain.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 20 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Animal Management Activities Animal Management Activities

l • Painful procedures are As part of animal management activities, procedures that can be painful are sometimes applied i – Identification sometimes applied. These procedures may be related to identification, disease – Disease prevention measures d – Prevention of breeding prevention measures, prevention of breeding, preferred appearance, or reduction – Preferred appearance – Reduction of harm of harm caused by aggression between animals. In most cases, these procedures e between animals • Anesthetics or analgesics have been scientifically demonstrated to be painful through studies contrasting 4 not routinely used in livestock the response of animals given analgesics with those that have not received 2 • Use of analgesics should be case by case basis analgesics. In livestock particularly, anesthetics or analgesics are not routinely USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health used for a variety of reasons. In some cases, the handling and restraint necessary to administer the analgesia may result in more distress than is alleviated. Each case must be carefully considered and the benefits and costs to the animal’s welfare weighed when considering when and how to use analgesics to reduce pain.

Photo: (Top) A pig with notched ears as a form of identification. (Bottom) A lamb with a docked tail to prevent fly strike. Sources: (Top) Danelle Bickett- Weddle, Iowa State University. (Bottom) James Ball, Christchurch, NZ.

S Behavioral Assessment of Pain Behavioral Changes Resulting from Pain l Assessing pain in an animal can be difficult (Weary et al., 2006). Changes in • Changes in behavior may be subtle i • Pain may be masked by stereotypic behavior may be subtle and, therefore, overlooked or may take too long to behavior, redirected aggression, fear recognize or not be observed. Observations of animal behavior that are made d response e • Groups of animals make detection difficult sporadically or occasionally may not reveal signs of pain as the animal may • Fear, anxiety may overlap signs of pain suppress signs when the observer is present. Expression of pain differs between 4 • Young animals may show pain more readily to solicit care from their dams species, making it necessary to learn to recognize species-specific indicators of 3 • Animals direct attention to area of pain pain in addition to commonly expressed responses, such as limping when a limb USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health is sore. Signs of pain can be masked by stereotypic behavior, redirected aggression, or a fear response.

Detecting pain in a single animal within a group may be difficult because it can be more difficult to see individuals in a group. For example, a flock of hens can be startled and group tightly together when an observer comes close. A hen that is experiencing pain within this flock might be concealed simply by being positioned in the center of the flock. Pain lowers an animal’s threshold for expressing aggression and tolerance to being handled. Pain may also alter mobility, which can be a concern for animals that must graze or be able to flee from predators. Prey animals cannot afford to let a predator know they are injured by limping or vocalizing as this will likely draw attention from predators.

The signs of fear or anxiety can overlap with the signs of pain and make it more difficult for observers to distinguish between these aversive states. Young animals may show pain more readily in order to solicit care from their dams (Weary et al., 1998). When pain is localized, the animal typically directs attention to the area that is hurting. For example, goat kids will rub their heads after being disbudded. Changes in behavior can provide insights into the nature of the pain the animal is experiencing. Piglets that have been castrated will walk less than those that have not undergone the procedure in order to avoid friction on the cut tissue and stimulation of nociceptors (Hay, 2003; McGlone, 1993; Prunier, 2006).

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 21 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017 S Acute Pain Examples Acute Pain Examples for Select Species l for Select Species Signs of acute pain in sheep include frequent change in ear position, increase in • Sheep: depression, motion restricted or i reluctant to move, increased respiration rate, rate of respiration, and reduced or restricted motion. Sheep may also exhibit d weight loss, frequent changes in ear position depression and weight loss. Fish show acute pain through an increase in • Fish: Abnormal swimming, attempts to jump e out of water, increased respiration rate opercular (bony gill covering) movements (Diamond, 1990), attempts to jump • Dog: Avoidance or escaping, postural out of water, and abnormal swimming. In dogs, acute pain signs include 4 changes, wound licking or biting, vocalizations (whimpering, howling, postural or facial expression changes, vocalizations (including whimpering, 4 growling), facial expressions, aggression whining, howling, or growling), and licking or biting of wounds. Dogs may also USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health show increased aggression or attempts to avoid or escape contact.

S Alleviation of Pain Alleviation of Pain l Pain in animals is due to a variety of health conditions or management practices • Strategies for pain • Treat with i – Preventive – Medications and can impact the animal’s welfare and production capabilities. Strategies to – Therapeutic – Surgery alleviate pain in animals may include preventive or therapeutic measures or a d – Combination – Procedure modification combination of both. Veterinarians can treat pain in numerous ways, including e – Complementary procedures medications, surgery, modifications in the approach to procedures (e.g., 4 – Combination laparoscopy vs. laparotomy), complementary procedures (e.g., acupuncture, 5 massage therapy), or combinations of these. Pain medications that act at USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health different locations in the “pain pathway” can be used; for example, opioids act at opioid receptors and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents decrease the production of cytokines. The type of medication that is preferred depends on the cause of the pain, the level of discomfort, the availability of licensed and approved products, and the side effects.

