Technical Data Report

Geology and Terrain

Enbridge Northern Gateway Project

Jacques Whitford AXYS Ltd. Edmonton, Alberta

D. O'Leary, B.A. M. Trommelen, M.Sc. D. Huntley, Ph.D.

2010

Preface

This technical data report (TDR) relies primarily on data collected up to September 2008. These data are used in the environmental and socio-economic assessment (ESA) for the Enbridge Northern Gateway Project, Volume 6A, Section 7. Some minor discrepancies may occur between this TDR and the ESA because of the differing datasets.

Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Table of Contents

Table of Contents

1 Introduction...... 1-1 1.1 Objectives...... 1-1 1.2 Spatial Boundaries...... 1-1 1.3 Terminology...... 1-2 2 Methods...... 2-1 2.1 Review of Existing Data Sources...... 2-1 2.2 Terrain Mapping...... 2-1 2.3 Field Surveys...... 2-1 2.3.1 Terrain Field Program...... 2-1 2.3.2 Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping Field Program...... 2-3 2.3.3 Soil Field Program ...... 2-3 2.4 Detailed Mapping...... 2-4 2.4.1 Surficial Material ...... 2-5 2.4.2 Surface Expression...... 2-5 2.4.3 Geomorphic Modifying Processes ...... 2-5 2.4.4 On-Site Symbol Mapping...... 2-5 2.4.5 Post-fieldwork Classification and Ratings – PEAA...... 2-9 2.4.6 Additional Mapping – Pipeline Route...... 2-9 2.4.6.1 Depth to Bedrock ...... 2-9 2.4.6.2 Thickness of Organics...... 2-9 2.5 Identification of Geohazards ...... 2-10 2.5.1 Mass Wasting...... 2-10 2.5.1.1 Deep-seated Landslides...... 2-10 2.5.1.2 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides...... 2-10 2.5.1.3 Debris Flows ...... 2-11 2.5.1.4 Rockfall...... 2-11 2.5.1.5 Avalanches...... 2-11 2.5.1.6 Lateral Spreading ...... 2-11 2.5.1.7 Stream Erosion and Sedimentation ...... 2-12 2.5.1.8 Wind and Water Erosion (Shallow Stream and Overland Flow) ...... 2-12 2.5.2 Settlement...... 2-12 2.5.2.1 Consolidation Settlement ...... 2-12 2.5.2.2 Karst-induced Settlement or Displacement...... 2-12 2.5.3 Seismicity...... 2-13 2.5.3.1 Seismic Motion ...... 2-13 2.5.3.2 Liquefaction ...... 2-13 2.5.4 Tsunami...... 2-13 2.5.5 Acid Rock Drainage...... 2-13 2.6 Quality Control...... 2-13 2.6.1 Preliminary Mapping...... 2-13 2.6.2 Field Inventory Program ...... 2-14

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2.6.3 Final Mapping and Classification...... 2-14 3 Results of Baseline Investigations...... 3-1 3.1 Eastern Alberta Plains ...... 3-3 3.1.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology...... 3-3 3.1.2 Hydrography...... 3-4 3.1.3 Surficial Geology...... 3-4 3.1.4 Geohazards...... 3-8 3.2 Southern Alberta Uplands ...... 3-8 3.2.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology...... 3-8 3.2.2 Hydrography...... 3-9 3.2.3 Surficial Geology...... 3-10 3.2.4 Geohazards...... 3-15 3.2.4.1 Deep-Seated Slides...... 3-16 3.2.4.2 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides ...... 3-16 3.2.4.3 Lateral Stream Erosion, Scour and Sedimentation...... 3-17 3.2.4.4 Wind and Water Erosion...... 3-17 3.2.4.5 Consolidation Settlement...... 3-17 3.3 Alberta Plateau ...... 3-18 3.3.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology...... 3-18 3.3.2 Hydrography...... 3-19 3.3.3 Surficial Geology...... 3-19 3.3.4 Geohazards...... 3-21 3.4 Rocky Mountains ...... 3-21 3.4.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology...... 3-21 3.4.2 Hydrography...... 3-22 3.4.3 Surficial Geology...... 3-23 3.4.4 Geohazards - PDA...... 3-27 3.4.4.1 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides ...... 3-27 3.4.4.2 Rockfall...... 3-28 3.4.4.3 Debris Flows ...... 3-28 3.4.4.4 Avalanches ...... 3-28 3.4.4.5 Lateral Stream Erosion, Scour and Sedimentation...... 3-28 3.4.4.6 Overland Flow Erosion...... 3-28 3.4.4.7 Consolidation Settlement...... 3-29 3.4.4.8 Karst ...... 3-29 3.4.4.9 Acid Rock Drainage ...... 3-29 3.4.5 Geohazards – Powerline Easement...... 3-29 3.5 Interior Plateau ...... 3-29 3.5.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology...... 3-29 3.5.2 Hydrography...... 3-30 3.5.3 Surficial Geology...... 3-32 3.5.4 Geohazards - PDA...... 3-38 3.5.4.1 Deep-seated Slides ...... 3-38 3.5.4.2 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides ...... 3-38

