AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL DESK-BASED ASSESSMENT OF THE AT OLD AND HOLME NEXT THE SEA,

NGR: TF 6900 4267 - TF 7210 4468 NHER Event Number: ENF147291

Dr James Albone MCIfA January 2020

Norfolk County Council Environment Service Union House, Gressenhall, , Norfolk NR20 4DR This page is intentionally blank Contents List of Figures iv List of Tables vi Summary 1 1.Introduction and Scope of the Study 1 2.Site Location and Description 1 3.Planning Policy and Legislative Background 5 4.Methodology 5 5.Archaeological and Historical Evidence 6 5.1 Prehistoric: Palaeolithic to Bronze Age 6 5.2 Iron Age to Roman 10 5.3 Early and Middle Anglo-Saxon 12 5.4 Late Anglo-Saxon to Post-Medieval 12 5.4.1 Late Anglo-Saxon to Post-Medieval Settlement 15 5.4.2 Late Anglo-Saxon to Post-Medieval Water Management 15 5.4.3 Late Anglo-Saxon to Post-Medieval Agricultural, Industrial and Recreational Land-use 16 5.5 Modern (Twentieth Century) 17 5.6 Undated 22 6.Cartographic Evidence 22 6.1 Map of Holme Parish, 1609 22 6.2 A True Description of the Towne of [Hunstanton], 1615 25 6.3 Plan and Notes on Holme Bounds, Early Seventeenth Century 25 6.4 Plans of Lands in Holme, Seventeenth Century 28 6.5 Map of Holme Marshes, Undated ?Seventeenth Century 28 6.6 Plotts of Holme Marshes, Seventeenth Century 29 6.7 Hunstanton Field Book, 1689 / c.1723 33 6.8 Holme Field Book, c.1690 / c.1722 33 6.9 Map of Part of the Parish of Hunstanton in the County of Norfolk, 1760 36

i 6.10 Map of Hunstanton and Ringstead Barrett, 1765 40 6.11 A Topographical Map of the County of Norfolk, published by William Faden. 1797; Ordnance Survey First Edition One Inch to the Mile map, Sheet LXIX. 1824; Map of the County of Norfolk, published by A. Bryant. 1826 40 6.12 Plan of Henry Styleman’s Estate, Early Nineteenth Century 40 6.13 Plan of the Parish of Holme next the Sea [Enclosure Map], 1827 40 6.14 Map of the Parish of Holme next the Sea [Tithe map] 1844 40 6.15 Map of the Parish of Hunstanton, [Tithe map] 1844 40 6.16 Holme and Hunstanton Embankment and Drainage Preliminary and Working Drawings 41 6.17 Holme and Hunstanton Commons in the Parish of Holme juxta Mare, 1858 45 6.18 Holme Common Inclosure. Plan and Section of Proposed New Outfall, 1869 45 6.19 First Edition Ordnance Survey Six Inch to the Mile Map, 1886 50 6.20 Second Edition (1906-7) Six Inch to the Mile and later Ordnance Survey maps 50 7.Aerial Photographic and LIDAR evidence 50 8.Project Area Walkover Survey 54 9.Assessing the Former Courses of the River Hun 62 10.Archaeological Potential and Significance 68 10.1 Palaeolithic and Mesolithic 68 10.2 Neolithic and Bronze Age 69 10.3 Iron Age, Roman and Anglo-Saxon 69 10.4 Medieval and Post-Medieval 69 10.5 Modern (Twentieth Century) 70 10.6 Overall Potential 70 11.Impact Assessment 71 11.1 Previous Impacts 71 11.2 Potential Impact of the Proposed Scheme 71 12.Mitigation Measures and Outreach Opportunities 73 12.1 Suggested Archaeological Mitigation Measures 73 12.2 Known Areas to be Avoided during the River Restoration Works 73

ii 12.3 Outreach and Public Engagement Opportunities 76 13.Conclusions 76 14.Acknowledgements 77 15.Bibliography and Sources 77 Appendix 1: Gazetteer of Heritage Assets in the Wider Assessment Area Recorded in the Norfolk HER. 79

iii List of Figures Note on map figures: unless otherwise stated all maps are oriented with north at the top. 1. Aerial image showing the course of the River Hun with the locations of the Western and Eastern Project Areas, and the Wider Assessment Area. 2. View of the modern River Hun in parish, looking east with Holme next the Sea in the distance. 3. View of the modern River Hun from the sluice in the sea bank at Thornham, looking west across Holme Marshes. 4. Recorded Prehistoric to Anglo-Saxon heritage assets in the Western Project Area and Wider Assessment Area. 5. Recorded Prehistoric to Anglo-Saxon heritage assets in the Eastern Project Area and Wider Assessment Area. 6. Recorded Medieval to Post-Medieval heritage assets in the Western Project Area and Wider Assessment Area. 7. Recorded Medieval to Post-Medieval heritage assets in the Eastern Project Area and Wider Assessment Area. 8. Recorded Modern (twentieth century) heritage assets in the Western Project Area and Wider Assessment Area. 9. Recorded Modern (twentieth century) heritage assets in the Eastern Project Area and Wider Assessment Area. 10. Recorded undated heritage assets and an investigated site with no archaeological evidence in the Western Project Area and Wider Assessment Area. 11. Recorded undated heritage assets and an investigated site with no archaeological evidence in the Eastern Project Area and Wider Assessment Area. 12. Extract from an early twentieth century tracing of a map of Holme parish dated 1609. 13. Extract from ‘A True Description of the Towne of Hunstanton’ dated 1615 showing the course of the river through the parish. 14. Early seventeenth century plan and notes on Holme Bounds. 15. Plan of Lands in Holme showing the river in the western part of the parish. Seventeenth century. 16. Detail from the seventeenth century plan of lands in Holme showing the river labelled as Mill fleet and the location of the mill. 17. Map of Holme Marshes showing the sinuous course of the river and its tributaries to the east of High Holmes. Undated, possibly seventeenth century. 18. Plotts of Holme Marshes [i] showing the river in the western part of the parish as far downstream as the mill. Seventeenth century. 19. Plotts of Holme Marshes [ii] showing the course of the river to the northeast of High Holmes. Seventeenth century. 20. Plotts of Holme Marshes [iii] showing the course of the river through the central part of the marshes. Seventeenth century. 21. Plotts of Holme Marshes [iv] showing the course of the river through the marshes in the eastern part of the parish. Seventeenth century.