S Alleviation of Pain Alleviation of Pain l Brain areas involved in the perception of pain include the somatosensory • Pain medications act i at different locations cortex, hypothalamus, thalamus, periaqueductal gray, and rostral medulla. • Type used depends on d – Cause of pain When the pain signal reaches the brain, it is processed by different areas of the – Level of discomfort – Availability of brain and some actions are initiated instinctively, such as attempts to e licensed/approved products withdrawal from the painful stimulus and pain-induced analgesia. Other areas 4 – Side effects • Pain action instinctive, of the brain then process the pain signal at emotional and cognitive levels, 6 emotional and cognitive levels recalling memories of past similar occurrences or forming new memories based USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health on the current experience. Scientific studies help further the advancement of assessing and understanding pain in animals. Responses to potentially painful procedures can now be precisely assessed by using objective measurements of the animal's pain threshold, such as force of struggling or vocalization frequency and intensity. However, those working with animals require practical methods of assessing pain so they can recognize which animals require treatment and for how long.

Graphic Illustration: This diagram illustrates how pain travels from a sensory nerve ending (bottom of the diagram), up the dorsal columns of the spinal cord to the brain (mid-diagram), and is processed by different areas of the brain (top of diagram). This diagram also shows different types of pain medication and their point of impact along the pain pathway. Graphic illustration by: Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State University.

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 22 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Prevention of Pain Prevention of Pain from a Behavioral Perspective l Recognizing pain is only part of the process; initially, methods are needed to • Prevent pain through i – Appropriate handling, restraint reduce or prevent pain. Thus, preventing pain is a critical element of veterinary d – Minimized tissue damage during surgery medicine. First, painful injuries and diseases can be avoided by refinements in – Optimal timing of analgesia animal housing and management (e.g., immunological approaches to e • Pain can promote catabolic state, 4 leading to impaired immune function castration). Prevention of pain includes appropriate handling and restraining of • Allowing pain to continue as method animals and minimizing tissue damage during surgery. If pain cannot be 7 to reduce animal’s activity is not an appropriate practice prevented, it can be managed. Reducing the impact of injury and disease that USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health cause pain can be affected by finding better methods for early diagnosis and treatment. Optimal timing of analgesia is necessary prior to surgery. Preemptive analgesia reduces the likelihood of developing peripheral or central sensitization. If analgesics are administered after the animal awakens in pain, the pain is more difficult to treat and the patient requires significantly more medication. Following surgery, injury, or disease, it is important to recognize that pain can promote a catabolic state, lead to impaired immune function, and increase risk of infection. Pain will interfere with the patient’s healing process and recovery. While it is sometimes important to limit mobility or activity during healing, allowing pain to persist as a method to reduce the animal’s activity is not an appropriate practice of veterinary medicine.

S Pain Behavior Summary Pain Behavior Summary l Animal pain remains a welfare problem, and although advances in • Factors that prevent analgesic use i – Economic considerations pharmacology have provided new opportunities to treat animal pain effectively, – Failure to recognize pain numerous other factors often act to prevent analgesic use. These include d – Inability to assess severity e – Failure to appreciate importance and economic considerations, failure to recognize pain, the inability to assess the welfare significance of pain severity, and failure to appreciate the importance and welfare significance of 4 • Recognition of pain remains major barrier to appropriate treatment pain. It is not the diagnosis of the disease that improves welfare but the 8 subsequent treatment to resolve the underlying condition. Recognition of pain USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health remains a major barrier to animals being treated appropriately.