Page ii 2010 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Table of Contents

3.5.4.3 Debris Flows ...... 3-39 3.5.4.4 Lateral Stream Erosion, Scour and Sedimentation...... 3-39 3.5.4.5 Shallow Stream and Overland Flow Erosion ...... 3-39 3.5.4.6 Consolidation Settlement ...... 3-40 3.5.4.7 Acid Rock Drainage...... 3-40 3.5.5 Geohazards – Powerline Easement ...... 3-40 3.6 Coast Mountains...... 3-40 3.6.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology ...... 3-40 3.6.2 Hydrography ...... 3-42 3.6.3 Surficial Geology ...... 3-43 3.6.4 Geohazards - PDA...... 3-52 3.6.4.1 Deep-Seated Slides...... 3-52 3.6.4.2 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides...... 3-52 3.6.4.3 Rockfall...... 3-53 3.6.4.4 Debris Flows ...... 3-53 3.6.4.5 Snow Avalanching ...... 3-54 3.6.4.6 Lateral Spread ...... 3-54 3.6.4.7 Lateral Stream Erosion, Scour and Sedimentation...... 3-54 3.6.4.8 Overland Flow Erosion ...... 3-55 3.6.4.9 Consolidation Settlement ...... 3-55 3.6.4.10 Seismicity...... 3-55 3.6.4.11 Tsunami...... 3-55 3.6.4.12 Acid Rock Drainage...... 3-56 3.6.5 Geohazards – Powerline Easements...... 3-56 4 References...... 4-1 4.1 Literature Cited ...... 4-1 4.2 Personal Communications...... 4-4 4.3 Internet Site ...... 4-4 Appendix A Surficial Geology and Depth to Bedrock Atlas ...... A-1

List of Tables

Table 2-1 Terrain Field Sites by Physiographic Region ...... 2-3 Table 2-2 Surficial Material Types ...... 2-6 Table 2-3 Surface Expression Classes...... 2-6 Table 2-4 Geomorphic Modifying Processes...... 2-7 Table 2-5 On-Site Symbols ...... 2-8 Table 2-6 Depth to Bedrock Classes ...... 2-9 Table 2-7 Organic Classes...... 2-10 Table 3-1 Physiographic Regions Crossed by the Pipeline Route ...... 3-1 Table 3-2 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Eastern Alberta Plains...... 3-3 Table 3-3 Major Watercourses along the Pipeline Route – Eastern Alberta Plains...... 3-4

