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Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 1997 Status, behavior, and appearance among African Americans in a midwestern coal mining town, 1900-1923 Marlena Thomas Beavers Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd Part of the African American Studies Commons, Inequality and Stratification Commons, Race and Ethnicity Commons, Social History Commons, Sociology of Culture Commons, and the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Beavers, Marlena Thomas, "Status, behavior, and appearance among African Americans in a midwestern coal mining town, 1900-1923 " (1997). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 12273. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/12273 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. 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UMI A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 Status, behavior, and appearance among African Americans in a midwestem coal mining town. 1900-1923 by Marlena Thomas Beavers A dissertation submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Textiles and Clothing Major Professor: Jane Farrell-Beck Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 1997 Copyright © Marlena Thomas Beavers, 1997, AH rights reserved. DMI N\aniber: 9814619 Copyright 1997 by Beavers, Marlena Thomas All rights reserved. UMI Microform 9814619 Copyright 1998, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 u Graduate College Iowa State University This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation of Marlena Thomas Beavers has met the dissertation requirements of Iowa State University Signature was redacted for privacy. Major Professor Signature was redacted for privacy. Ljor Program Signature was redacted for privacy. i^duate College iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 Buxton's Origins, Demographics, and Environment I Comparison and Contrasts to Other Coal 3 Mining Towns Buxton's Enduring Appeal 5 Purposes 6 CHAPTER 2: BIEVIEW OF LITERATURE: SOCIAL 9 STATUS IN THE BLACK COMMUNITY Social Class Theorists 9 Theories Related to Status and Clothing Consumption 14 Status in the Black Community - Status Factors Imposed 18 by Outside Circumstances Status in the Black Community - Status Factors Partly 21 Under Personal Control "Elitism" 27 Social Status Within Coal Mining Communities 1901-1923 30 Status in Iowa 40 CHAPTER 3: METHODS 44 Overview 44 Historical Research 45 1994 Interviews 46 1980-81 Interviews 47 The Iowa State Bystander 48 The Photographic Collection 48 Procedure 50 Limitations 51 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS 53 Acquiring Wealth - Ownership 54 Education 66 Social Affiliations and Club Life 73 Community Leaders 83 The Euro-American Perspective 88 CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS - CLOTHING AND APPEARANCE 93 Womens' Fashions from 1900 to 1920 93 Men's Fashion from 1900 to 1920 97 Childrens' Fashions from 1900 to 1920 99 Clothing - Acquisition and Use 100 Clothing As Adornment 106 ! iv Clothing - Elements of Gentility 108 CHAPTER 6: COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS 120 Education 120 Occupation 122 Leadership/Club Life 123 Ownership 124 Genteel Performance - The Written Code 126 of Etiquette from a Black Perspective CHAPTER?: CONCLUSIONS 135 CHAPTERS: SUMMARY 141 APPENDIX A 1994 INTERVIEWEES 144 APPENDIX B THE BUXTON PHOTOGRAPHIC COLLECTION 146 APPENDIX C CONSENT FORM 168 APPENDIX D INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 170 REFERENCES 176 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 184 ! The distinction of status groups and classes is one that is important, though often confiised and overlooked in studies of the African American community. This research focuses on social status in a predominantly black coal mining community from 1900 to 1923. The first objective of the study was to examine social structure in predominantly African American, industry-based community. The second objective was to determine the criteria used in African American communities to establish levels of status. The third objective was to investigate whether standards of appearance were used in making status distinctions in an African American coal mining community. The study also examined the criteria used to distinguish between social status and determined whether clothing played a part in assigning social status in the Buxton coal mining community. 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Buxton's Origins, Demographics, and Environment Buxton had its beginnings in Muchakinock, an Iowa coal mining town that existed 24 years prior to Buxton's establishment. The mines at Muchakinock were operated by H. W. and W. W. McNeill and coal was transported by the Chicago and North Western Railroad. As the result of a labor dispute that began in 1875 over the methods used to pay employees, the once prosperous mines at Muchakinock lay idle for three years, which prompted the McNeills to sell their interest in the mines to the Chicago and North Western Railroad for 5500,000 (Olin, 1965; Rye, 1972; Schwieder, Hraba, & Schwieder, 1987). The sale of the company was completed in 1881 and the Chicago and North Western Railroad named the new mining company the Consolidation Coal Company. John Emory Buxton was hired to manage the mines and recruit new workers. The new recruits unknowingly would be strikebreakers (Bergmann, 1969). Recruiters went to Virginia and other southern states primarily to interest black workers in coming to Iowa. Southem states were viewed as a source of "good" and "cheap" black labor. One of the most successful recruiters was Hobe Armstrong, a local business man who was black or of "mixed races." This was probably a good choice from the company's perspective and from the black perspective; people who had a "white" heritage were looked upon as leaders of the race and models of success. This probably helped Mr. Armstrong in his recruitment efforts. He recruited a large number of blacks to come to work in the mines and learn the trade as they earned above average wages. Recruitment efforts helped to increase the black population of Muchakinock to between 55 percent and 75 percent in 1885 (Rye, 1972, p. 940; Schwieder et al. 1987, p. 4). In 1900, the Consolidation Coal Company purchased land in Mahaska and Monroe counties. The 8600 acres in Monroe county eventually became Buxton, named after the superintendent who managed the company from its beginning in Muchakinock, J. E. Buxton. Shortly after the move to Buxton, J. E. Buxton retired and tumed over the management of 2 the Consolidation Coal Company to his son, Benjamin Buxton (Shiffer, 1964; Swisher, 1945). The move to Buxton proved to be excellent in terms of coal mining yields. The land was laden with coal and provided financial opportunities for any man who was willing to work hard and long hours for higher than average wages. The company set out immediately to build houses for workers. The houses were standard fi-ame houses on a small acreage that was in most cases large enough for a garden and a few farm animals. Schools were built and churches were established (Shiffer, 1964; Swisher, 1945). There is some disagreement about the population of Buxton that can be clarified to some extent from census data. Census data from 1895 to 1925 place the population between five and six thousand people with approximately four thousand of that number classified as black (Iowa Census, 1895, 1905, 1915, 1925; U. S. Bureau of the Census, 1920). The figure of four to five thousand was calculated on data from the 1895 state census and 1900 federal census which was conducted in Muchakinock prior to the move to Buxton. The four to five thousand figure is approximate and based also on the state and federal censuses taken between 1900 and 1925. It must be stated that during these years, the procedures for the collection and analysis of data were flawed. The figures reported here are very close to accurate based on the analysis of census data and estimates of other researchers (Rutland, 1956; Rye, 1972). Four to five thousand was a significant number of blacks for one community in the state of Iowa and drew much attention to the region. Though there is some question as to whether Buxton was a planned city, several factors support that it was a planned community. The site selected for the town was a hill, which immediately alleviated the drainage problems that were present in most Iowa coal mining towns.

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