Meeting One's Maker: Commemoration and Consumer Choice in York Cemetery Two Volumes, Volume One Susan Buckham Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy York University Department of Archaeology October 2000 Abstract ABSTRACT The thesis presents an analysis of Victorian memorials within a self- contained case study of York Cemetery. As one of the first major archaeological investigations of a modern cemetery, this research offers an evaluation of their potential as evidenced by both the material and documentary records. The study provides a methodological and theoretical structure to examine, classify, and interpret Victorian Gravestones as a specific type of archaeological data. A headstone typology is created and applied to the memorial sample to investigate the interaction between consumer-producer relations and memorial design. The interpretation of the memorial survey's results is informed by consumer choice theory. This framework illustrates that by uniting the spheres of memorial production and consumption it is possible to reveal how objects become part of peoples' lives. The wider social processes involved within the production and purchase of memorials in Victorian York are explored through a series of contextual frameworks. The contexts for analysis include the consideration of nineteenth century cemeteries as a specific type of burial landscape, commemoration as social practice, and the ways in which information concerning memorial design were transmitted. The thesis concludes by considering an agenda for the future study of Victorian memorial design. Contents e. 4.# I I ILGI 1 La VOLUME ONE bstrext List of Figures List of Charts List of Tables List of Drawings List of Plates List of Pviaps Acknowledgements Chapter One: Th an rati rtn i Background to study: Academic Context, Literature Review and Research Agenda 1.0 Introduction to Research ...34 1.1 Academic Context for Research ...36 1.1.0 Introduction to Historical Archaeologies 1.1.1 Historical Archaeology in North America: Anthropology ...37 with a History Book or History with a Spade? 1.1.2 Post-Medieval Archaeology in Britain: Living in the Past? ...48 1.1.3 Discussion ...58 1.2 Gravestone Analysis ...61 1.2.0 Introduction to Gravestone Studies ...61 1.2.1 Early North American Work ...64 1.2.2 Early British Work ...67 1.2.3 Gravestone Studies and the Archaeology of Death ...70 1.2.4 Gravestone Analysis: Social Status, Identity, and ...73 Personal Sentiment 1.2.5 Gravestone Analysis: Cannon's Model of Fashion and ...81 Social Emulation 1.2.6 Discussion ...85 1.3 Consumer Choice Theory ...86 1.3.0 Introduction ...86 1.3.1 Consumer Choice Theory within a Post-Processual ...88 Paradigm Contents Chapter Two: The Historical, Cultural, and Archaeological Contexts of York Cemetery 9.0 Introduction ...91 2.1 Available Historical and Documentary Resources 2.2 Defining the 'Cemetery' ...93 2.3 Cemetery Design ...96 2.3.0 Introduction ...96 2.3.1 Cemetery Landscapes, Architecture and Planting: ...97 An Overview of Fashions and Meanings 2.4 Cemetery Establishment and Religious Politics ...102 2.4.0 Introduction ...102 2.4.1 Religious Politics and Joint-Stock Cemetery Companies: ...104 A National Overview 2.4.2 Religious Relations in York and the Establishment of ...107 York Cemetery 2.4.3 Discussion ...110 2.5 The Establishment of Cemeteries as a Response to ...111 a 'Burial Crisis' 2.5.0 Introduction ...111 2.5.1 Burial Overcrowding: A National Overview ...112 2.5.2 The Burial Crisis in York ...114 2.5.3 Discussion ...116 2.6 Cemeteries and Business Practice ...118 2.6.0 Introduction ...120 2.6.1 Burials at York Cemetery ...120 2.6.2 Memorial Production and Regulation at York Cemetery ...124 2.7 Archaeological Resources ...127 2.8 Conclusion ...131 Chapter Throw Raining Recording Techniques, Mathrld of Analysis, and Research Questions 3.0 Introduction ...133 3.1 Introduction to Data To be Investigated ...133 3.1.0 Introduction to the Material Evidence ...133 3.1.1 The Layout of the Cemetery ...133 3.1.2 The Memorials ...135 3.1.3 The York Family History Society's Memorial Inscription ...137 Survey 3.1.4 Introduction to the Documentary Evidence ...139 Contents 3.1.5 The Burial Registers 3.1.6 The York Cemetery Company's Business Record ...143 3.2 Sampling Methodology ...146 3.2.0 Introduction ...146 3.2.1 Selection Criteria: Temporal Span, Form, and Location ...147 3.2.2 Sample Size and Summary ...150 3.3 Recording Methodology ...150 3.3.0 Introduction ...150 3.3.1 Recording Methodology used in Pilot and Main Data ...151 Collection 3.4 Method of Analysis ...154 3.4.0 Introduction ...154 3.4.1 Computer Analysis ...154 3.4.2 Dating the Memorials ...157 3.5 Case Study Examining Commemoration in Relation to ...159 Burial Practice 3.5.0 Introduction ...159 3.5.1 Plot Type and Commemoration ...159 3.5.2 Burial and Commemoration Affiliations ...162 3.5.3. Order of Commemoration and Date of Death. ...166 3.5.4 Conclusion ...167 Chapter Four: Results 4.0 Introduction ...168 4.1 Introduction to Typological Analysis ...168 4.1.0 Why Em ploy a Memorial Typology? ...168 4.1.1 Precedents for a Memorial Typology ...170 4.1.2 Theoretical Basis for the Memorial Typology ...173 4.2 The Typology Methodology ... 