Kantian Review, , , – © The Author(s), . Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Kantian Review doi:./S Acting Irrespective of Hope FABIAN FREYENHAGEN University of Essex Email:
[email protected] Abstract Must we ascribe hope for better times to those who (take themselves to) act morally? Kant and later theorists in the Frankfurt School tradition thought we must. In this article, I disclose that it is possible – and ethical – to refrain from ascribing hope in all such cases. I draw on two key examples of acting irrespective of hope: one from a recent political context and one from the life of Jean Améry. I also suggest that, once we see that it is possible to make sense of (what I call) ‘merely expressive acts’, we can also see that the early Frankfurt School was not guilty of a performative contradiction in seeking to enlighten Enlightenment about its (self-)destructive tendencies, while rejecting the (providential) idea of progress. Keywords: Améry, Frankfurt School, Kant, hope, progress, Bernard Williams Kant, in , responded to Mendelssohn’s denial that the human race has ever made (and will ever make) moral progress with a thesis about motivation: ‘hope for better times’ is required to do ‘something that is profitable for the general well-being’ (TP, : ). Indeed, Kant thinks that Mendelssohn, in publishing his tract criticizing the idea of progress, ‘must have counted’ on that very hope (ibid.; my emphasis). For – Kant’s thought seems to be – what could this act of writing have been other than seeking to make the world a better place and how could one do this, irre- spective of hoping for better times? This thesis about motivation stands in a wider context (both of the text of which it is part and Kant’s critical philosophy more generally), such that, according to Kant, the hope for better times presupposes moral faith in (the possibility of) human progress.