iv 22. Extract from Hunstanton Field Book showing the course of the river at the southwest limits of the Project Area. 1689 / c.1723. 23. Extract from Holme Field Book showing the course of the river in the western part of the parish and the former site of the mill. c.1690/1722. 24. A Map of the Parish of Hunstanton in the County of Norfolk showing the course of the river in 1760. 25. Detail from A Map of the Parish of Hunstanton in the County of Norfolk dated 1760, showing the multiple canalised courses of the river in the eastern part of the parish and a sluice gate where the river crosses the Sea Bank. 26. Extract from a Map of Hunstanton and Ringstead Barrett showing the course of the river in the parish in 1765. 27. Extract from the plan of Henry Styleman’s Estate in Hunstanton and Holme. Early 19th Century. 28. Extract from the Holme next the Sea Enclosure map. 1827. 29. Extract from the Hunstanton tithe map. 1844. 30. Holme and Hunstanton Embankment and Drainage Preliminary and Working Drawings, Plan of the Marshes. 1856. 31. Detail from the 1856 Plan of the Marshes, showing the existing and proposed river channel in Hunstanton parish. 32. Detail from the 1856 Plan of the Marshes, showing how the proposed river channel lay to the south of the previously existing one where it crosses Beach Road. 33. Detail from the 1856 Plan of the Marshes, showing the existing and proposed river channels through Holme Marshes. 34. Detail from the 1856 Plan of the Marshes, showing the proposed new sea bank at the river’s outfall. 35. Holme and Hunstanton Commons in the Parish of Holme juxta Mare showing the west section of the new Main Drain No II. 1858. 36. Holme and Hunstanton Commons in the Parish of Holme juxta Mare showing east section of the New River or Main Drain No IV. 1858. 37. Holme Common Inclosure Plan of 1869 showing the proposed new outfall drain on the river at Thornham. 38. Composite image from the Ordnance Survey First Edition Six Inch to the Mile Map (Sheets Norfolk I.SW and VI.NW) surveyed in 1886 showing the Western Project Area. 39. Composite image from the Ordnance Survey First Edition Six Inch to the Mile Map (Sheets Norfolk I.SW and VI.NW) surveyed in 1886 showing the Eastern Project Area. 40. Archaeological features within and adjacent to the Project Area recorded from aerial photographs by the Norfolk NMP. 41. RAF aerial photograph taken in the aftermath of the 1953 storm surge showing the two islands of High Holmes and Low Holmes at Holme next the Sea standing above the floodwater. 42. RAF aerial photograph taken in the aftermath of the 1953 storm surge showing the River Hun west of Beach Road at Holme next the Sea. 43. Google Earth aerial image from 2007 showing the former natural channels and creeks in Holme Marshes.

v 44. WSO1 Linear earthworks of former river and drainage channels (NHER 26725 / 148) looking north across the golf course. 45. Walkover Survey Observation locations. 46. WSO2 Looking northeast showing the linear earthwork which corresponds with the recorded position of Sir Nicholas Le Strange’s Old Bank (NHER 26719 / 89) at the point where it is cut by the nineteenth century river channel. 47. WSO2 Looking north showing the earthwork remains of Sir Nicholas Le Strange’s Old Bank (NHER 26719 / 89) continuing in the golf course. 48. WSO4 Looking south across the River Hun into a pasture field in which earthworks have previously been recorded (NHER 26716 / 73). 49. WSO5 The bridge across the River Hun at Beach Road at Holme next the Sea, which is likely to be contemporary with the mid-nineteenth century canalisation. 50. WSO6 Earthworks to the north of the River Hun in a pasture field east of Beach Road (NHER 26723 / 74). 51. WSO6 Earthwork of a probable levee associated with the pre-canalisation (pre- nineteenth century) course of the River Hun within the complex to the east of Beach Road (NHER 26723 / 74). 52. WSO7 looking northwest. Bonded brickwork remains in a drainage channel probably relating to a former bridge of late nineteenth or early twentieth century date. 53. WSO8 The substantial surviving earthwork bank of eighteenth- to nineteenth century former sea defences northeast of Holme next the Sea village (NHER 26761 / 22). 54. WSO10 looking southeast showing the nineteenth century sea bank (NHER 26762 / 21). 55. Detail from ‘A True Description of the Towne of Hunstanton’ dated 1615 showing Haven Gate and Haven Greene. 56. Detail from the seventeenth century plan of Holme Lands showing Haven Gate Way and Seamans Gate (now Beach Road). 57. Suggested former courses of the River Hun overlain onto a modern satellite image. 58. Zones of High Archaeological Potential to be avoided during the proposed river restoration works.

List of Tables

Table 1. Zones of High Archaeological Potential Table 2. Gazetteer of Heritage Assets in the Wider Assessment Area (Appendix 1)

vi Summary Norfolk County Council Environment Service has been commissioned by the Norfolk Coast Partnership to produce an archaeological desk-based assessment of the River Hun in Norfolk to support a feasibility study of proposed river restoration works. Previously recorded heritage assets indicate that the River Hun landscape has been a focus of human activity since at least the Mesolithic period. The present course of the Hun relates to a nineteenth century canalisation, but the river had been modified since at least the seventeenth century. Prior to human intervention the river formed a tidal estuary and its course through the coastal marshes is likely to have been very different to today. The assessment established that there are no designated heritage assets within the area of the proposed works (Project Area) and that proposed river restoration works would not have any impact on designated heritage assets in the surrounding landscape (Wider Assessment Area). All previously recorded heritage assets within the Project Area are currently non- designated. There is a high potential for previously unidentified heritage assets – in this case buried archaeological remains of prehistoric to post-medieval date - to be present within the Project Area. The low-lying wet conditions associated with the river channel and coastal marshes means that there is also a high potential for waterlogged palaeoenvironmental, artefactual and structural remains to be present.

