Signaling Through the Flames: Theatre Fires and Disaster Sociology By Copyright 2015 Daniel F. Devlin Submitted to the graduate degree program in Theatre and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Chairperson John Gronbeck-Tedesco ________________________________ Mechele Leon ________________________________ Henry Bial ________________________________ Rebecca Rovit ________________________________ Laura Mielke Date Defended: May 6th, 2015 The Dissertation Committee for Daniel F. Devlin certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Signaling Through the Flames: Theatre Fires and Disaster Sociology ________________________________ Chairperson John Gronbeck-Tedesco Date approved: May 6th, 2015 ii ABSTRACT “Signaling Through the Flames: Theatre Fires and Disaster Sociology” re-examines archival evidence relevant to three of the most destructive and deadly fires in American theatre history: Richmond, Virginia in 1811, Brooklyn, New York in 1876, and Chicago, Illinois in 1903. Through the use of the theories of disaster sociology, “Signaling Through the Flames” positions disaster as an inherently theatrical process of disruption, after which various parties, constructed as “grass-roots” communities and “elite-level” institutional groups, compete to gain control of the narrative of the disaster event and, in doing so, contribute in significant ways to creating and disseminating an “official” history of the disaster. This official history often comes at the expense of the memories and experiences of the grass-roots group; “Signaling Through the Flames” works to make these acts of remembering and forgetting visible through reclaiming historical accounts that dispute or resist the accepted record. “Signaling Through the Flames” argues that the narrative and rhetorical tropes used to construct these official histories reinforce and reinscribe the systems of social order that were disrupted and made visible by the disaster event, and thus contribute meaningfully and importantly to the necessary negotiation of sociopersonal identity in the post-disaster paradigm. The dissertation is organized chronologically in three parts, each of which is broken down into chapters. Each part provides an analysis of pre-disaster culture, and a recounting of the disaster event; however, the majority of each chapter focuses on cultural production in the post-disaster paradigm, and how that production either serves or resists social or political acts of remembering and forgetting. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The content of this dissertation, and any errors therein, are entirely my own. I have been the fortunate recipient of an incredibly supportive cast of faculty members, family, friends, and professional acquaintances. I am extremely grateful to have received the Joseph R. Roach Dissertation Research Award, and the Professional Advisory Board Summer Research Award given by the University of Kansas Department of Theatre, which provided valuable funding to help launch the project. I am also grateful for the excellent help provided by the people at the KU Interlibrary Loan service, without whom this dissertation would have been impossible. I am incredibly grateful for the direction provided by my dissertation committee at the University of Kansas. My deepest thanks to John Gronbeck-Tedesco, my Chair, who never let me settle for anything less than the best, and who continually pushed me, from my first day on campus, to strive for depth, to edit mercilessly, to think deeply and carefully, and to write with care and composure. Particular thanks to Henry Bial and Iris Smith Fischer, in whose class I began to develop the initial ideas that became this dissertation, and who showed me unqualified support, guidance, and patience in the numerous classes and meetings I had with them. Thank you to Mechele Leon, who provided frank advice on writing about history, and on handling questions of historiography, and, most importantly, who always found a way to offer support and guidance, no matter what the circumstances. Thank you to Rebecca Rovit, who taught me to write creatively and engagingly in analyzing historical material. Thank you to Laura Mielke, who stepped up in a time of need to provide her expertise. Thanks also to Nicole Hodges Persley, who served on my comprehensive committee, and who was tireless in her efforts to help me develop a deep appreciation for the skilled use of theory, and who was always ready with words of encouragement when our paths crossed. iv Noreen Barnes is owed a particular thank you for her years of service as a mentor, teacher, and friend. While the specific direction of this research came to light in Henry and Iris’ class, it was Noreen who first introduced me to the subject of theatre fires in Theatre Historiography. Noreen has been supportive, open, and engaging since the