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Development of Cognitive Abilities Through the Abacus in Primary Education Students: a Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial

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Development of Cognitive Abilities Through the Abacus in Primary Education Students: a Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial education sciences Article Development of Cognitive Abilities through the Abacus in Primary Education Students: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial Samuel P. León 1 , María del Carmen Carcelén Fraile 1 and Inmaculada García-Martínez 2,* 1 Department of Pedagogy, University of Jaén, 23071 Jaén, Spain; [email protected] (S.P.L.); [email protected] (M.d.C.C.F.) 2 Department of Education, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-950015258 Abstract: (1) Background: An abacus is an instrument used to perform different arithmetic operations. The objective was to analyze the benefits of mathematical calculations made with an abacus to improve the concentration, attention, memory, perceptive attitudes, and creativity cognitive abilities of primary school students. (2) Methods: A total of 65 children, aged 7–11 years (8.49 ± 1.65) participated in this randomized controlled clinical trial. The children were randomly distributed into a control group (n = 34) and experimental group (n = 31). The questionnaires used were the D2 test to measure attention and concentration, the Difference Perception Test (FACE-R) test for the perception of differences, the test of immediate auditory memory (AIM), and the test to evaluate creative intelligence (CREA). (3) Results: No significant differences were found between both groups before the intervention. Significant improvements were observed in the cognitive parameters of concentration, memory, perceptive attitudes, and creativity after the intervention, using the abacus, with respect to the control group. (4) Conclusions: It is demonstrated that a calculation program based on the use of the abacus for 8 weeks has beneficial effects on the cognitive capacities of concentration, immediate auditory memory, perceptive attitudes, and creativity. In addition, the benefits of using Citation: León, S.P.; Carcelén Fraile, the abacus to improve cognitive attitudes are reported. M.d.C.; García-Martínez, I. Development of Cognitive Abilities through the Abacus in Primary Education Students: Keywords: abacus; intervention; calculus; cognitive ability; children A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial. Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 83. https:// doi.org/10.3390/educsci11020083 1. Introduction Received: 28 January 2021 Calculation training of mental abilities with an abacus affects the cognitive processes Accepted: 17 February 2021 developed to perform arithmetic operations [1]. The literature has found that abacus Published: 21 February 2021 training has significant implications for the improvement of children’s academic perfor- mance [2]. In fact, many studies have attempted to understand how the brain works when Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral someone uses an abacus to acquire arithmetic skills [3,4]. with regard to jurisdictional claims in In this regard, it has been shown that mental skills training enhances brain plastic- published maps and institutional affil- ity [5] in terms of functional brain activation, connectivity, and anatomy [6]. Several papers iations. have identified that learning new skills can lead to structural and functional brain reor- ganization [7,8]. Furthermore, in recent studies, it has been shown that training through abacus-based mental calculations (AMC) promotes arithmetic literacy and, thus, the im- provement of cognitive abilities [9,10]. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. The technological revolution has entered schools and the use of innovative strategies Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and materials to assist children in learning is becoming more widespread [1]. AMC training This article is an open access article has received special attention for the improvement of both math and cognitive skills [11–13]. distributed under the terms and Abacus arithmetic is one of the most common methods of early childhood mathe- conditions of the Creative Commons matics education in Asia [3,14]. The abacus is an ancient type of calculator [15] that has Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// been used to develop various complex arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ multiplication, division, square root, and cubic root, and is considered the first machine 4.0/). Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11020083 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/education Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 14 Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 83 used to develop various complex arithmetic operations,2 ofsuch 14 as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, square root, and cubic root, and is considered the first machine capable of performing calculations [12]. The numbers are represented through an arrange- capable of performing calculations [12]. The numbers are represented through an arrange- mentment of accountsof accounts in columns, in eachcolumns, of which representseach of awhich positional represents value that increases a positional value that increases fromfrom right right to left to [16 ]left (see Figure[16] 1(see). Figure 1). FigureFigure 1. Soroban 1. Soroban abacus. abacus. People trained to work with the abacus with mental calculations can perform all the above-mentionedPeople trained arithmetic to operations,work with in addition the abacus to the physical with instrument, mental withcalculations can perform all the mental calculations, carried out with great speed [17]. This skill can be acquired by carrying outabove-mentioned certain steps with good arithmetic long-term training oper [4ations,,5,10]. Mental in addition arithmetic ofto the the abacus physical instrument, with men- involvestal calculations, the skillful acquisition carried of different out with signs thatgreat represent speed mathematical [17]. This algorithms skill can be acquired by carrying to properly manipulate an imaginary abacus [18]. outAbacus certain training steps requires with a certaingood number long-term of phases training to become [4,5,10]. an expert [1Mental]. In arithmetic of the abacus thisinvolves regard, people the skillful who use theacquisition abacus initially of learndifferent to perform signs abacus that counting represent on mathematical algorithms the instrument using both hands. Therefore, when they progress in math, they learn to imagineto properly in order tomanipulate perform methodical an imaginary counting with abacus their mind. [18]. As their calculation skills improve,Abacus the nexttraining step is to requires perform the a same certain operations number with an of imaginary phases abacus, to become an expert [1]. In this with no real movements with their fingers. Generally, people who are experts in the use of theregard, abacus have people a great who capacity use to calculate the abacus 10-digit numbers initially with learn their minds, to perform even with abacus counting on the in- morestrument precision using and speed both [19,20 hands.]. Therefore, when they progress in math, they learn to imagine in Psychologicalorder to perform [18] and neuroscience methodical [21] studiescounting have verifiedwith thattheir some mind. patterns As their calculation skills im- of brain activation of people who have studied the method in-depth are different from thoseprove, people the who next do not step practice is to this perform method [3 the], and same most calculation operations skills with improve an imaginary abacus, with no significantlyreal movements after abacus with training their compared fingers. to reference Generally, control subjects people [20]. Although who are experts in the use of the the effects of AMC training are significant, the latent neural mechanism that produces increasedabacus neural have plasticity a great and synapticcapacity improvement to calculate remains 10 difficult-digit to explainnumbers [5,9]. with their minds, even with moreConsidering precision that theand left speed hemisphere [19,20]. focuses on words, hearing associations, logic, among others, and the right one on emotions, intuition, but above all, on images, it is of great importancePsychological to understand [18] and and know neuroscience how the numerical calculation[21] studies is carried have out [22 verified]. that some patterns of Normally,brain activation people process of and people receive numericalwho have inputs studied in the left the hemisphere method (language). in-depth are different from those However, people who work with the abacus to perform calculations also activate the rightpeople one [3 who]. In the do first not instance, practice the numerical this method information [3], is sent and through most the calculation nerve skills improve signifi- fiberscantly (corpus after callosum) abacus reaching training the right compared hemisphere, which to refe is whererence the translation control into subjects [20]. Although the ef- natural language (spatial arrangement, images) takes place [23]. fectsAt thisof AMC point, the training students may are manipulate significant, an imaginary the late abacusnt neural in order to mechanism solve the that produces increased differentneural arithmetic plasticity operations and synaptic [24]. With accuracy improvement and speed, those remains who train difficult with the to explain [5,9]. abacus obtain the solution that will be translated back into numerical language immediately Considering that the left hemisphere focuses on words, hearing associations, logic, among others, and the right one on emotions, intuition, but above all, on images, it is of great importance to understand and know how the numerical calculation is carried out [22]. Normally, people
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