1. Introduction and Scope of the Study Norfolk County Council Environment Service was commissioned by the Norfolk Coast Partnership to produce an archaeological desk-based assessment of the River Hun in the parishes of Old Hunstanton and Holme-next-the-Sea, Norfolk. The river currently follows a canalised course established in the mid-nineteenth century. The assessment has been undertaken to support a feasibility study of proposed river restoration works along the River Hun to return it to a more natural course through the coastal marshes. This document has assessed the known heritage assets within the area of the proposed river restoration works, and through consideration of a wider assessment area, the potential for previously unidentified heritage assets with archaeological interest to be present. It also assesses the potential impact of the proposed river restoration works on the historic environment with suggestions for mitigation measures including further archaeological survey and investigation.

2. Site Location and Description The River Hun is located in northwest Norfolk within the Borough of King’s Lynn and West Norfolk. The source of the river is in the parish of Hunstanton at approximately TF 6939 4077 from where it flows through the coastal marshes of Old Hunstanton and Holme-next-the Sea parishes. The river’s outfall to the sea is currently through the sea wall in the northeast part of Holme-next-the-Sea parish from where it flows into the Thornham Harbour Channel in Thornham parish (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. Aerial image showing the course of the River Hun (in blue) with the locations of the Western and Eastern Project Areas, and the Wider Assessment Area. (Google Earth aerial imagery data SIO, NOAA, US. Navy, NGA, GEBCO). The proposed river restoration project encompasses a 4km stretch of the River Hun (the Project Area), which for the purposes of this report is subdivided into two sections (Fig. 1). The Western Project Area (WPA) extends from TF 6900 4267 in Old Hunstanton parish in the west to the bridge at TF 6989 4360 on Beach Road, Holme-next-the-Sea. The Eastern Project Area (EPA) extends from this bridge downstream through Holme-next-the-Sea parish to the sea wall at TF 7210 4468 in the east. The Project Area lies entirely within Natural ’s National Character Area 77: Coast (Natural England 2013). The specific landscape through which the river passes in the immediate area of the proposed works lies at, or mostly below, an elevation of 5m above Ordnance Datum. At the southern end of the Western Project Area, the river passes though unimproved pasture land within the reclaimed coastal marshes of Old Hunstanton parish. However, for much of its route through the Western Area the river is bordered on the north by the course of the Hunstanton Golf Club and to the south by a mixture of arable land and unimproved pasture (Fig. 2). The central section of the river’s course passes crosses the line of Beach Road within the settlement of Holme-next-the-Sea where it is flanked by a combination of housing, small holiday parks and pasture land. Downstream from the settlement the course of the river through the Eastern Area passes through pasture land and partially drained coastal marshes forming part of ’s Holme Dunes Nature Reserve (Fig. 3). The solid geology of the project area comprises the West Melbury Marly and Zig Zag Chalk Formations of Cretaceous date. This bedrock is overlain by a mixture of superficial deposits. The earliest of these is the Holkham Till - a diamicton deposit that principally forms the slightly higher ground lying to the south of the project area. However, this deposit also forms a headland on which the Beach Road part of Holme-next-the-Sea is located and through which the modern river channel is cut, and two low islands (historically, High Holme and Low Holme) within the coastal marshes. To the west of Beach Road, the Holkham Till is cut by a former channel filled with a head deposits of mixed clay, silt, sand and gravel. Much of the modern course of the river passes through Tidal Flat and Reclaimed Intertidal clay and silt deposits. These are flanked to the north by more recent windblown sand deposits forming dune systems and underlying the golf course (BGS Geology of Britain Viewer). The name of the River Hun is not discussed in Ekwall’s English River-Names (1928). It is likely that the name is a ‘back-formation’ derived from the place-name Hunstanton rather than the settlement-name referencing the river-name as might more normally be expected. However, the application of full or partial settlement-names to watercourses in this way appears to be unusually frequent in west and north Norfolk (e.g. , River, The Ingol, River and ). The name River Hun seems to only occur in documentary and cartographic sources from the 19th century onwards and may not in itself be of great antiquity. The possible significance of this is discussed in Section 9.

3 Fig. 2. View of the modern River Hun in Old Hunstanton parish, looking east with Holme next the Sea in the distance. (20/03/2019)

Fig. 3. View of the modern River Hun from the sluice in the sea bank at Thornham, looking west across Holme Marshes. (20/03/2019)

4 3. Planning Policy and Legislative Background Although the proposed river restoration works may not require planning permission, this desk-based assessment has been undertaken to meet the requirements of Chapter 16 ‘Conserving and Enhancing the Historic Environment’ of the National Planning Policy Framework (2019). Paragraph 189 of NPPF states that; In determining applications, local planning authorities should require an applicant to describe the significance of any heritage assets affected, including any contribution made by their setting. The level of detail should be proportionate to the assets’ importance and no more than is sufficient to understand the potential impact of the proposal on their significance. As a minimum the relevant historic environment record should have been consulted and the heritage assets assessed using appropriate expertise where necessary. Where a site on which development is proposed includes, or has the potential to include, heritage assets with archaeological interest, local planning authorities should require developers to submit an appropriate desk-based assessment and, where necessary, a field evaluation. The historic environment legislative framework considered to be potentially relevant to the proposed river restoration works includes; The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act (1979) The Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act (1990) The Protection of Military Remains Act (1986)

4. Methodology This desk-based assessment has been carried out with appropriate reference to the Chartered Institute for Archaeologists (CIfA) Standards and Guidance for Historic Environment Desk- Based Assessment (CIfA 2017) and the Standards for Development-Led Archaeological Projects in Norfolk (Robertson et al. 2018). In accordance with the relevant standards and guidance the assessment has considered a wide range of source material including;

Existing archaeological data held at the Norfolk Historic Environment Record (NHER) Details of Designated Heritage Assets on the National Heritage List for England (NHLE) Published and unpublished archaeological reports and historical research Historic maps held at the Norfolk Record Office (NRO), online and in published sources Historic aerial photographs held at the Norfolk Air Photo Library Online Google Earth aerial imagery Online LIDAR imagery

5 It should be noted that processing and detailed analysis of Environment Agency LIDAR data was not commissioned at this desk-based assessment stage. However, there is potential for this work to be included in the next phase of the project. In order to fully understand the archaeological potential of the Western and Eastern Project Areas it is necessary to consider the baseline evidence from these areas in a wider context. To achieve this, relevant historic environment information from a Wider Assessment Area (WAA) has also been collected and assessed (Fig. 1). On the landward (south) side of the Project Area, the Wider Assessment Area forms a 500m buffer incorporating the coastal marshes and the edge of the adjacent ‘dryland’ environment. To the seaward (north) side of the Project Area the Wider Assessment Area extends for up to 1km incorporating the inter- tidal zone down to the Mean Low Water Mark. This larger buffer on the north side of the Project Area was created to specifically include the inter-tidal zone as it was recognised that understanding the archaeological information from that area was essential for assessing the early history of the River Hun. Site visits were made to all publicly-accessible parts of the Assessment Area on 20th and 29th March 2019 and the resulting observations are discussed in Section 8 below.

