Visualization of Plastid Peptidoglycan in the Charophyte Alga Klebsormidium Nitens Using a Metabolic Labeling Method
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Plastid Variegation and Concurrent Anthocyanin Variegation in Salpiglossis1
PLASTID VARIEGATION AND CONCURRENT ANTHOCYANIN VARIEGATION IN SALPIGLOSSIS1 E. E. DALE AND OLIVE L. REES-LEONARD Union College, Schmectady, N. Y. Received December 30, 1938 VARIEGATED strain of Salpiglossis has now been carried in the A senior author's cultures for eight years. This strain is unique in that the variegation affects both the leaves and the flowers as reported in a preliminary note (DALEand REES-LEONARD1935). The variegation pat- tern, typical of many chlorophyll variegations, is shown in the leaves of an adult plant (figure I). The leaves are marked by sharply defined spots of diverse sizes and shapes which vary in color from light green to white. It should be noted that white branches have not been found on the varie- gated plants. In seedlings (figure 2), the variegation shows some rather striking differences from the adult type. The pattern is coarser with rela- tively greater amounts of white or pale tissue. This increase in chlorophyll deficient tissue often results in crumpling or asymmetry of the leaves. In variegated seedlings, also, the bases of the leaf blades frequently exhibit white or pale borders. For the sake of comparison, a normal seedling (figure 4) is illustrated. The seedlings were of the same age, growth being retarded in variegated plants. The flower color in anthocyanin types of Salpiglossis is due to a combina- tion of anthocyanin with yellow plastids, Absence of anthocyanin gives yellow flowers. Both the yellow and anthocyanin colors show variegation. Naturally, the color of the pale areas in variegated flowers depends upon the ground color of the flower, yellow flowers having very light yellow spots and anthocyanin colors showing an apparent modification of the anthocyanin, the nature of which is discussed later. -
Origin and Evolution of Plastids and Mitochondria : the Phylogenetic Diversity of Algae
Cah. Biol. Mar. (2001) 42 : 11-24 Origin and evolution of plastids and mitochondria : the phylogenetic diversity of algae Catherine BOYEN*, Marie-Pierre OUDOT and Susan LOISEAUX-DE GOER UMR 1931 CNRS-Goëmar, Station Biologique CNRS-INSU-Université Paris 6, Place Georges-Teissier, BP 74, F29682 Roscoff Cedex, France. *corresponding author Fax: 33 2 98 29 23 24 ; E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: This review presents an account of the current knowledge concerning the endosymbiotic origin of plastids and mitochondria. The importance of algae as providing a large reservoir of diversified evolutionary models is emphasized. Several reviews describing the plastidial and mitochondrial genome organization and gene content have been published recently. Therefore we provide a survey of the different approaches that are used to investigate the evolution of organellar genomes since the endosymbiotic events. The importance of integrating population genetics concepts to understand better the global evolution of the cytoplasmically inherited organelles is especially emphasized. Résumé : Cette revue fait le point des connaissances actuelles concernant l’origine endosymbiotique des plastes et des mito- chondries en insistant plus particulièrement sur les données portant sur les algues. Ces organismes représentent en effet des lignées eucaryotiques indépendantes très diverses, et constituent ainsi un abondant réservoir de modèles évolutifs. L’organisation et le contenu en gènes des génomes plastidiaux et mitochondriaux chez les eucaryotes ont été détaillés exhaustivement dans plusieurs revues récentes. Nous présentons donc une synthèse des différentes approches utilisées pour comprendre l’évolution de ces génomes organitiques depuis l’événement endosymbiotique. En particulier nous soulignons l’importance des concepts de la génétique des populations pour mieux comprendre l’évolution des génomes à transmission cytoplasmique dans la cellule eucaryote. -
Cell Wall Chemistry Roger M
3 Cell Wall Chemistry Roger M. Rowell1,3, Roger Pettersen1, James S. Han1, Jeffrey S. Rowell2, and Mandla A. Tshabalala 1USDA, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI 2Department of Forest Ecology and Management, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 3Department of Biological Systems Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI CONTENTS 3.1 Carbohydrate Polymers ..........................................................................................................37 3.1.1 Holocellulose ..............................................................................................................37 3.1.2 Cellulose .....................................................................................................................37 3.1.3 Hemicelluloses............................................................................................................39 3.1.3.1 Hardwood Hemicelluloses ..........................................................................41 3.1.3.2 Softwood Hemicelluloses............................................................................42 3.1.4 Other Minor Polysaccharides .....................................................................................43 3.2 Lignin......................................................................................................................................43 3.3 Extractives ..............................................................................................................................45 3.4 Bark.........................................................................................................................................46 -
