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Crossing Borders from Hungary to Ireland: the Cross-Cultural Adaptation of Hungarian Refugees from the 1940S and Their Compatriots from the 1956 Hungarian Revolution

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Crossing Borders from Hungary to Ireland: the Cross-Cultural Adaptation of Hungarian Refugees from the 1940S and Their Compatriots from the 1956 Hungarian Revolution Crossing Borders from Hungary to Ireland: The Cross-Cultural Adaptation of Hungarian Refugees from the 1940s and their Compatriots from the 1956 Hungarian Revolution Katalin Pálmai Bánki BA, MA Dublin City University Presented for the qualification of Doctor of Philosophy Supervisor: Dr Vera Sheridan School of Applied Languages and Intercultural Studies September 2009 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My sincere thanks are due to Dublin City University for granting me a scholarship in this research, and for allowing me some extra time to complete it. I wish to thank my initial supervisors, Dr Aileen Evans-Pearson, and Dr Angela Leahy who introduced to me the field of cross-cultural adaptation. I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Vera Sheridan. It was thanks to her valuable and painstaking help, constructive comments, and her constant encouragement that I was able to complete my research. I owe my personal gratitude to the former Hungarian refugees in Ireland who welcomed me in their homes and offered a priceless contribution to the research. I warmly thank the strong support of my family, which accompanied me throughout my 10 years study in Dublin City University. My warm thanks are due to Julia Tomkins, and Dr Thomas Kabdebo, whose ideals, encouragement, and help have had a remarkable influence on my entire academic career. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................viii Chapter 1 Introduction to the Thesis................................................................................. 1 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background of the Research.................................................................................. 1 1.2 The Study Situated Within the Context of Other Studies...................................... 2 1.3 Qualitative Research Method................................................................................ 3 1.3.1 Distinction between Quantitative and Qualitative Research ......................... 4 1.3.2 Triangulation ................................................................................................. 5 1.3.3 Data Collection .............................................................................................. 6 1.4 Data Analysis......................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1 Grounded Theory ........................................................................................... 8 1.4.2 Origin and Development of Grounded Theory .............................................. 8 1.4.3 Coding Process ............................................................................................ 10 1.4.4 Qualitative Data Analysis Software ............................................................. 16 1.5 Interviews............................................................................................................. 17 1.5.1 Sampling, Access and Recording ................................................................. 19 1.5.2 The Process of the Interviews ..................................................................... 20 1.6 Content Analysis.................................................................................................. 20 1.7 Participant Observation........................................................................................ 22 1.8 Ethical Concerns.................................................................................................. 23 1.9 Self-Reflexivity.................................................................................................... 25 1.9.1 Difficulties of the Research .......................................................................... 27 1.9.2 Limitation of the Research ........................................................................... 27 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................ 28 Chapter 2 Hungarian and Irish Historical Background............................................... 29 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................................ 29 2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 29 2.1.1 Early History of Hungary ............................................................................ 30 2.1.2 The Revolution of 1848 and its Aftermath ................................................... 31 2.1.3 From World War I to Fascism ..................................................................... 32 2.2 Hungary after World War II ................................................................................ 34 2.2.1 Beginning of Decades of Communist Terror ............................................... 36 2.2.2 Hungary’s Economic Perspective in the 1950s ........................................... 37 2.2.3 Culture and Ideology in Hungary During the Cold War............................. 38 2.2.4 Gender Policy and Welfare .......................................................................... 40 2.3 Hungary on the Eve of Revolution ...................................................................... 41 2.3.1 The Revolution of 1956 from a Hungarian Perspective .............................. 44 2.3.2 Soviet Intervention ....................................................................................... 46 2.3.3 Temporary Victory ....................................................................................... 47 2.3.4 Crushing the Revolution: Crying for Help ................................................... 48 2.4 Aftermath............................................................................................................. 50 2.4.1 In Memory of Imre Nagy .............................................................................. 51 2.4.2 1956 from an International Perspective ...................................................... 52 iii 2.4.3 1956 from Russian Perspective .................................................................... 54 2.4.4 Reprisals ...................................................................................................... 54 2.5 Memory as Shaping National Identity................................................................. 57 2.5.1 Becoming Part of a Nation .......................................................................... 59 2.5.2 Collective Identity ........................................................................................ 60 2.6 On the Road: The Hungarian Refugees’ Escape.................................................. 61 2.7 Destination Countries of Hungarian Refugees: USA and Canada....................... 63 2.7.1 In Europe ..................................................................................................... 65 2.7.2 The Cultivation of Hungarian Culture Outside the Border ......................... 65 2.8 Socio-Economic Perspective on Ireland in Post-War Years................................ 67 2.8.1 Religious Perspective on Ireland in Post-War Years .................................. 69 2.8.2 Education, Language and Communication in Post-War Ireland ................ 72 2.8.3 In Ireland: Perspectives on Outsiders ......................................................... 74 2.8.4 Pre-War Years: Aliens ................................................................................. 75 2.8.5 Post War Years: Refugees ............................................................................ 76 2.8.6 International Refugee Regime ...................................................................... 78 2.8.7 The Arrival of the Hungarian Refugees in 1956 .......................................... 79 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................ 80 Chapter 3 Review of Cross-Cultural Literature............................................................. 82 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................................ 82 3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 82 3.2. The Nature of Culture.......................................................................................... 83 3.2.1 Cultural Variability Perspective/Cultural Dimensions ............................... 84 3.2.2 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions in the Irish and Hungarian Context ........ 86 3.2.3 Berry’s Six Cultural Variables ..................................................................... 87 3.3 Intercultural Theories of Initial Reaction to Culture Contact: Culture Shock..... 87 3.3.1 Anxiety and Uncertainty Management Theory ........................................... 88 3.3.2 High and Low Context Communication ....................................................... 89 3.3.3 Culture Distance .......................................................................................... 89 3.3.4 Culture Learning Approach ......................................................................... 90 3.4 Approaches to the Process of Cross-Cultural Adaptation.................................... 90 3.4.1 Definitions of Cross-Cultural Adaptation: Old and New Perspectives
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