5. Archaeological and Historical Evidence The Project Area contains a wide range of previously recorded heritage assets spanning the prehistoric to modern periods. All known heritage assets within the Project Area are discussed below. However, due to the large number of heritage assets recorded in the Wider Assessment Area (over 220 separate entries in the Norfolk Historic Environment Record) only those that provide a context for the former landscape of the River Hun and its historic environment potential are specifically mentioned in this section. A full catalogue of heritage assets within the Wider Assessment Area is included as Appendix 1 and all entries within it are labelled on the relevant period maps in this section (Figs. 2 – 9). 5.1 Prehistoric: Palaeolithic to Bronze Age (Figs. 4 and 5) Only one findspot of prehistoric date has previously been recorded within the Western Project Area. This comprises a Mesolithic flint blade found during fieldwalking to the south of the River Hun in Old Hunstanton parish (NHER 11226; Fig 4: 5). There is similarly only one findspot of prehistoric date is located within the Eastern Project Area. Neolithic flint artefacts (NHER 16377) are recorded as having been found on the northern part of a low island (High Holmes) within the marsh (Fig. 5: 9). Although the quantity and type of artefacts found is not specifically recorded their presence on the island indicates activity of this period adjacent to the present course of the River Hun. Prehistoric evidence recorded within the Wider Assessment Area is concentrated in two areas. The first of these is located on the ‘dry land’ around the edges of the marshes at the southern end of the Western Project Area. The earliest prehistoric evidence recorded in this area is a Mesolithic flint blade (NHER 1101) found in spoil from ditch cleaning (Fig.4: 4).

6 © Crown copyright and database rights 2011 Ordnance Survey 100019340

Fig. 4. Recorded Prehistoric to Anglo-Saxon heritage assets in the Western Project Area (shaded blue) and Wider Assessment Area (outer blue line). Refer to the table in Appendix 1 for the details of the numbered sites and findspots.

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Fig. 5. Recorded Prehistoric to Anglo-Saxon heritage assets in the Eastern Project Area (shaded blue) and Wider Assessment Area (outer blue line). Refer to the table in Appendix 1 for the details of the numbered sites and findspots. © Crown copyright and database rights 2011 Ordnance Survey 100019340 The majority of the recorded prehistoric evidence from the land flanking this southern section of the river valley as it enters the marshes is of Neolithic date. To the east of the river a Neolithic flint knife (NHER 1256) has been recovered from ditch dredgings (Fig. 4: 8). Slightly further away from the river a polished stone axe fragment, flint flakes, blades and scrapers (NHER 1148) have been found (Fig. 4: 11), along with more Mesolithic and Neolithic worked flints (NHER 1137, 12841, 16372 and 11303; Fig. 4: 3, 12, 31 and 33). To the west of the river in this area, further evidence of Neolithic activity has been recorded in the form of a flaked flint axehead (NHER 1255) Fig.4: 7) and flint blades and cores (NHER 11302) (Fig. 4: 10). A hoard of Middle Bronze Age metalwork, comprising a palstave, torc, neck ring, pin and bracelet (NHER 1101), has also been recovered from river dredging spoil in the southern part of the Western Project Area (Fig. 4: 4). The second group of recorded prehistoric evidence from within the Wider Assessment Area is located within the modern inter-tidal zone and lies predominantly to the north of the Eastern Project Area (Fig. 5). This group includes the only possible Palaeolithic artefacts from the Wider Assessment Area – a flint flake from Holme Beach (NHER 36688; Fig. 5: 1). Within this group of inter-tidal heritage assets are the internationally-significant Bronze Age structural remains which included two timber circles, trackways and platforms (Brennand & Taylor 2003; Robertson et.al. 2016). Although located over 800m to the north of the present course of the River Hun these structural remains are highly relevant to this assessment. They not only provide an indication of the types of prehistoric monument that were present in the landscape of the Wider Assessment Area during the Bronze Age, but they have also produced important palaeoenvironmental evidence that helps to reconstruct that landscape and the changes that have occurred within it. The two Bronze Age timber circles (NHER 33771 and 38044; Fig.5: 13 and 15), the first of which was popularly known as ‘Seahenge’, are best interpreted as mortuary monuments. Dendrochronological dating has demonstrated that their construction was contemporaneous with both having been constructed using timber from trees felled in the spring or summer of 2049 BC (Robertson et.al. 2016). Palaeoenvironmental evidence associated with the timber circles revealed that they were constructed in a saltmarsh or mudflat environment, most probably lying behind a protective range of sand dunes (Brennand & Taylor 2003, 59-61). The palaeoenvironmental evidence also indicates that, within a few centuries of the construction of the timber circles the environment has changed to a freshwater marsh with reedbeds and carr woodland (ibid.). This potential significance of this change is discussed further in Section 9 below. Within this freshwater marsh environment trackways, platforms and other timber structures were constructed during the Middle and Late Bronze Age (NHER 38195, 38197-8, 38221, 38046; Fig. 5: 16-18, 23 and 26). Evidence for the management and exploitation of the landscape was also revealed with the both coppice stools and coppiced timber of this date being recorded (Robertson et.al. 2016). Prehistoric artefacts including Mesolithic to Neolithic worked bone, a Neolithic axe (NHER 1147; Fig. 4: 6), Bronze Age palstaves (e.g. NHER 33910; Fig. 5: 14) and faunal remains have

