Academia Sinica ▶

A Comprehensive index starts in volume 5, page 2667.

Abacus Suànpán 算盘

Considered to be the first computer, the abacus has been used since ancient times by a number of civilizations for basic arithmetical calculations. It is still used as a reliable reck- oner (and one that does not require electricity or batteries) by merchants and businesspeople in parts of Asia and Africa.

he abacus, or counting plate (suan pan), is a man- ual computing device used since ancient times in The heaven and earth design of the abacus has China as well as in a number of ancient civiliza- remained unchanged for centuries. tions. The Latin word abacus has its roots in the Greek word abax, meaning slab, which itself might have origi- nated in the Semitic term for sand. In its early Greek and Because of the traditional Chinese use of 16 as an impor- Latin forms the abacus was said to be a flat surface cov- tant standard of measure, the Chinese abacus is particu- ered with sand in which marks were made with a stylus larly useful for calculations using a base number system and pebbles. of 2 and 16. The Chinese abacus as we know it today evolved to Chinese sources document wide use of abaci by 190 become a frame holding thirteen vertical wires wires ce, with popularization during the Song dynasty (960– with seven beads on each wire. A horizontal divider 1279) and printed instructions for their use appearing in separates the top two beads from the bottom five, some- the 1300s during the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). By the times referred to as the heaven and the earth beads. Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the Chinese abacus had taken The beads served as markers representing quantity, and on its modern form and had become an integral part of the beads’ position on the vertical wires represented business and financial accounting. This basic counting value. machine spread by the 1600s to Japan and then to eastern A skilled abacus user performs addition, subtraction, Russia, with small modifications in the number of beads multiplication, and division quickly and easily, without above and below the divider. having to depend on electricity to produce a readout; the Among storekeepers and small businesses in China, “readout” itself cannot be lost or erased except manually. the abacus remained a standard piece of office equipment

An abacus sits on the countertop in a neighborhood grocery store. Small shops in China, like this one in the basement of an apartment block in the Eastern District of Beijing, still use the abacus to add sums. Photo by Joan Lebold Cohen.

Dilson, J. (1968). The abacus: A pocket computer. New York: until the 1980s. A good-quality abacus is generally about St. Martin’s Press. 2 feet wide by 1 foot tall and made of sturdy brass with Menninger, K. (1992). Number words and number symbols: hardwood beads. A cultural history of numbers. (P. Broneer, Trans.). New Margaret SANKEY York: Dover. Pullan, J. M. (1968). The history of the abacus. London: Hutchinson and Company. Further Reading A brief history of the abacus. Retrieved November 25, 2008, from http: //www.ee.ryerson.ca/~elf/abacus/ history.html China changes constantly, and the Encyclopedia of 閒談 China will change and grow, too. Berkshire’s authors chat and editors welcome questions, comments, and correc- tions: [email protected].

Academia Sinica ▶

Academia Sinica Zhōngguó Kēxuéyuàn 中国科学院

Academia Sinica is the leading academic in- are appearing in international journals. Some journals, stitution of Taiwan and plays a major role published by Academia Sinica itself, such as Zoological in the field of Chinese studies. Its graduate Studies and Statistical Sinica, have received international program recruits students for its eleven PhD recognition. Academia Sinica plays a major role in the field of Chinese studies. For example, the archaeological programs. findings by researchers at the Institute of History and Phi- lology have, in combination with written documents, led to a virtual rewriting of ancient Chinese history, pushing cademia Sinica, founded in Nanjing in 1928, back the span of Chinese history by many centuries. is the most prominent academic institution The president of Academia Sinica is Dr. Yuan-tseh in Taiwan (Republic of China). Although Lee, a 1986 Nobel laureate in chemistry. The convoca- it is affiliated directly with the Presidential Office, tion (a ceremonial assembly of members of a college) Academia Sinica, located in the capital city, Taipei, consists of 199 members (academicians), including five enjoys independence in formulating its own research ethnic Chinese Nobel laureates. agenda. Its major tasks are to conduct academic re- CHANG Jui-te search in sciences, humanities, and social sciences, as well as to provide guidance, coordination, and incen- tives to raise academic standards in Taiwan. In 2004 Further Reading Academia Sinica established the Taiwan International Chen, Shiwei. (1997, Spring). Legitimizing the state: Poli- Graduate Program to train scholars; it recruits five to tics and the founding of Academia Sinica in 1927. Pa- ten graduate students every year for each of its eleven pers on Chinese History, 6, 23–42. PhD programs. Chen, Shiwei. (1998). Government and academy in Re- Academia Sinica has made great progress in recent publican China: History of Academia Sinica, 1927- 1949. years. An increasing number of research papers written Unpublished PhD dissertation, Harvard University, by its faculty members, which numbered 1,150 in 2001, Cambridge, MA.