The Origin of Alternation of Generations in Land Plants
Theoriginof alternation of generations inlandplants: afocuson matrotrophy andhexose transport Linda K.E.Graham and LeeW .Wilcox Department of Botany,University of Wisconsin, 430Lincoln Drive, Madison,WI 53706, USA (lkgraham@facsta¡.wisc .edu ) Alifehistory involving alternation of two developmentally associated, multicellular generations (sporophyteand gametophyte) is anautapomorphy of embryophytes (bryophytes + vascularplants) . Microfossil dataindicate that Mid ^Late Ordovicianland plants possessed such alifecycle, and that the originof alternationof generationspreceded this date.Molecular phylogenetic data unambiguously relate charophyceangreen algae to the ancestryof monophyletic embryophytes, and identify bryophytes as early-divergentland plants. Comparison of reproduction in charophyceans and bryophytes suggests that the followingstages occurredduring evolutionary origin of embryophytic alternation of generations: (i) originof oogamy;(ii) retention ofeggsand zygotes on the parentalthallus; (iii) originof matrotrophy (regulatedtransfer ofnutritional and morphogenetic solutes fromparental cells tothe nextgeneration); (iv)origin of a multicellularsporophyte generation ;and(v) origin of non-£ agellate, walled spores. Oogamy,egg/zygoteretention andmatrotrophy characterize at least some moderncharophyceans, and arepostulated to represent pre-adaptativefeatures inherited byembryophytes from ancestral charophyceans.Matrotrophy is hypothesizedto have preceded originof the multicellularsporophytes of plants,and to represent acritical innovation.Molecular -
Cell Wall Ribosomes Nucleus Chloroplast Cytoplasm
Cell Wall Ribosomes Nucleus Nickname: Protector Nickname: Protein Maker Nickname: Brain The cell wall is the outer covering of a Plant cell. It is Ribosomes read the recipe from the The nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell. The a strong and stiff and made of DNA and use this recipe to make nucleus directs all activity in the cell. It also controls cellulose. It supports and protects the plant cell by proteins. The nucleus tells the the growth and reproduction of the cell. holding it upright. It ribosomes which proteins to make. In humans, the nucleus contains 46 chromosomes allows water, oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass in out They are found in both plant and which are the instructions for all the activities in your of plant cell. animal cells. In a cell they can be found cell and body. floating around in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Chloroplast Cytoplasm Endoplasmic Reticulum Nickname: Oven Nickname: Gel Nickname: Highway Chloroplasts are oval structures that that contain a green Cytoplasm is the gel like fluid inside a The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transportation pigment called chlorophyll. This allows plants to make cell. The organelles are floating around in center for the cell. The ER is like the conveyor belt, you their own food through the process of photosynthesis. this fluid. would see at a supermarket, except instead of moving your groceries it moves proteins from one part of the cell Chloroplasts are necessary for photosynthesis, the food to another. The Endoplasmic Reticulum looks like a making process, to occur. -
The Structure, Function, and Biosynthesis of Plant Cell Wall Pectic Polysaccharides
Carbohydrate Research 344 (2009) 1879–1900 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Carbohydrate Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/carres The structure, function, and biosynthesis of plant cell wall pectic polysaccharides Kerry Hosmer Caffall a, Debra Mohnen a,b,* a University of Georgia, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, 315 Riverbend Road Athens, GA 30602, United States b DOE BioEnergy Science Center (BESC), 315 Riverbend Road Athens, GA 30602, United States article info abstract Article history: Plant cell walls consist of carbohydrate, protein, and aromatic compounds and are essential to the proper Received 18 November 2008 growth and development of plants. The carbohydrate components make up 90% of the primary wall, Received in revised form 4 May 2009 and are critical to wall function. There is a diversity of polysaccharides that make up the wall and that Accepted 6 May 2009 are classified as one of three types: cellulose, hemicellulose, or pectin. The pectins, which are most abun- Available online 2 June 2009 dant in the plant primary cell walls and the middle lamellae, are a class of molecules defined by the pres- ence of galacturonic acid. The pectic polysaccharides include the galacturonans (homogalacturonan, Keywords: substituted galacturonans, and RG-II) and rhamnogalacturonan-I. Galacturonans have a backbone that Cell wall polysaccharides consists of -1,4-linked galacturonic acid. The identification of glycosyltransferases involved in pectin Galacturonan a Glycosyltransferases synthesis is essential to the study of cell wall function in plant growth and development and for maxi- Homogalacturonan mizing the value and use of plant polysaccharides in industry and human health. -