9 been found within the inter-tidal zone both in close association with the structural remains and as more isolated finds. 5.2 Iron Age to Roman (Figs. 4 and 5) A cluster of recorded finds of Roman date is present around the western part of the Western Project Area although only one of these (NHER 1271; Fig. 4: 39) lies within its boundary. This findspot lies 170m west of the present river channel and records the discovery of a Roman building remains including tile fragments, pottery, animal bone and a quern during the levelling of a mound at this location in 1964. A cropmark of an undated, but possibly Roman, enclosure has been recorded 150m further south just outside of the Western Project Area (NHER 27157; Fig. 4: 50). The cropmark lies within an area where Roman building remains, including reports of a tessellated floor, pottery, brooches, coins and quern fragments have been recorded (NHER 1275; Fig. 4: 40). An isolated find of a 3rd century Roman coin (NHER 1269; Fig. 4: 38) has been recorded slightly further to the west within the modern settlement of Old Hunstanton. Between the area of these finds and the present course of the river is a long mound about 4m high (NHER 18899; Fig. 10: 175) on which stone foundations of unknown date have been reported. It is possible that these also form part of the Roman activity in this area. Inhumation burials of uncertain date have also been recorded from the mound along with Roman pottery (NHER 1288; Fig. 4: 43). Although undated, one of the burials is recorded as having been decapitated with the head placed between the legs. This is not an uncommon Roman burial practice and it is possible that the recorded burials form part of a cemetery of this period. It is likely that the group of Roman building remains and artefacts relate to a settlement on the west bank of the river channel in the Roman period. A corresponding scatter of Roman artefacts, including pottery and coins (one of which is a first century coin of Vespasian) have also been recorded on the east bank of the river channel (NHER 1148, 16372; Fig. 4: 11 and 31) suggesting that the settlement lay on both sides of the river channel during the Roman period. A linear earthwork bank has also been recorded leading towards the river at this location (NHER 4371; Fig. 4: 48). It has been suggested that it may be a Roman road, but a post-medieval date is more probable. Pottery of possible Iron Age date has also been recorded within one of these finds scatters (NHER 16372; Fig.4: 31) potentially suggesting an earlier origin for activity around this part of the river channel. Further evidence of Roman period activity is recorded on the edges of the marshes to the south of the modern river channel at Holme in the Eastern Project Area. Fieldwalking and metal detecting on the low islands of High Holmes and Low Holmes within the edge of the marshes has recorded Roman pottery, a brooch and coins (NHER 38094; Fig. 5: 44). Archaeological monitoring of electricity cable trenches to the west of the mounds also recorded Roman Samian ware pottery (NHER 52523; Fig. 5: 47). Slight further west, soil from the excavation of a pond contained a large quantity of predominantly 2nd to 3rd century Roman pottery, including amphora, mortaria and Nene Valley colour coated wares (NHER 38158; Fig. 5: 45). Further Roman pottery has also been recorded just to the west of Beach Road south of the modern course of the river (NHER 1107; Fig. 5: 37). Archaeological

10 investigations at that site in 2002 recorded more 2nd to 3rd century Roman pottery, metal working debris, quern fragments and a post-hole or beam slot indicating the presence of structural remains. Roman pottery and coins have also been recorded on the land adjacent to the marshes east of Low Holmes (NHER 21668; Fig. 5: 42). Taken together the finds evidence indicates settlement and possible industrial activities on the edge of the marshes immediately south of, and extending just into, the Project Area at Holme in the Roman period. The Roman road (NHER 1289; Fig. 5: 35) extends across the western part of Norfolk towards the coast near Hunstanton and Holme next the Sea. Two possible courses of the road are recorded in the HER heading towards the Roman settlement at Holme along Beach Road and the modern road within the village called Peddars Way, both of which extend into the Wider Assessment Area. However, cropmark evidence at Ringstead suggests an alternative course for Peddars Way to the northwest that may later have been utilised as the main drive through the park to Hunstanton Hall (Albone 2017). This possible northwest route would have crossed the River Hun to the south of the Wider Assessment Area and could have led to the Roman settlement on the west side of the channel at Hunstanton. In reality, Peddars Way may have split into two, or more, routes at its northern end and served multiple destinations. However, the main purpose of Peddars Way appears to have been to serve a ferry across to connect to the Roman road network in Lincolnshire (see Albone 2016, 363-4). It is possible that the River Hun channel and Roman settlements within the Wider Assessment Area, particularly that at Hunstanton, acted as the principal embarkation point on the Norfolk side. Irrespective of whether they were associated with the ferry across The Wash, the proximity of the two Roman settlements within the Wider Assessment Area to the river and coastal marshes suggests that they had a strong maritime connection – most likely with involvement in both fishing and coastal trading activities. The historic road pattern in Holme-next-the-Sea parish has a largely rectilinear form which is evident on some of the historic maps discussed in the Section 6 of this report. The principal elements of the pattern are a series of parallel roughly north to south aligned routeways which are present in both Holme next the Sea and neighbouring parishes. The regularity of the road pattern has led some previous historians to propose that the were part of a planned Roman layout (e.g. Ward 1935). However, comparison with evidence from elsewhere reveals that, rather than being a planned layout, they are actually transhumance routes that developed more organically through long-term use (Albone 2018). Transhumance is the seasonal movement of livestock from one area grazing land to another – in this case from the coastal marshes to the ‘uplands’ in the southern part of Holme next the Sea and adjacent parishes. Although none of the transhumance trackways extend into the Project Area their presence in the wider landscape provides a clear indication of the past use of the coastal marshes for seasonal grazing. Although they in themselves very difficult to date, surviving patterns of transhumance routeways elsewhere have been assigned Anglo-Saxon, Roman or potentially even late prehistoric dates (ibid.). No sites or artefacts of Roman date are currently known from the coastal marshes within the Wider Assessment Area and only a single find of, probably redeposited, sherds of a Roman pottery mortarium has been recorded in the inter-tidal zone (NHER 37234; Fig. 5: 36).