2010 Page iii Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Table of Contents

Table 3-4 Surficial Material along the Pipeline Route – Eastern Alberta Plains...... 3-4 Table 3-5 Thickness of Organics along the Pipeline Route – Eastern Alberta Plains ...... 3-5 Table 3-6 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Project Infrastructure – Eastern Alberta Plains...... 3-6 Table 3-7 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Southern Alberta Uplands...... 3-9 Table 3-8 Major Watercourses Crossed by the Pipeline Route – Southern Alberta Uplands ...... 3-10 Table 3-9 Surficial Material Types in the PEAA and PDA – Southern Alberta Uplands ...... 3-11 Table 3-10 Thickness of Organics along the Pipeline Route – Southern Alberta Uplands ...... 3-11 Table 3-11 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Pump Station and Access Roads – Southern Alberta Uplands...... 3-12 Table 3-12 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Staging Areas – Southern Alberta Uplands ...... 3-13 Table 3-13 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Construction Camps and Stockpile Sites – Southern Alberta Uplands...... 3-13 Table 3-14 Surficial Material along the proposed Powerline Easements – Southern Alberta Uplands ...... 3-15 Table 3-15 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Alberta Plateau...... 3-18 Table 3-16 Major Watercourses along the Pipeline Route – Alberta Plateau...... 3-19 Table 3-17 Surficial Material along the Pipeline Route – Alberta Plateau ...... 3-19 Table 3-18 Thickness of Organics along the Pipeline Route – Alberta Plateau ...... 3-20 Table 3-19 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Project Infrastructure – Alberta Plateau...... 3-20 Table 3-20 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Rocky Mountains ...... 3-22 Table 3-21 Major Watercourses Crossed by the Pipeline Route – Rocky Mountains...... 3-23 Table 3-22 Surficial Material Types along the Pipeline Route – Rocky Mountains ...... 3-23 Table 3-23 Thickness of Organic Material along the Pipeline Route – Rocky Mountains ...... 3-24 Table 3-24 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Project Infrastructure - Rocky Mountains ...... 3-24 Table 3-25 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Stockpile Sites and Staging Areas – Rocky Mountains...... 3-25 Table 3-26 Surficial Material along the Tumbler Ridge Powerline Easement – Rocky Mountains ...... 3-26 Table 3-27 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Interior Plateau...... 3-31 Table 3-28 Major Watercourses along the Pipeline Route – Interior Plateau...... 3-31 Table 3-29 Surficial Material Types along the Pipeline Route – Interior Plateau ...... 3-32 Table 3-30 Thickness of Organic Material along the Pipeline Route – Interior Plateau ..... 3-33

Page iv 2010 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Table of Contents

Table 3-31 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Pump Stations – Interior Plateau ...... 3-34 Table 3-32 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Pump Station Access Roads – Interior Plateau...... 3-34 Table 3-33 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Staging Areas – Interior Plateau...... 3-34 Table 3-34 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Construction Camps – Interior Plateau...... 3-35 Table 3-35 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Stockpile Sites – Interior Plateau ...... 3-35 Table 3-37 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Coast Mountains ...... 3-42 Table 3-38 Major Watercourses along the Pipeline Route – Coast Mountains ...... 3-42 Table 3-39 Surficial Material Types along the Pipeline Route – Coast Mountains ...... 3-43 Table 3-40 Thickness of Organic Material along the Pipeline Route – Coast Mountains ...... 3-45 Table 3-41 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Construction Camps – Coast Mountains ...... 3-46 Table 3-42 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Access Roads – Coast Mountains...... 3-47 Table 3-43 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Tunnel Excess Cut Disposal Areas – Coast Mountains ...... 3-48 Table 3-44 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Remaining Project Infrastructure – Coast Mountains ...... 3-49 Table 3-45 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Remaining Project Infrastructure – Coast Mountains ...... 3-50 Table 3-46 Surficial Material along the Powerline Easements – Coast Mountains...... 3-51

List of Figures

Figure 3-1 Physiographic Regions along the Pipeline Route ...... 3-2

2010 Page v

Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Abbreviations

Abbreviations

ARD ...... acid rock drainage asl ...... above sea level DEM...... digital elevation model GPS...... global positioning system HD-MAPP ...... high definition mapping and applications KP...... kilometre post NAD ...... North American Datum NRC...... Natural Resources Canada PDA...... project development area PEAA ...... project effects assessment area the Project...... Enbridge Northern Gateway Project QA ...... quality assurance QC ...... quality control RoW ...... right-of-way TDR...... technical data report TEM ...... terrestrial ecosystem mapping UTM...... Universal Transverse Mercator