Acrobatics Zájì 杂技

Chinese acrobatics, called “variety art” (zaji) Early Acts in Chinese, is one of the most widely viewed types of Chinese cultural performance. The The scholar and scientist Zhang Heng (78–139 ce) de- acrobatic acts seen today are packaged for scribed in his “Ode to the Western Capital” an acrobatic theme show that was performed in the royal palace. The global consumption and are similar to the Western circus, but many of the acts have traditional roots and a long history unique to The Kaifeng Acrobatic Troupe offers a dazzling China. display of coordination. Photo by Joan Lebold Cohen.

he precise origin of acrobatics (zaji) in China is unknown, but historical records and ancient rel- ics, such as relief carvings, show that acrobatics achieved imperial recognition no later than the Warring States period (475–221 bce). In that era of constant war- fare acrobatics that emphasized strength and agility developed in conjunction with the ruler’s encouragement of developing exceptional battle skills. Other acrobatic acts, such as walking on stilts and juggling, functioned as entertainment at village harvest celebrations. Other possible origins of acrobatics include shamanistic ritual, martial arts, and theater. During the Qin dynasty (221–206 bce) acrobatics that combined theatrical roles and athletic feats, often involving wrestling between men or with animals, was performed for the imperial court. During the Han dynasty (206 bce – 2 2 0 ce) acrobatics was an integral part of the “Hundred Entertainments,” a type of variety show that also included music, dance, martial arts, and magic.

Juggling a fiery baton is one of the Kaifeng Acro- batic Troupe’s most spec- tacular acts. Photo by Joan Lebold Cohen. acts included balancing on a pole, walking on a rope, imperial court during the Tang dynasty (618–907 ce). jumping through hoops, performing handstands, and per- Certain acts flourished, including acrobatic acts on forming the conjuring act “turning a fish into a dragon.” horses, animal training, and pole climbing, in which an These acts are still performed today, although they have acrobat balances a pole on which many more acrobats been modified for modern audiences. are balanced. A poem written by Bai Juyi (772–846 ce) Stone engravings that date back to the Han dynasty il- and a mural in the Dunhuang grottoes illustrate these lustrate numerous types of acrobatic acts that showcased performances. strength and agility, including juggling, handstands, and During the Song dynasty (960–1279) acrobatic shows rope walking, and feats that involved poles, balls, barrels, left the palace and entered the markets. Acrobatics was carriages, and galloping horses. One relief shows an ac- performed in town markets along with other types of per- robat balancing on seven discs as three acrobats hang formances, such as singing, storytelling, and drama. Jug- upside-down from a cross that is balanced on his head. gling, in particular, flourished. Itinerant performers and Due to the patronage of Han emperors, acrobatics was professional acrobatics troupes and training schools also integrated into large-scale and extravagant performances, developed during this time. a tradition that lasted for years. The Silk Roads promoted The status of acrobatics decreased drastically dur- cultural exchange with Persia (Iran) and the Roman Em- ing the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1912). Acrobatics pire. Acrobatic shows were shown to foreign dignitaries became a performance art that was learned almost en- and guests visiting China, and also performed for the Han tirely through apprenticeship or that was passed down court. In 108 bce Emperor Wu Di hosted a royal show for as a family business through the generations. Family visiting dignitaries, and a performer sent by the king of troupes performed at markets or made their living by Parthia also performed for the emperor. touring fairs and performing at public theaters. Despite Acrobatic shows continued to be performed for the the dedication needed to succeed as an acrobat, people

compete for medals. China now has over 120 acrobatic troupes and an estimated twelve thousand acrobats.

Road Show Acrobatics has played an important role in cultural ex- changes between China and other nations. In the past thirty-five years Chinese acrobatic troupes have toured more than one hundred countries throughout the world. Since the 1990s acrobatics has become packaged as a com- plete theme show, with greater attention to choreography, music, costumes, lighting, and special effects. The troupe Beijing Acrobats debuted overseas in 1986, and the Chi- nese State Circus began touring Europe in 1992. In addition to acrobatics, the shows often include performances of kung fu, Beijing opera, and variations on the traditional dragon dance and lion dance. Chinese acrobatics is now featured in Las Vegas shows and Hollywood films. In its emphasis on strength, balance, and agility, Chi- nese acrobatics is similar to its Western counterpart. In general, focus is placed on the head, waist, and legs. How- ever, the conceptual basis, training techniques, and acro- A Tajik acrobat performs outside a performance batic practice are also influenced by China’s tradition of yurt in Urumqi, the capital city of Xinjiang martial arts. Acrobats strive to appear calm and steady on Uygur Autonomous Region. Photo by Joan the tightrope and to maintain balance between the light Lebold Cohen. and heavy in feet-balancing acts. Another unique charac- teristic is the use of farming tools or household items as props, seen in the commonly performed acts of balanc- who became acrobats, along with prostitutes and thieves, ing vats on the head, twirling cups or saucers, and diving were classified as belonging to one of the nine unsavory through hoops, as derived from the grain sieves used by professions. farmers. Balancing acts with tables, chairs, and cycles are In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth relatively new. Many acts are also tied to Chinese folk century Chinese acrobatics began gaining greater admi- practices, such as the performance of the Chinese yo-yo, ration from the West. After the founding of the People’s or diabolo. Contortion, in which the human body is dra- Republic of China (PRC) in 1949 the Chinese govern- matically flexed, is not unique to China but is a featured ment paid more attention to acrobatics as a performance act in most Chinese acrobatic shows. art and founded the China national Acrobatic Troupe in Jonathan NOBLE 1957. Especially since the 1980s acrobatics have come to be viewed as representative of Chinese culture for people all Further Reading over the world to admire. In October 1981 the China Acro- Fu Qifeng. (1985). Chinese acrobatics through the ages (Ouy- batic Arts Association was established. Formal training at ang Caiwei & R. Stockwell, Trans.). Charlottesville: academies has developed, and students begin their train- University of Virginia, Foreign Languages Press. ing at an early age. In an annual competition for the acad- Zhengbao Wang. (1982). The art of Chinese acrobatics. Bei- emies, acrobats representing troupes from all over China jing: China Publications Centre. Acupuncture ▶