11 5.3 Early and Middle Anglo-Saxon (Figs. 4 and 5) Evidence for Early Anglo-Saxon activity within the Wider Assessment Area is very limited. Pottery of possible early Anglo-Saxon date has been recorded from the area of the Roman settlement at Old Hunstanton to the east of the river channel (NHER 16372; Fig. 4: 31) possibly, if this date is correct, indicating a post-Roman continuation of activity at the site. It has been suggested that the inhumation burials from the mound beside the river at Old Hunstanton (NHER 1288; Fig. 4: 43) were of early Anglo-Saxon date, but no accompanying grave goods of this period have been recorded and, as discussed above, the burial practice of the one complete grave observed supports a Roman date. A single fragment of a possible early Anglo-Saxon brooch is also recorded adjacent to Beach Road at Holme (NHER 58709; Fig. 4: 58) on the very edge of the Wider Assessment Area. At Old Hunstanton, middle Anglo-Saxon Ipswich ware pottery has been recorded within the area of the Roman settlement on both sides of the river channel (NHER 1271, 11227; Fig. 4: 39 and51). A sceatta coin of this period has also been recorded slightly to the west of the Western Project Area (NHER 11302; Fig. 4: 10). Although sparse, the evidence from Old Hunstanton indicates activity, perhaps related to settlement, around this part of the river channel during the middle Anglo-Saxon period. At least nine coins of early-middle Anglo-Saxon and middle Anglo-Saxon date have been recorded from within Holme next the Sea parish, although the findspots of these are not recorded in the HER. It has been suggested that these coins relate to a commercial centre such as a trading settlement, fair or market site akin to other so-called ‘productive sites’ (Robertson and Ames 2010, 342-3). If this interpretation is correct, a site with easy access to the river channel, perhaps occupying a similar location to the Roman settlement at Holme, seems entirely plausible. Important evidence for middle to late Anglo-Saxon activity in the wider landscape of the River Hun exists in the form of a group of fish weirs of this period which have been recorded in the inter-tidal zone at Holme next the Sea (NHER 37613, 38042, 38043, 38222, 39586; Fig.5: 52- 6). The alignment of the fish weirs does not correspond to the modern direction of the flood and ebb tides and it is likely that when constructed and used they were located within an estuarine channel (Robertson and Ames 2010, 341). The presence of the fish weirs provides important evidence of the exploitation of coastal resources in this area during the Anglo- Saxon period and can contribute to our understanding of the development of the River Hun - the significance of which will discussed in more detail in Section 9 below. 5.4 Late Anglo-Saxon to Post-Medieval (Figs. 6 and 7) The archaeological and historical evidence for the Late Anglo-Saxon to post-medieval periods within both the Western and Eastern Assessment Areas and the Wider Assessment Area relates to three broad themes; Settlement, Agricultural and Industrial Activity, and Water Management. These three themes, and the evidence for them, exhibit some continuity through the Late Anglo-Saxon, medieval, and post-medieval periods. Consequently, it is considered more useful to discuss the evidence thematically for the whole of the Late Anglo- Saxon to post-medieval period together, rather than in separate period-specific sections.

12 © Crown copyright and database rights 2011 Ordnance Survey 100019340

Fig. 6. Recorded Medieval to Post-Medieval heritage assets in the Western Project Area (shaded blue) and Wider Assessment Area (outer blue line). Refer to the table in Appendix 1 for the details of the numbered sites and findspots.

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Fig. 7. Recorded Medieval to Post-Medieval heritage assets in the Eastern Project Area (shaded blue) and Wider Assessment Area (outer blue line). Refer to the table in Appendix 1 for the details of the numbered sites and findspots. © Crown copyright and database rights 2011 Ordnance Survey 100019340 5.4.1 Late Anglo-Saxon to Post-medieval Settlement The earliest documentary and archaeological evidence for the present settlements of Old Hunstanton and Holme next the Sea dates to the late Anglo-Saxon period. The main foci of these settlements lie within, and in the case of Old Hunstanton slightly beyond, the Wider Assessment Area but the evidence is briefly summarised here to provide context for the Assessment Areas. The place-name Hunstanton is first recorded as Hunstanestun in a charter of 1035 and means ‘Hunstan’s Estate’ (Watts 2004, 323). In the Domesday Survey of 1086, manors in Hunestanestuna are recorded as being held by King William, Raplh Fitzherlwin, Bishop William and John nephew of Waleran. The Survey noted the presence of 2½ mills, 2½ fisheries, a church and 5 beehives among the landholdings (Brown 1984). St Mary’s Church (NHER 1136) lies to the south of the Wider Assessment Area. It includes a Norman font and reused fabric of the period and is likely to be on the site of the church mentioned in the Domesday Survey. The church and the site of the later Hunstanton Hall are likely to represent one of the medieval settlement foci, but it is possible that that settlement also extended northwards to the coast along the western side of the River Hun. Holme-next-the Sea is first recorded as Holm in a charter of 1035 and is derived from the Old Norse word Holmr meaning ‘island’ (Watts 2004, 311). It is likely that this is a direct reference to the low island/s within the marsh immediately to the north of present village on which there is evidence of activity taking place since the Neolithic period. In the Domesday Survey of 1086, land at Holm is recorded as being held by King William and William d’Ecouis. The landholdings at that time included at least 1 mill and ½ of a fishery (Brown 1984). Pottery, dress fittings and coins of Late Anglo-Saxon date (NHER 21668, 38094, 58661; Fig. 7: 42, 44 and 57) have been found in the area immediately surrounding St Mary’s Church at Holme (NHER 1346; Fig. 7: 70). Although not mentioned in the Domesday Survey the church contains 13th century fabric and its location is likely to have been a focal point of the settlement on the edge of the coastal marshes since the late Anglo-Saxon period. Within the Wider Assessment Area, a large number of post-medieval buildings are located in the settlements of Old Hunstanton and Holme next the Sea. Some of these are designated heritage assets (listed buildings). However, none of the extant historic buildings recorded in the Historic Environment Record are located within the Project Area and they are not discussed further here. 5.4.2 Late Anglo-Saxon to Post-medieval Water Management Water management has played a significant part in shaping the landscape of the Wider Assessment Area. This has included the management and canalization of the River Hun, the drainage and reclamation of the coastal marshes and the provision of sea defences, all of which have left tangible evidence in the landscape. Earthworks and cropmarks/soilmarks of former drainage ditches (NHER 26865, 26929, 26896, 26726: Fig. 6: 75, 123 and 125; Fig. 7: 103) and flood defence banks (NHER 38278, 26761-2, 26931, 26949, 26896-7 and 26726; Figs. 6 and 7: 76, 98-9 and 121-5) have been recorded in both the Western and Eastern Project Areas. Many of these features are also marked on historic maps and they are described in Section 6 below.