IAWA Bulletin N.S., Vol. 3 (1),1982 3 ANTONI V an LEEUWENHOEK
IAWA Bulletin n.s., Vol. 3 (1),1982 3 ANTONI VAN LEEUWENHOEK AND HIS OBSERVATION ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE WOODY CELL WALL by Pieter Baas Rijksherbarium, Leiden, The Netherlands Summary Following general remarks on the life of Van be traced back to negative but ill-informed Leeuwenhoek and his role in wood anatomy, judgements in some authoritative 19th and his account of the structure of a torn vessel 20th century publications (Baas, 1982a, b). wall of nutmeg rootwood is discussed in detail. Van Leeuwenhoek should be credited with The cross-wise orientation of minute 'vessels or many detailed and original wood and bark ana fibres' as observed and interpreted by Van tomical observations, but his work is not easily Leeuwenhoek can be considered to be the first accessible, being scattered in numerous letters, (unintentional) correct record of the fibrillar most of them also dealing with other microsco nature of the woody cell wall. pic subjects. Although most of these letters were published in various instalments and sev Introduction eral languages during Van Leeuwenhoek's life Antoni van Leeuwenhoek was born in 1632, time, this presentation cannot compete with 350 years ago, in Delft (the Netherlands) as the the balanced treatises by Grew and Malpighi, son of a basket maker. Apprenticed to a cloth who each published books solely dealing with merchant, Van Leeuwenhoek's career started as plant structure and function. a shopkeeper. Later he would serve as usher to Interest in Van Leeuwenhoek's plant anato the aldermen, chief warden and wine-gauger of mical work has recently also been revived by the City of Delft, and surveyor to the Court of the rediscovery of some of his sections among Holland. -
Primary and Secondary Plant Cell Walls: a Comparative Overview*
36 New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 36(1) PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PLANT CELL WALLS: A COMPARATIVE OVERVIEW* PHILIP J. HARRIS School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand [email protected] (Received for publication 23 November 2005; revision 3 February 2006) ABSTRACT Light and transmission electron microscopy are used in studying wall morphology and histochemical methods, including immunocytochemistry, can be used to locate specific compounds in walls. All plant cell walls contain a fibrillar phase of cellulose microfibrils and a matrix phase which contains a high proportion of non-cellulosic polysaccharides that vary in their chemical structures, depending on wall type and plant taxon. The non-cellulosic polysaccharide compositions of three common wall types — lignified secondary walls, non-lignified secondary walls, and non-lignified primary walls — exemplify this. The principles used in constructing the most recent models of non-lignified primary walls can be used in modelling lignified secondary walls. Keywords: primary cell walls; secondary cell walls; cell-wall models; non- cellulosic polysaccharides; transmission electron microscopy; light microscopy; chemistry; lignified walls; immuno- cytochemistry; histochemistry INTRODUCTION This review provides a brief comparative overview of primary and secondary cell walls of seed plants. A primary wall is defined as a wall that is deposited while the cell is still enlarging, whereas a secondary wall is deposited on the primary wall after cell expansion has stopped, and can be seen in sections as a structurally distinct layer (or layers) that is often very much thicker than the primary wall (Harris 2005a). At maturity, the different cell types can be grouped according to whether they have only a primary wall or both a primary and a secondary wall. -
Cell Structure and Function in the Bacteria and Archaea
4 Chapter Preview and Key Concepts 4.1 1.1 DiversityThe Beginnings among theof Microbiology Bacteria and Archaea 1.1. •The BacteriaThe are discovery classified of microorganismsinto several Cell Structure wasmajor dependent phyla. on observations made with 2. theThe microscope Archaea are currently classified into two 2. •major phyla.The emergence of experimental 4.2 Cellscience Shapes provided and Arrangements a means to test long held and Function beliefs and resolve controversies 3. Many bacterial cells have a rod, spherical, or 3. MicroInquiryspiral shape and1: Experimentation are organized into and a specific Scientificellular c arrangement. Inquiry in the Bacteria 4.31.2 AnMicroorganisms Overview to Bacterialand Disease and Transmission Archaeal 4.Cell • StructureEarly epidemiology studies suggested how diseases could be spread and 4. Bacterial and archaeal cells are organized at be controlled the cellular and molecular levels. 5. • Resistance to a disease can come and Archaea 4.4 External Cell Structures from exposure to and recovery from a mild 5.form Pili allowof (or cells a very to attach similar) to surfacesdisease or other cells. 1.3 The Classical Golden Age of Microbiology 6. Flagella provide motility. Our planet has always been in the “Age of Bacteria,” ever since the first 6. (1854-1914) 7. A glycocalyx protects against desiccation, fossils—bacteria of course—were entombed in rocks more than 3 billion 7. • The germ theory was based on the attaches cells to surfaces, and helps observations that different microorganisms years ago. On any possible, reasonable criterion, bacteria are—and always pathogens evade the immune system. have been—the dominant forms of life on Earth. -