day I met her, and without her, I would not have pursued my PhD, and certainly would not have written this dissertation. Thanks also to Joseph Roach, Marvin Carlson, and Rhonda Blair for their frank, insightful, and supportive comments about my research at Alums Come Home in 2013. I would be remiss if I did not thank the other excellent faculty members with whom I studied at CNU, VCU, and KU, all of whom had a profound impact upon my development as a student and scholar. Thank you to Steven Breese, forever my mentor. Thank you to Denise Gilman, who taught me to love the possibilities of scholarship. Thank you to Gregg Lloyd, who taught me the value of patience, kindness, and humor. Thanks also to George Hillow, Kathy Jaremsi, and Tanya Sweet. Thank you to Dr. T, Janet Rodgers, Aaron Anderson, and Ron Keller. Thank you to Jane Barnette, Peter Zazzali, Omofolabo Ajayi-Soyinka, Jeanne Klein, Dennis Chirstilles, and John Staniunas. I am forever indebted to the friends upon whom I have relied as a student, a researcher, and a person. To Michael and Allen: words will never be enough. Thanks for all you’ve done, and all I know you will do. To Boone and Chandra, who showed me the way: thank you. I can never repay you. To my cohort, in all of its various permutations; to Jane and Amanda, and everyone from CNU; to Ali, Jane, Diego and the entire VCU crew; to Scott, Jeanne, Amanda, and Alison, and all of my friends at KU: without you, I would have gone crazy. (Well, crazier.) Thanks for putting up with my social elusiveness. Thank you for always being there for a beer, a v venting session, and a round of my favorite bar game. To Jocelyn: thank you for giving me support and guidance every time we talk, even if you don’t realize you’re doing it. Most of all, it is to my family that I wish to extend my greatest, deepest, most sincere thanks. Without you, I would have never followed my dream, and my work would be without meaning. To Andy, Mary, and Ryane; to Chris, Kelley, Madeleine, Lyla, Carleigh, and Jack; to Katie and Jack: I will never be able to repay you for your kindness, love, intelligence, humor, and support. Thank you for everything. To Laura, who stuck by me throughout this entire process, even when I know if was driving her crazy: thank you. You keep me sane, make me laugh, and give me a reason to go on, even when I may not always see it myself. Thank you for making me take days off, for reminding me that it is okay to take a break, and thank you for letting me work when my nerves were getting the best of me. You’re my life, I love you, and I appreciate you more than I can ever express. Most of all, thank you to Mom and Dad, who provide me, everyday with the kind of support structure most people can only dream of, who taught me to chase my dreams, to pursue my goals, to never settle, and to always remember that Devlins aren’t quitters. I’m proud to be your son, and I hope that I make you proud everyday. This work is dedicated to you. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction: Theatre History through Conflagration 1 Part I: Richmond, 1811 Introduction: A Winter of Fear and Trembling 30 Chapter 1: The Theatre at Richmond 33 Chapter 2: From Candle to Inferno 41 Chapter 3: The Disaster After the Disaster 75 Part I Epilogue: Monumental: From Richmond to Brooklyn 94 Part II: Brooklyn, 1876 Introduction: The Conflagration Era 95 Chapter 4: Memorably Disastrous 100 Chapter 5: Grand Transformation Scene 111 Chapter 6: Safe for the People to Gather 128 Chapter 7: Direct Results of This Experience 159 Part II Epilogue: Hoax: An 1875 Forward to the Iroquois Disaster 173 Part III: Chicago, 1903 Introduction: No Perfectly Safe Building 177 Chapter 8: Absolutely Fireproof 184 Chapter 9: A Playhouse So Splendid 198 Chapter 10: Terrible Catastrophe Which Has Befallen 215 Chapter 11: A Lamentable Lack of Force 233 Chapter 12: Sacred to the Memory 254 Conclusion: History Does Not End So 285 End Notes 298 Works Cited 323 vii Introduction: Theatre History through Conflagration “This awful catastrophe is not the end but the beginning. History does not end so. It is the way its chapters open.” -St. Augustine1 The history of theater is rife with examples of the tendency of theatre buildings to burst into flames. These fires are particularly prevalent in the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and seem to occur without regard for season, or location, or time of day. Although destructive and deadly fires dropped off as the twentieth century moved along — helped in no small part by the continued development of technologies of hazard mitigation and emergency response — it would be incorrect to infer that theater fires are no longer an issue. Instead of being foregrounded by a system of concern for potential destruction, theatre fires lurk as dangers, underscored by the very measures intended to prevent them.