15 From at least 1633 onwards, the Le Strange family undertook extensive drainage and land management works in the marshes of Old Hunstanton and, to a lesser extent, Holme next the Sea (Griffiths 2015). A major phase of this work, which was undertaken by Sir Nicholas Le Strange (1604-55) between 1633 and 1653, is described in one of a series of estate notebooks. The work was continued by his descendants and included maintenance and further improvements carried out by Sir Nicholas’s grandson, also Sir Nicholas (1661-1724). The younger Sir Nicholas’ works included cleaning out the ‘New River’ in 1698 and repairs following storm damage. As Griffiths (2015, 241) describes, remedial works were necessary “first in 1714 when the river was choked with sand and then in 1720 when large breaches were made over the meeles [dunes], filling up passages and flattening the river to the sluices; this required him to make new cuts, raise banks and replace sluices built by Sir Hamon [his late uncle]”. Many of the banks and ditches recorded in the marshes may well date from these periods of reclamation, drainage and maintenance. Of particular note is a linear earthwork bank aligned perpendicular to the modern course of the River Hun in the eastern part of Old Hunstanton parish (NHER 26719; Fig. 6: 89) which is named on seventeenth century maps as Sr Nicholas Le Strange Old Bank (see Section 6.3). This bank lies parallel to, and may originally have represented, the line of the parish boundary with Holme next the Sea. The creation of the modern course of the river is also part of the story of the water management in this landscape. Earthworks of possible pits and ponds (NHER 26723; Fig. 6: 74) have previously been recorded adjacent to the river east of Holme Bridge. Although initially interpreted as possible fishponds, it is plausible that at least some of these earthworks relate to activities associated with the construction of the new river channel in the mid- nineteenth century. 5.4.3 Late Anglo-Saxon to Post-medieval Agricultural, Industrial and Recreational Land-use Much of the recorded archaeological evidence of Late Anglo-Saxon to post-medieval date within the Project and Wider Assessment Areas relates to the agricultural use of the landscape. Arable agricultural activity is represented by earthwork remains of ridge and furrow ploughing, which have been recorded at a number of locations in both the Western and Eastern Project Areas (NHER 26715, 26716, 26865, 26735; Fig. 6, 72-3, 75 and 92). The presence of ridge and furrow alongside the modern river channel within the coastal marshes provides evidence of reclamation and drainage of the land to bring it into arable use. Whilst the date of much of the ridge and furrow is uncertain, it is likely that some, if not most, of it post-dates the drainage enterprises of Sir Nicholas le Strange which brought Hunstanton Marshes into arable use in the 1630s (Griffiths 2015, 235-6). The location of the watermills recorded at Hunstanton and Holme next the Sea in the Domesday survey is not known, although it is reasonable to assume that they will have lain somewhere on one of the contemporary channels of the river. The site of a previously unrecorded post-medieval, and possibly late medieval, watermill has been identified from early seventeenth maps as part of the research for this assessment (see Section 6.4 below). It is located on a former channel, immediately to the north of the modern course of the River Hun in the Eastern Project Area (Figs. 16 and 57).

16 The coastal marshes within both the Western and Eastern Project Areas will have been used for grazing during the late Anglo-Saxon to post-medieval periods. Whilst extensive documentary evidence for pastoral husbandry exists in the Le Strange papers (Griffiths 2015, 226), there is little physical evidence for this activity other that the survival of the transhumance routes discussed above. Similarly absent from the archaeological record of the Wider Assessment Area is any direct evidence for the exploitation of marine and riverine fish and shellfish resources. However, fishing, including the use of inter-tidal fish weirs at Hunstanton in the sixteenth century, is also well documented in the Le Strange family accounts (Oestmann, 1994). Post-medieval industrial activity in the landscape of the Western Assessment Area has been recorded in the form of archaeological and cartographic evidence for clay extraction and brick-making on seventeenth century date (NHER 1281; Fig. 6: 82). As well as being a working agricultural and industrial landscape, the Assessment Area was also a place of recreation for the Le Strange family. As Griffiths (2015, 233-4) notes the Le Strange’s drainage schemes were also tied into to a desire to create a place to ride and no doubt show off their land improvements to friends, and also facilitate wildfowling and other fieldsports. Small circular and penannular earthwork features recorded within the marshes, which although recorded as Second World War military defences do not necessarily make sense as such, may potentially be reinterpreted as part of the infrastructure created by the Le Strange’s for their shooting activities (NHER 26740, 26742; Fig. 6: 150; Fig. 11: 182). 5.5 Modern (20th Century) (Figs. 8 and 9) A large number of heritage assets of modern date are recorded within the Wider Assessment Area. As the heritage assets located outside of the immediate area of the proposed river restoration works would be unaffected, only those within the Project Area are discussed here Second World War military remains within the Western and Eastern Project Areas include features associated with anti-invasion defences and military training activities. Almost the entire length of the River Hun within the Project Area appears to have been dredged and the riverbanks heightened to provide an anti-tank obstacle (NHER 26707, 26748; Fig. 8: 141; Fig. 9: 152). In the Eastern Project Area this was supplemented by a minefield along the southern side of the river (NHER 26750; Fig. 9: 153). A possible square pillbox is recorded in the sand dunes to the north of Broad Water (NHER 51019; Fig. 9: 171) However, its form is uncertain and it may have been associated with the training facility rather than an anti-invasion defence. As already noted above, small earthwork emplacements identified in the marshes (NHER 26740, 26742; Fig. 8: 150; Fig. 9: 182) which have previously been suggested as Second World War defences may in fact be seventeenth century shooting butts. An extensive group of remains associated with a Second World War training facility are present within, and to the north of, the Eastern Project Area (NHER 23518; Fig. 9: 132). The exact function of this training facility is unclear, but it appears to be an artillery range that

17 © Crown copyright and database rights 2011 Ordnance Survey 100019340

Fig. 8. Recorded Modern (twentieth century) heritage assets in the Western Project Area (shaded blue) and Wider Assessment Area (outer blue line). Refer to the table in Appendix 1 for the details of the numbered sites and findspots.

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Fig. 9. Recorded Modern (twentieth century) heritage assets in the Eastern Project Area (shaded blue) and Wider Assessment Area (outer blue line). Refer to the table in Appendix 1 for the details of the numbered sites and findspots. © Crown copyright and database rights 2011 Ordnance Survey 100019340 © Crown copyright and database rights 2011 Ordnance Survey 100019340

Fig. 10. Recorded undated heritage assets and an investigated site with no archaeological evidence (221) in the Western Project Area (shaded blue) and Wider Assessment Area (outer blue line). Refer to the table in Appendix 1 for the details of the numbered sites and findspots.