GUN1 and Plastid RNA Metabolism: Learning from Genetics
cells Opinion GUN1 and Plastid RNA Metabolism: Learning from Genetics Luca Tadini y , Nicolaj Jeran y and Paolo Pesaresi * Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; [email protected] (L.T.); [email protected] (N.J.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-02503-15057 These authors contributed equally to the manuscript. y Received: 29 September 2020; Accepted: 14 October 2020; Published: 16 October 2020 Abstract: GUN1 (genomes uncoupled 1), a chloroplast-localized pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) protein with a C-terminal small mutS-related (SMR) domain, plays a central role in the retrograde communication of chloroplasts with the nucleus. This flow of information is required for the coordinated expression of plastid and nuclear genes, and it is essential for the correct development and functioning of chloroplasts. Multiple genetic and biochemical findings indicate that GUN1 is important for protein homeostasis in the chloroplast; however, a clear and unified view of GUN10s role in the chloroplast is still missing. Recently, GUN1 has been reported to modulate the activity of the nucleus-encoded plastid RNA polymerase (NEP) and modulate editing of plastid RNAs upon activation of retrograde communication, revealing a major role of GUN1 in plastid RNA metabolism. In this opinion article, we discuss the recently identified links between plastid RNA metabolism and retrograde signaling by providing a new and extended concept of GUN1 activity, which integrates the multitude of functional genetic interactions reported over the last decade with its primary role in plastid transcription and transcript editing. Keywords: GUN1; RNA polymerase; transcript accumulation; transcript editing; retrograde signaling 1. -
Plastid in Human Parasites
SCIENTIFIC CORRESPONDENCE being otherwise homo Plastid in human geneous. The 35-kb genome-containing organ parasites elle identified here did not escape the attention of early Sm - The discovery in malarial and toxo electron microscopists who plasmodial parasites of genes normally - not expecting the pres occurring in the photosynthetic organelle ence of a plastid in a proto of plants and algae has prompted specula zoan parasite like tion that these protozoans might harbour Toxoplasma - ascribed to it a vestigial plastid1• The plastid-like para various names, including site genes occur on an extrachromosomal, 'Hohlzylinder' (hollow cylin maternally inherited2, 35-kilobase DNA der), 'Golgi adjunct' and circle with an architecture reminiscent of 'grof3e Tilkuole mit kriiftiger that of plastid genomes3•4• Although the Wandung' (large vacuole 35-kb genome is distinct from the 6-7-kb with stout surrounds) ( see linear mitochondrial genome3-6, it is not refs cited in ref. 9). Our pre known where in the parasite cells the plas liminary experiments with tid-like genome resides. Plasmodium falciparum, the To determine whether a plastid is pre causative agent of the most sent, we used high-resolution in situ lethal form of malaria, hybridization7 to localize transcripts of a identify an organelle (not plastid-like 16S ribosomal RNA gene shown) which appears sim from Toxoplasma gondii8, the causative ilar to the T. gondii plastid. agent of toxoplasmosis. Transcripts accu The number of surrounding mulate in a small, ovoid organelle located membranes in the P. anterior to the nucleus in the mid-region falciparum plastid, and its of the cell (a, b in the figure). -
The Origin of Plastids By: Cheong Xin Chan, Ph.D
A Collaborative Learning Space for Science ABOUT FACULTY STUDENTS INTERMEDIATE CELL ORIGINS AND METABOLISM | Lead Editor: Gary Cote, Mario De Tullio The Origin of Plastids By: Cheong Xin Chan, Ph.D. & Debashish Bhattacharya, Ph.D. (Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey) © 2010 Nature Education Citation: Chan, C. X. & Bhattacharya, D. (2010) The Origin of Plastids. Nature Education 3(9):84 Plastids are core components of photosynthesis in plants and algae. Scientists are currently debating the events leading to the appearance of plastids in eukaryotic cells. Organelles, called plastids, are the main sites of photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells. Chloroplasts, as well as any other pigment containing cytoplasmic organelles that enables the harvesting and conversion of light and carbon dioxide into food and energy, are plastids. Found mainly in eukaryotic cells, plastids can be grouped into two distinctive types depending on their membrane structure: primary plastids and secondary plastids. Primary plastids are found in most algae and plants, and secondary, more-complex plastids are typically found in plankton, such as diatoms and dinoflagellates. Exploring the origin of plastids is an exciting field of research because it enhances our understanding of the basis of photosynthesis in green plants, our primary food source on planet Earth. Primary Plastids and Endosymbiosis Where did plastids originate? Their origin is explained by endosymbiosis, the act of a unicellular heterotrophic protist engulfing a free-living photosynthetic cyanobacterium and retaining it, instead of digesting it in the food vacuole (Margulis 1970; McFadden 2001; Kutschera & Niklas 2005). The captured cell (the endosymbiont) was then reduced to a functional organelle bound by two membranes, and was transmitted vertically to subsequent generations.