2010 Page vii

Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Glossary

Glossary

aeolian sediment Sediment transported and deposited by wind action. alluvial fan A fan-shaped deposit of sand and gravel, usually located at the mouth of a tributary valley. Material is transported and deposited by concentrated running water. Typically formed by a combination of stream flood and debris flow activity. anthropogenic Relating to, or resulting from, the influence of human beings on nature. bedrock Bedrock outcrops and bedrock covered by a thin mantle (up to 10 cm thick) of unconsolidated or organic material. blanket A layer of unconsolidated material thick enough to mask minor irregularities of the surface of the underlying material, but still conforms to the general underlying topography. A blanket is greater than 1 m thick and possesses no constructional landforms indicative of the material’s genesis; outcrops of the underlying units are rare. blueschist grade A metamorphic rock formed at high pressure and low temperature. A typical assemblage of a basalt which has metamorphosed at blueschist grade is glaucophane (sodic amphibole) + epidote + jadeite (sodic pyroxene). bog An area with an acidic substrate covered or filled with wet, spongy, peat material, sphagnum mosses and stunted spruce trees. The groundwater table is usually near the surface and the drainage is characterized as very poor. Cenozoic Era The most recent era or large unit of geological time, includes the Quaternary and Tertiary periods, which are divided into epochs, and spans the epochs from Palaeocene to Recent. cirque A steep-walled, half bowl-like recess, horseshoe-shaped or semi- circular in plan view, situated high on the side of a mountain and produced by the erosive activity of an alpine glacier. clast An individual constituent or fragment of a sediment or rock, produced by the weathering of a larger rock mass. Synonyms include stone and fragment. clay A detrital particle having a diameter of less than 0.002 mm. Also used to describe the clay minerals, such as bentonite and montmorillonite.

2010 Page ix Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Glossary colluvium, colluvial material Material deposited as a result of downslope movements due to gravity, such as rockfalls, landslides, and debris flows, including talus slopes and mantles of weathered bedrock. cone A cone-shaped landform or a sector of one with a relatively smooth surface, mostly steeper than 26% and displaying a longitudinal profile that is straight, slightly concave or convex. debris flow Rapid flow of debris-saturated slurry, including some or all of soil, surficial material, bedrock, and plant debris. A general designation for all types of rapid downslope flow, including mudflows, rapid earthflows and debris torrents. Whether saturated or dry, behaves much as a viscous fluid when moving. debris slide Downslope sliding of a mass of soil or surficial material; initial displacement is along one or several surfaces of rupture. Composed of comparatively dry and largely unconsolidated earthy material and producing an irregular, hummocky deposit. debris torrent Rapid flow of a mixture of water, earth and vegetation debris down a steep, well-defined channel. deep-seated landslide An area where a large amount of landslide material has moved downslope either as a relatively cohesive mass (rotational slides and translational block slides) or as an irregular, hummocky mass (earthflow). The failure surface is generally deeper than about 2 m and is usually well exposed at the head scarp. Vegetation on rotational and translational slides is relatively undisturbed. Tension cracks, scarps and shallow slides may be superimposed throughout the slide mass. delta A landform that is commonly flat-topped and triangular or fan- shaped, made up of gravel, sand and/or finer sediments that are deposited by a river discharging into a lake or the ocean. depression Circular or irregular area of lower elevation (hollow) than the surrounding terrain and delimited by an abrupt break in slope; side slopes within the depression are steeper than the surrounding terrain; generally are two or more metres in depth. diamicton Very poorly sorted sediment, composed of a particle sizes ranging from silt/clay to boulders. Coarse fragments are contained within a fine-grained matrix. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Digital representation of the ground surface topography, commonly built using remote sensing techniques to produce a relief map.

