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Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime Security and Policy Challenges

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Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime Security and Policy Challenges Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime Security and Policy Challenges Edited by David Michel and Russell Sticklor JULY 2012 Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime Security and Policy Challenges Edited by David Michel and Russell Sticklor JULY 2012 Copyright © 2012 Stimson ISBN: 978-0-9836674-6-9 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written consent from Stimson. Stimson 1111 19th Street, NW, 12th Floor Washington, DC 20036 Telephone: 202.223.5956 Fax: 202.238.9604 www.stimson.org Table of Contents Chapter One Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime and Security Policy Challenges David Michel and Russell Sticklor ........................................... 9 Chapter Two Countering Piracy, Trafficking, and Terrorism: Ensuring Maritime Security in the Indian Ocean Rupert Herbert-Burns ..................................................... 23 Chapter Three Naval Power in the Indian Ocean: Evolving Roles, Missions, and Capabilities Rupert Herbert-Burns .....................................................41 Chapter Four New Capacities and Recurring Risks: Developments in the International Shipping Industry Rupert Herbert-Burns .....................................................57 Chapter Five International Law and Order: The Indian Ocean and South China Sea Caitlyn Antrim ..........................................................65 Chapter Six Energy in the Indian Ocean Region: Vital Features and New Frontiers Rupert Herbert-Burns .....................................................87 Chapter Seven Natural Resources in the Indian Ocean: Fisheries and Minerals David Michel, Halae Fuller, and Lindsay Dolan ............................ 103 Chapter Eight Environmental Pressures in the Indian Ocean David Michel ���������������������������������������������������������� 113 Glossary AAB .......... Abdullah Azzam Brigades ABOT ......... Al Basra Oil Terminal AMISOM ...... African Union Mission in Somalia APEC ......... Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation APFIC ........ Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission ASEAN ........ Association of Southeast Asian Nations ATS ........... Amphetamine-type stimulants AQ-AP ........ Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula AQ-I .......... Al-Qaeda in Iraq ArBL .......... Archipelagic base lines BAB .......... Bab al-Mandeb BIOT ......... British Indian Ocean Territory BMP-4 ........ Best Management Practices Version 4 BOBP-IGO .... Bay of Bengal Programs Intergovernmental Organization CBMs ......... Confidence-building measures CENTCOM .... United States Central Command CS ............ Continental shelf CTF-151 ....... Combined Task Force 151 EEZ ........... Exclusive economic zone EIA ........... Energy Information Administration (US) E&P ........... Exploration and production ESMR ......... Evolving strategic maritime regions EU NAVFOR ... European Union Naval Task Force FAO .......... Food and Agriculture Organization FDI ........... Foreign direct investment FPDA ......... Five Power Defense Agreement FSDS .......... Far Sea Defense Strategy GCC .......... Gulf Cooperation Council HMG ......... Heavy machine gun HRA .......... High risk area ICZM ......... Integrated coastal zone management IMO .......... International Maritime Organization IOC ........... International oil company IOR .......... Indian Ocean Region IRGCN ........ Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps Navy IRTC .......... Internationally Recognized Transit Corridor ISA ........... International Seabed Authority IUU ........... Illegal, unregulated, unreported IWRM ........ Integrated water resources management LNG .......... Liquid natural gas LOS ........... Law of the Sea (also see UNCLOS) MBD .......... Million barrels per day MCEs ......... Maritime centers of excellence MDA .......... Maritime domain awareness MPA .......... Maritime patrol aircraft MSC-HOA ..... Maritime Security Center – Horn of Africa MSO .......... Maritime security operations NATO ......... North Atlantic Treaty Organization NOC .......... National oil company P&I ........... Protection and Indemnity PAG .......... Piracy attack groups PCASP ........ Privately contracted armed security personnel PLAN ......... People’s Liberation Army Navy (China) PMSC ......... Private military security company SALW ......... Small arms and light weapons SIOFA ......... South Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement SNMG ......... Standing Naval Maritime Group SOH .......... Strait of Hormuz SOLAS ........ Convention on Safety of Life at Sea SPM .......... Single point mooring SSBN .......... Ballistic missile submarines STS ........... Ship-to-ship transfer SUA ........... Suppression of Unlawful Acts SWIOFC ...... Southwest Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission TFG .......... Transitional federal government TS ............ Territorial sea TSA ........... Technical sharing agreement UAV .......... Unmanned aerial vehicle UKMTO ....... United Kingdom Maritime Trade Operations UNCLOS ...... United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNEP ......... United Nations Environment Programme WBIED........ Water-borne implemented explosive device VBSS .......... Vessel boarding, search, and seizure VLCC ......... Very-large crude carrier Chapter Eight Environmental Pressures in the Indian Ocean David Michel Oceans and coastal regions are coming under rising environmental pressures worldwide.1 These growing stresses include habitat destruction and biodiversity loss, land-based and marine pollution, overexploitation of resources, and the increasing impacts of greenhouse gas emissions and global climate change. No area of the ocean escapes these strains, and a large part of the world’s seas—some 41 percent—suffers from multiple stresses. Significant portions of the Indian Ocean now figure among the most highly impacted marine ecosystems on Earth, and the Indian Ocean region (IOR) littoral countries count among the world’s most vulnerable to coastal environmental risks.2 This paper will examine the mounting threats that environmental degradation and climate change pose in the Indian Ocean and explore the consequent governance challenges facing policymakers in the region. Indian Ocean Ecosystems and Environmental Degradation The Indian Ocean extends over nearly 75-million km2 and encompasses nine distinct large marine ecosystems: the Agulhas Current, Somali Coastal Current, Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Thailand, West Central Australian Shelf, Northwest Australian Shelf, and Southwest Australian Shelf. It is home to 35,000 marine species and biological diversity of both coastal and oceanic taxa equal to or greater than any sea on earth, with particular biodiversity hotspots around southwest Africa, southern India and Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, and western Australia. The Indian Ocean’s 66,000 km of coastline include 246 large estuaries draining hinterlands of 2,000 km2 or more and 40,000 km2 of mangrove forests. The coasts of East Africa, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia harbor the planet’s greatest diversity of seagrasses, while the Indian Ocean as a whole contains 30 percent of the Earth’s coral reefs. Among all the 793 coral species known worldwide, 719 appear in the Indo-west Pacific region.3 Such coastal and marine environments deliver vital ecosystem goods and services, supplying food, fuel, and materials, and regulating hydrological cycles and nutrient flows. Globally, ocean ecosystems have been calculated to provide ecosystem goods and services worth some $21 trillion annually, with more than half of this total derived from coastal systems such as estuaries and coral reefs. On a regional basis, the yearly value of ecosystem services and natural capital for the Persian Gulf, the eastern coast of India, the Bay of Bengal, Southeast Asia, the western Australian coast, and the Indian Ocean’s small island states figure among the highest in the world.4 114 | Indian Ocean Rising Fisheries constitute perhaps the most commonly known of the ocean’s natural resources. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Indian Ocean marine capture fisheries supplied 11.3 million tonnes (metric tons) of fish in 2010, about 14.6 percent of the world catch of 77.4 million tonnes. Several Indian Ocean countries also possess significant aquaculture industries, farming fish, shellfish, and other aquatic animals in captivity. Six IOR nations—India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand, Egypt, Myanmar—counted among the top 10 producers worldwide in 2010, farming over 11.3 million tonnes of fish between them.5 (Globally, about 38 percent of aquaculture takes place in seawater or brackish water, although a notable portion of freshwater aquaculture occurs in coastal ecosystems such as river deltas and estuaries. Similarly, a significant fraction of freshwater capture fishing takes place in coastal zones. About 80 percent of the Bangladeshi and Indian fish catch in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river delta comes from the coastal mangrove swamps known as the Sundarbans.)6 Fisheries also contribute substantially to many regional economies. In Indonesia, for example, fishing and fish farming employ some 5.97 million people. In addition, the FAO reckons that for each person directly employed in fish capture or aquaculture, another three to four people gain their livelihoods in ancillary activities such as boat construction, gear maintenance, and fish processing, packaging, and distribution. Moreover, the FAO also estimates that each such jobholder on average supports three dependents or family members.7 Equally important, fisheries furnish a crucial food source
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