175 4.2.0 Introduction to the Typology Methodology ...175 4.2.1 Memorial Sample: A Summary of Results ...177 4.2.2 The Typology Methodology: First Level of Analysis ...178 4.2.3 Discussion ...179 4.2.4 The Typology Methodology: Second Level of Analysis ...180 4.2.5 Discussion ...182 4.3 Headstone Structural Groups ...183 4.3.0 Introduction ...183 4.3.1 Structural Analysis: A Summary of Results ...184 4.3.2 Structural Analysis: A Discussion of Results ...190 4.4 Headstone Profiles ...192 Contents 4.4.0 Introduction ...192 4.4.1 Profile Analysis: A Summary of Results ...193 4.4.2 Profile Analysis: A Discussion of Results ...200 4.4.3 Profile Reproduction Rates ...201 4.4.4 Profile Scale of Complexity ...203 Design Variables ...907 4.5.0 Introduction ...207 4.5.1 Design Variable Form: Material ...208 4.5.2 Design Variable Form: Size ...210 4.5.3 Design Variable Form: Panels ...211 4.5.4 Design Variable Form: Edge Type ...213 4.5.5 Introduction to an Analysis of Decoration ...216 4.5.6 Design Variables Decoration: Borders ...217 4.5.7 Design Variables Decoration: Scroll Decoration ...221 4.5.8 Design Variables Decoration: Banners ...221 4.5.9 Design Variables Decoration: Miscellaneous Decorative ...224 Motifs, Shapes and Panels 4.5.10 An Overview of Decoration Types ...226 4.6 Conclusion ...227 Chapter Five: An Investigation of the Social and Historical Contexts of Memorial Design, Production, and Purchase 5.0 Introduction ...229 5.1 Defining the Term 'Consumer' ...231 5.2 Who Were the Producers? ...233 5.2.0 Introduction ...233 5.2.1 Poole's Survey of Masons' Signatures ...233 5.2.2 Trade Directories ...234 5.2.3 Other Sources ...235 5.2.4 Comparative Analysis of Trade Directories and Poole's ...235 Survey 5.2.5 Discussion ...938 5.3 Market Access and Consumer Choice ...246 5.3.0 Introduction ...246 5.3.1 Identifying Major and Minor Suppliers to the Cemetery ...246 5.3.2 Market Restrictions: Product Range and Business ...249 Location 5.3.3 Discussion of Consumer Behaviour and Market Access ...258 5.4 Memorial Selection and the Consumer — Producer ...261 Relationship Contents 5.4.0 Introduction ...261 5.4.1 Methodology ...262 5.4.2 Second Class Headstones ...266 5.4.3 Prefabricated Headstones ...270 5.4.4 Individually Commissioned Memorials ...280 5.4.5 Discussion ...294 5.5 Social Analysis Case Studies ...298 5.5.0 Introduction to Social Analysis ...298 5.5.1 Memorial Design and Social Emulation ...300 5.5.2 Memorial Design and Religious Affiliation ...313 5.5.3 The Commemoration of Children ...331 5.5.4 Memorial Design and Individuality ...339 5.6 Conclusion ...344 Chapter Six: Conclusion 6.0 Introduction ..348 6.1 Part One: Research Framework - A Conclusion ..348 6.2 Part Two: Analysis - A Conclusion ..355 VOLUME TWO Appendices Appendix 1: Sampled Burial Sections ...27 Appendix 2 : Pilot Study Inscription Survey ...34 Appendix 3: Memorial Recording Forms and Variables ...59 Appendix 4: Definitions of Memorial Types ...56 Appendix 5: Database Structures ...66 Appendix 6: Index of Memorials From the Pilot ...70 Study Area Demonstrating Differences Between Commemoration and Burial Affiliations Appendix 7: Table of Undated Stones Excluded from ...71 Chronological Analysis Appendix 8: Index of Chosen headstone Designs ...72 Appendix 9: Masons based Outside York With Signed Stones ...85 pre 1901 in date located in the Original Victorian Extent of York Cemetery (after David Poole) Appendix 10: York based Masons With Signed Stones ...87 Contents pre 1901 in date located in the Original Victorian Extent of York Cemetery (after David Poole) Appendix 11: Case Study Examining the Memorial Pattern Books ...94 of William Plows and the York Cemetery Company Appendix 12: Index of Inscriptions with Information About Profession in the Memorial Sample (shown by YFHS Ref., status in burial registers and memorial type) Abbreviations Used in text ...131 Glossary ...132 Trade Directories Consulted ...134 Unpublished Sources Consulted ...135 Bibliography ...137 List of Figures VOLUME TWO Page Isometric plan of York Cemetery c.1843 by Pritchett ...Figure 1 181 & Son Plan of York Cemetery, Showing Features of the Original ...Figure 2 182 Victorian Extent, Later Extensions, and the YFHS Survey Areas Illustration of Abney Park Cemetery c.1869 by W.R. ...Figure 3 183 Woods, Showing Visitors Engaged in 'Rational Recreation' Plan of Abney Park Cemetery c.1869 by J.