Page x 2010 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Glossary drainage Refers to the speed and extent of water removal from the soil by runoff (surface drainage) and downward flow through the soil profile (internal drainage). drumlin A low, smooth, elongated oval hill, mound, or ridge of compact till that has a core of bedrock or surficial material. It usually has a blunt nose facing the direction from which the ice approached and a gentler slope tapering in the other direction. The longest axis is parallel to the general direction of glacier flow. Drumlins are products of streamlined (laminar) flow of glaciers, which moulded the subglacial floor through a combination of erosion and deposition. dunite A dense coarse-grained igneous rock consisting of more than 90% olivine. earthflow The process, associated sediments or resultant landforms characterized by slow to rapid types of flow, dominated by downslope movement of soil, rock, and mud and behaving as a viscous fluid when moving. escarpment A steep slope that is usually much wider than it is high, such as the risers of river terraces and steep faces associated with eroded stratified rocks. Escarpments are produced by erosion and faulting and topographically interrupt or break the general continuity of more gently sloping land surfaces. esker A sinuous, low ridge composed of sand and gravel, formed by deposition from meltwater running through a channel beneath or within glacier ice. fan A relatively smooth section of a cone with a slope gradient from apex to toe up to and including 26%, and a longitudinal profile that is either straight, or slightly concave or convex. floodplain Flat land that is subject to flooding bordering a river; consists primarily of unconsolidated depositional material derived from sediments being transported by the river. fluvial deposit Sediments transported by streams and rivers, and deposited as landforms such as floodplains, fluvial terraces, fans and deltas; synonymous with alluvial. geomorphological process Natural mechanisms of weathering, erosion and deposition that result in the modification of surficial material and landforms at the earth’s surface.

2010 Page xi Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Glossary glaciofluvial deposits Material moved by glaciers and subsequently sorted and deposited by streams flowing from the melting ice. The deposits are stratified and may occur in the form of outwash plains, deltas, kames, eskers, and kame terraces. glaciolacustrine deposits Sediments transported by glacial meltwater streams and deposited in or along the margins of glacial lakes. Also includes the sediments that were released by the melting of floating ice. greenschist grade A metamorphic rock formed at moderate pressure and low temperature. A typical assemblage of a basalt that has been metamorphosed to greenschist grade is chlorite + epidote + actinolite. gully erosion The modification of unconsolidated and consolidated surfaces by various processes such as running water, mass movement and snow avalanche, resulting in the formation of parallel and sub- parallel long, narrow ravines or depressions. HD-MAPP (High Definition Mapping Mapping system that allows visualization of aerial photography and APPlications) System in three dimensions on a computer monitor with the aid of specialized 3D glasses. Digital terrain mapping can be done very accurately using this system. Holocene The epoch of the Quaternary Period of geological time following the Pleistocene Epoch (from present to about 10 to 12 thousand years ago). hummocky The surficial expression of an area with steep-sided hillocks and hollows with multidirectional slopes dominantly between 26 and 70%. Local relief is greater than a meter. interbedding Beds lying between or alternating with others of different character; especially rock material or sediments laid down in sequence between other beds, such as “interbedded” sand and gravel. karst A kind of topography formed in limestone, gypsum, or other soluble rocks by dissolution, characterized by closed depressions, sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage. kettle Steep-sided depressions formed by ice melt beneath sediments (most commonly beneath glaciofluvial sediments). A kettle with water in it is a kettle lake.

Page xii 2010 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Glossary landslide (mass wasting) A general term for the downslope movement of large masses of earth material and the resulting landforms, caused by gravitational forces and which may or may not involve saturated material. massive A homogeneous structure, without stratification, flow-banding, foliation, or bedding. matrix The fine-grained part of a sedimentary or glacial deposit in which the coarser material is embedded. meander One of a series of regular, freely developing sinuous curves, bends or loops in the course of a stream. meltwater channel A channel eroded by glacial meltwater either under the glacier or along its side. moraine Poorly sorted diamicton deposited directly from glacier ice (synonymous with till). The mineralogical, textural, structural and topographic characteristics of till deposits are highly variable and depend upon both the source of material incorporated into the glacier and the mode of deposition. Oligocene The epoch of the Tertiary Period that follows the Eocene and precedes the Miocene. organic deposits Sediments composed largely of organic material resulting from the accumulation of vegetative matter. They contain at least 30% organic matter by weight (17% or more organic carbon). outwash Glaciofluvial sediments transported and deposited by meltwater streams beyond the margins of glaciers and ice sheets. Palaeocene The period of geological time from 65.5 to 55.8 million years ago. Palaeozoic Era The era of geological time from 570 to 225 million years ago, from the end of the Precambrian to the beginning of the Mesozoic. parent material The original source from which a soil is chiefly derived, generally consisting of bedrock or sediment. peridotite A dark coarse-grained igneous rock consisting of olivine (40- 95%), pyroxene and an aluminous mineral (plagioclase feldspar, spinel or garnet).