S Conclusion Conclusion l This concludes the Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare module. You • Identify normal behaviors seen under i conditions of good welfare should have all the information you need to d • Describe how sickness behaviors • identify normal behaviors seen in many animal species under conditions contribute to compromised welfare promoting good welfare; e • List basic approaches to ameliorating 4 pain and distress in animals • describe how sickness behaviors can contribute to improved or compromised animal welfare; and 9 • list basic approaches to ameliorating pain and distress in animals. USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health

S Supplemental Training This informational presentation has been approved expressly to serve as one l unit of supplemental training for participants in USDA’s National Veterinary • This informational presentation has i been approved expressly to serve as Accreditation Program. Please ensure you complete, sign, and retain a one unit of supplemental training for certificate stating that you attended this presentation. Contact your VS District d participants in USDA’s NVAP e • Please ensure you complete, sign, Office for more details on renewing your accreditation. and retain a certificate stating that 5 you attended this presentation • Contact your VS District Office for 0 more details

USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 23 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

S Acknowledgments This module was made possible, in part, by a Cooperative Agreement from the l USDA-APHIS for the National Veterinary Accreditation Program. Other This module was made possible, in The content was prepared by the part, by a Cooperative Agreement Animal Behavior and Welfare Group from the USDA-APHIS for the in the Department of Animal Science support for development of the content used in this module was received from i National Veterinary Accreditation at Michigan State University and the Program. American Veterinary Medical Association Animal Welfare Division. the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. d Other support Authors and contributors include: • Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, • Janice Siegford, MS, PhD Department of Agriculture, the American Veterinary Medical Association, and e U.S. Department of Agriculture • Gail Golab, PhD, DVM, MANZCVS • American Veterinary Medical (Animal Welfare), DACAW Association • Emily Patterson-Kane, MS, PhD Michigan State University through the Office of the Provost, the College of 5 • Michigan State University • Sheilah Robertson, BVMS – through the Office of the Provost, (HONS), PhD, DECVAA, DACVA, – the College of Agriculture and Natural DECAWBM(WSEL), DACAW Resources, and Agriculture and Natural Resources, and the Department of Animal Science and • Lori Rivera – the Department of Animal Science and 1 the College of Veterinary Medicine the College of Veterinary Medicine. USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health The content was prepared by the Animal Behavior and Welfare Group in the Department of Animal Science at Michigan State University and the American Veterinary Medical Association Animal Welfare Division. Authors and contributors include: Janice Siegford, MS, PhD; Gail Golab, PhD, DVM, MANZCVS (Animal Welfare), DACAW; Emily Patterson-Kane, MS, PhD; Sheilah Robertson, BVMS (HONS), PhD, DECVAA, DACVA, DECAWBM(WSEL), DACAW; and Lori Rivera.

S Acknowledgments (Cont’d) This module was formatted by the Center for Food Security and Public Health l at Iowa State University, College of Veterinary Medicine. Contributors include: This module was formatted by the Reviewed within USDA-APHIS-VS by: Center for Food Security and Public • Todd Behre, DVM, PMP i Health at Iowa State University, • Timothy Cordes, DVM Danelle Bickett-Weddle, DVM, MPH, PhD, DACVPM and Sarah Weiland, College of Veterinary Medicine. • Michael J. David, MS, VMD, MPH • Clement Dussault, VMD Contributors include: student intern. The illustrations in this presentation were designed by Andrew d • Danelle Bickett-Weddle, DVM, • P. Gary Egrie, VMD MPH, PhD, DACVPM • Jamie Snow, DVM, MPH • Sarah Weiland, student intern • Nora E. Wineland, DVM Kingsbury, BFA and Dani Ausen, BFA. This module was reviewed by Janet e Illustrations designed by: • Andrew Kingsbury, BFA Additional reviewers included • Dani Ausen, BFA • Members of the AVMA Animal Welfare LaVille, MA CFSPH Editor. The content was reviewed within USDA-APHIS- Committee 5 • Members of the AVMA Model Animal The content has been reviewed Welfare Curriculum Planning Group and approved by USDA-APHIS • Courtney Daigle, MS, PhD VS by Todd Behre, DVM, PMP; Timothy Cordes, DVM; Michael J. David, 2 Legislative and Public Affairs • Research Technologist II, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University MS, VMD, MPH; Clement Dussault, VMD; P. Gary Egrie, VMD; Jamie Snow, USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health DVM, MPH; and Nora E. Wineland, DVM. Additional reviewers included Members of the American Veterinary Medical Association Animal Welfare Committee; Members of the American Veterinary Medical Association Model Animal Welfare Curriculum Planning Group; Courtney Daigle, MS, PhD, Research Technologist II, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University. The content has been reviewed and approved by USDA-APHIS Legislative and Public Affairs.

S Presenters: Advance to next slide while answering questions. l i Questions? d The NVAP website can be found e by typing “NVAP” into your 5 search engine 3

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e 5 The NVAP website can be found by typing “NVAP” 4 into your search engine.

USDA-APHIS September 2017 National Veterinary Accreditation Program Center for Food Security and Public Health

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 24 Module 25: Using Behavior to Assess Animal Welfare September 2017

USDA-APHIS National Accreditation Program APHIS Approved Supplemental Training 25