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Fig. 11. Recorded undated heritage assets and an investigated site with no archaeological evidence (221) in the Eastern Project Area (shaded blue) and Wider Assessment Area (outer blue line). Refer to the table in Appendix 1 for the details of the numbered sites and findspots. © Crown copyright and database rights 2011 Ordnance Survey 100019340 utilised mobile targets pulled along tracks between winch houses. The firing positions of the range lie within the Eastern Project Area directly alongside the River Hun and comprise rectangular hardstandings along a concrete track with circular turning areas. The target area lay immediately to the north of the Eastern Project Area and included a zig-zag track within the dunes, winch houses and observation bunkers. Only one possible structure within the target area of the range, a building of uncertain form to the north of Broad Water (NHER 51018; Fig. 9, 170), lies within the Project Area boundary. The substantially complete and apparently well-preserved condition of the training facility enhances its significance, and it may even be of designatable quality. However, establishing this would require extensive research and comparison with other examples which lies beyond the scope of the current assessment. 5.6 Undated (Figs. 10 and 11) A large number of heritage assets of unknown date have previously been recorded within the Wider Assessment Area. Within the Project Area these are restricted to a small number of earthwork features (NHER 26742, 26932; Fig. 10: 182 and 187) and the cropmarks of possible enclosures at ‘Beloe’s Camps’ (NHER 1298; Fig. 11: 173). An undated fragment of human skull (NHER 62307; Fig. 11: 219) has previously been found just outside of the Eastern Project Area close to the historic course of the River Hun. The context of the find, and the potential for further human remains to be present is uncertain. In addition to the sites with undated heritage assets, a single site is recorded within the Eastern Project Area where archaeological fieldwork has taken place, but no significant remains were identified (NHER 62550; Fig. 11: 221).

6. Cartographic Evidence Hunstanton and Holme next the Sea benefit from a collection of historic cartographic material that is exceptional both in terms of the number of maps available and in the date range that they cover. The available sources include seventeenth century maps that were produced for the Le Strange Estate who owned almost all of Hunstanton parish and a significant part of Holme. The map regression discussed here focusses on the pre-twentieth century maps of the Project Area. 6.1 Map of Holme Parish (NHER SNF52317) 1609. The earliest cartographic source available to show part of the River Hun in detail is a map of Holme parish which dates from 1609 (Figure 12). The current whereabouts of the original map is uncertain but a transcription made in 1933 is held at the Norfolk Historic Environment Record. The river is shown from the point where it enters Holme parish at which point it is labelled as Old Creek. The point at which the river entered the parish is slightly to the north of its present canalised course. Further downstream, beyond the road now called Beach Road the river follows a sinuous course. It is fed from the south by a winding tributary. The main river passes between areas of marsh called Reedwell (after one of the springs that feed into the marshes), Common Marsh, Church

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Fig. 12. Extract from an early twentieth century tracing of a map of Holme parish dated 1609 (NHER SNF52317). 2

Fig. 13. Extract from ‘A True Description of the Towne of Hunstanton’ dated 1615 (NRO LEST/OA1) showing the course of the river through the parish. Marsh and East Marsh with the tributary forming the northern boundary of Georges Marsh. Areas of slightly raised ground in the marshes are present on both sides of the river – to the south the low island at that time called The Hye [High] Holmes and to the north Marsh Holmes. Most significantly the section of the river to the west of The Hye Holmes is labelled as Mill Fleet indicating the presence of a mill (presumably a tidal water mill) but the mill itself is not marked. The eastern outfall of the river is not shown on this transcription and it is unclear whether it was not traced or whether that area was not included on the original map. 6.2 A True Description of the Towne of [Hunstanton] (NRO LEST/OA1) 1615. The earliest cartographic source showing the River Hun in Hunstanton parish is almost contemporary with that available for Holme. The river is marked by two parallel dashed lines which are faint but legible (Fig. 13). On entering the marshes at the southern end of the Western Project Area the river is shown as making a dog-leg to the west before proceeding northwards on a fairly straight manner not dissimilar to its present course. As now, the river then turned towards the northeast although the 1615 map shows it making a much sharper, near right-angle, bend than at present. The sharpness of the corner, if an accurate depiction of the river’s course, would suggest some management of the channel had occurred at this location by the early seventeenth century. The river then followed a gently winding course broadly parallel to the coastline before splitting rather abruptly into two. One channel turned to the northwest and after a short distance fed directly into the sea. The other channel continued a winding course towards the northeast where is crossed into Holme parish. The land to the north and immediate west of the river during its course through the marshes is labelled as Common of Hunstanton. To the southeast of the river are Hall marsh (marshland belonging to the hall) and Mariscu diui [?]. Although the full meaning of this second name is unclear, the first element appears to relate to sedge or rushes. Further east after the split in its course the river lay to the north of Clamp close - a reference to a brick making clamp or surface kiln at this location, evidence for which is recorded as NHER 1281. 6.3 Plan and notes on Holme Bounds (NRO LEST/NR 4/2), Early Seventeenth Century. This plan shows a small section of the river on the boundary between Hunstanton and Holme parishes (Fig. 14). The river is labelled as Brungers Fleete and lay to the north of Brungers Pasture, with the first element of both presumably being a landowner’s personal name. Pits are marked within Brungers Pasture (labelled H on the plan) with reference to outdiggings for the brick kilns mentioned in the annotation. The river (also referred to in the annotation as ye streame) is shown crossing Sr Nicholas Le Strange Old Bank a curving feature that joined onto the end of Westgate. This bank appears to correspond to a linear earthwork bank seen on aerial photographs and recorded as NHER 26719. A circle with a central dot is marked at the point where the river and bank intersect. The meaning of this symbol is not entirely clear, although later maps would suggest that it may represent a sluice in the bank.

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Fig. 14. Early seventeenth century plan and notes on Holme Bounds (NRO LEST/NR 4/2) showing the course of the river at the Holme next the Sea and Hunstanton parish boundary. North is to the left of the image. 2

Fig. 15. Plan of Lands in Holme showing the river in the western part of the parish. Seventeenth century (NRO LEST suppl 25iii/1/54).