2010 Page xiii Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Glossary physiographic region A region of which all parts are similar in geological structure and climate and which has consequently had a unified geomorphic history; a region whose pattern of relief, features or landforms differ significantly from that of adjacent regions. piping Subterranean erosion of surficial material by flowing water that results in the formation of tubular conduits because of the removal of particulate matter. plain A comparatively flat, level or slightly undulating tract of land, bedrock features commonly are masked by overlying sediments. Pleistocene Epoch An epoch of the Quaternary Period between the Pliocene and Holocene Epochs. polygon A mapped area whose size and boundaries are determined by the occurrence of similar attributes or characteristics. Proterozoic Era The youngest of the three eras of the Precambrian, postdating the Archean. Quaternary Period The younger of the two Cenozoic periods. It comprises two epochs, the Pleistocene and the Holocene (Recent). ridge A long narrow elevation of the surface, usually sharp crested with steep sides. Ridges may be parallel, subparallel or intersecting. rockfall The process, associated sediments or resultant landform characterized by a very rapid type of fall dominated by downslope movement of detached rock bodies which fall freely through the air. sand A detrital particle having a diameter in the range of 0.06 to 2 mm. seepage Water passing laterally and downslope through the soil. silt A detrital particle having a diameter in the range of 0.002 to 0.06 mm. slope An inclined surface, where the gradient is measured in percent by the amount of its inclination from the horizontal, and the length of which is determined by the inclined distance between its crest and its foot.

Page xiv 2010 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Glossary slump The downward slipping of a mass of rock or unconsolidated material of any size, moving as a unit or as several subsidiary units, usually with backward rotation on a more or less horizontal axis parallel to the cliff or slope from which it descends. sorting Refers to the variation of particle sizes within a sedimentary unit; statistically it is a measure of the spread of the particle size distribution of either side of the mean. Well-sorted particles have a uniform size, whereas poorly sorted ones display a wide variation of particle size. surface expression Refers to the form (assemblage of slopes) and pattern of forms expressed by a surficial material at the land surface. This three- dimensional shape of the material is equivalent to “landform” used in a non-genetic sense. surficial geology A category of geology concerned with the description of the types and distributions of unconsolidated sediments across the landscape; includes the study of material textures, stratification, geomorphology (surface expression), geomorphic processes, genetic interpretation, Quaternary history, etc. talus An accumulation of sharp, angular rock fragments at the base of a cliff, produced by frost action and other processes from an exposed bedrock slope. terrace Any relatively level or gently inclined surface, generally less broad than a plain, and bounded on one side by a steep descending slope or scarp and along the other by a steep ascending slope or scarp. terrain The physical characteristics of the natural features of an area, e.g., its landforms. terrain mapping The graphic representation of the physical characteristics of an area on a plane surface, showing the distribution of surficial material, landforms and geomorphic processes on the earth surface. texture Pertains to the grain sizes, shape, and arrangement of particles in a sedimentary unit. till See moraine. topographic position Refers to where a site is located relative to a slope/elevation. Examples include midslope and toeslope.

2010 Page xv Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Glossary undulating A very regular sequence of gentle slopes that extend from rounded, sometimes confined concavities to broad, rounded convexities producing a wave like pattern of local relief. Universal Transverse Mercator A map projection system commonly used for global mapping in (UTM) North America. The UTM projection divides the world into 60 zones, each of 6 degrees longitude wide, extending from 80 degrees latitude south to 84 degrees latitude North. veneer A mantle of unconsolidated sediment too thin to mask the minor irregularities of the surface of the underlying material; between about 10 cm to 1 m thick and possessing no constructional form indicative of the deposit’s genesis.

Page xvi 2010 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Section 1: Introduction

1 Introduction This technical data report (TDR) describes the geology and terrain features within both the project development area (PDA) and the project effects assessment area (PEAA) of the Enbridge Northern Gateway Project (the Project). This TDR presents the baseline terrain data used to support the Enbridge Northern Gateway Environmental and Socio-economic Assessment (ESA). Appendix A (see the CD) is an atlas that contains alignment sheets depicting surficial material and key landforms. The pipeline route in the atlas is colour coded by approximate depth to bedrock based on aerial photograph interpretation. Information has been gathered from existing literature sources and generated from aerial photograph interpretation and field surveys for the following four key categories:  bedrock geology and regional physiography  surficial geology and Quaternary history  terrain description  geohazards

1.1 Objectives The objectives of this report are to:  summarize existing historical baseline information from government and scientific sources  describe the system for collecting baseline information on terrain features and surficial geology, including a description of the HD-MAPP software used for terrain interpretation  summarize geological and terrain conditions along the pipeline route, including the PDA, the PEAA, and the powerline easements.  provide a basis for the assessment of potential project environmental effects on geology and terrain features  provide a basis for the assessment of potential environmental effects on the pipeline

1.2 Spatial Boundaries For the pipeline and marine terminal, the study included two areas:  a 1-km-wide corridor containing the pipeline right-of way (RoW), referred to as the project effects assessment area (PEAA) for consistency with Volume 6A, Section 7of the environmental and socio-economic assessment (ESA)  a corridor within the PEAA containing the pipeline RoW, referred to as the project development area for consistency with Volume 6A, Section 7 of the ESA. The PDA consists of a 25-m-wide permanent RoW, a 25-m-wide temporary workspace and additional temporary workspace totalling about 10% of the construction RoW.

2010 Page 1-1 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Section 1: Introduction

1.3 Terminology The term geology includes both bedrock and surficial geology. Surficial geology refers to unconsolidated material, most of which was deposited following deglaciation. The term terrain feature refers to a physical feature of the earth’s surface, such as a particular landform. See the glossary, for additional definitions.

Page 1-2 2010 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Section 2: Methods

2 Methods The study used a combination of research techniques: an extensive literature review, detailed mapping at 1:20,000 scale, and a field inventory program. For the PDA, except for the Hoult and Clore tunnels, additional mapping at 1:2,000 scale was undertaken to provide more detailed information on both terrain stability and gully erosion.

2.1 Review of Existing Data Sources Background information on geology, surficial geology and terrain was compiled mostly from small-scale regional studies (e.g., 1:50,000, 1:100,000). As a result, background data were obtained from a much larger area than the PEAA. Most of the literature reviewed provided regional assessments at broader map scales than that required for the ESA. For example, the biophysical survey of the northeast coal study area (Vold et al. 1977) was completed at a scale of 1:50,000. Similarly, the soil survey for the Wapiti area (NTS mapsheet 83L) by Twardy and Corns (1980) was compiled at a scale of 1:100,000. As large-scale data (e.g., 1:20,000 to 1:5,000) are needed for the ESA, the need for additional mapping and field data to address data deficiencies was identified during the review.

2.2 Terrain Mapping Terrain mapping was undertaken at several different scales within the PEAA. Mapping at a scale of 1:20,000 was completed for the entire pipeline route and powerline easement to support both soil and terrestrial ecosystem mapping (TEM) programs. More detailed mapping, at a scale of 1:2,000, was completed along the entire PDA to provide data on depth to bedrock and thickness of organic materials.

2.3 Field Surveys Field inspection of surficial geology and terrain within the PEAA was part of an integrated field inventory program completed between:  mid-July and mid-October 2005  mid-May and late August 2006  July and October 2008 Terrain data were primarily collected by a terrain field program, with less data collected by the TEM and soil mapping programs.

2.3.1 Terrain Field Program The terrain field program was designed to:  collect data to verify the preliminary terrain mapping and allow final terrain classification to be completed

2010 Page 2-1 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Section 2: Methods

 close data gaps in the existing literature and verify published baseline data  collect sufficient data for the assessment of potential project effects on geology and terrain features  collect sufficient data to assess the potential effects of the environment on the Project Regardless of provincial jurisdiction, the program adhered to the following mapping and inventory standards:  Terrain Classification System for British Columbia (Howes and Kenk 1997)  Mapping and Assessing Terrain Stability Guidebook, 2nd Edition (British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Ministry of Environment [BC MoF and BC MoE] 1999)  Guidelines and Standards for Terrain Mapping in British Columbia (Resources Inventory Committee [RIC] 1996a)  Guidelines for Terrain Stability Assessments in the Forest Sector (Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia 2003)  These standards are the most comprehensive guidelines for terrain mapping and stability assessment in Canada (O'Leary et al. 2002). Similar guidelines have not been developed for Alberta, but as the British Columbia standards are comprehensive, they are appropriate for use in Alberta. Before the field program, terrain specialists used aerial photographs to identify sites requiring field inspection. These sites were distributed along the pipeline route and were concentrated in areas where baseline data were lacking, or where the terrain might pose an engineering or environmental challenge for pipeline construction (e.g., river valley crossings, unstable slopes, and marine and glaciomarine sediments). See Table 2-1 for a summary of numbers of field plots by physiographic region, including terrain-specific, TEM and soil plots. Access to most sites was by helicopter. At each site, the attribute data recorded on a project-specific data sheet included:  slope  topographic position  surficial material  surface expression  texture of surface material  texture of parent material  percentage of coarse fragments  coarse fragment description  drainage  geomorphic modifying processes  terrain stability  surface erosion potential

Page 2-2 2010 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Section 2: Methods

Table 2-1 Terrain Field Sites by Physiographic Region

Total Number of Physiographic Region Survey Sites Ground Plots Aerial Observations Eastern Alberta Plains 179 164 15 Southern Alberta Uplands 346 233 113 Alberta Plateau 101 68 33 Rocky Mountains 238 151 87 Interior Plateau 713 438 275 Coast Mountains 275 275 132 Sites outside the PEAA 1 1,054 436 486 Total 2,906 1,765 1,141

NOTE: 1 Sites were located outside the PEAA in areas where access to the pipeline route is not practical, where infrastructure or powerlines occur outside the PEAA, or where sites are located on an older version of the route.

Field inspection sites were plotted on an atlas containing the preliminary terrain mapping. This atlas helped field crews navigate to selected points of interest within specific terrain types. To increase the spatial accuracy of the field data, site locations were recorded using a hand-held global positioning system (GPS) unit. Coordinates were stored in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) format using the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

2.3.2 Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping Field Program The purpose of the TEM field program was to map and describe vegetation as either ecosite phases (Alberta) or as site series (British Columbia). This program followed the sampling design, data collection and mapping protocols outlined in the Standard for Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping in British Columbia (RIC 1998). Each field crew consisted of a vegetation specialist, a soil or terrain specialist, a wildlife specialist and an Aboriginal assistant. The TEM field program included reconnaissance surveys, detailed plots, ground inspections and visual checks. Terrain and soil data were collected during all reconnaissance, detailed and ground inspections, according to British Columbia inventory standards derived from BC MoE (1998). Terrain and soil data were obtained by digging to a depth of 60 to 80 cm and hand auguring to a depth of at least 1 m, or to stony contact. Terrain data obtained from the TEM program included parent material types, surface expression, slope, drainage and, where possible, geological modifying processes. Terrain data obtained from the TEM program were incorporated into the terrain mapping and analysis. (See Table 2-1 for the number of plots.)

2.3.3 Soil Field Program Soil data were collected according to standards derived from BC MoE (1998). Soil descriptions and classification systems applied in Alberta and British Columbia were those of the Soil Classification Working Group (1998) and the Expert Committee on Soil Survey (1983).

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Mineral soil inspections involved digging small pits to a depth of 60 to 80 cm followed by hand auguring to a depth of at least 1 m, or to stony contact. Organic soils were examined by extracting samples with a soil auger or a soil probe with extensions to about 2.5 m. Soil attributes described in the field included horizon thickness and sequence, colour, texture, structure, consistence, calcareousness (qualitative HCl test for carbonates), salinity (presence of salt crystals), coarse fragments, mottles, roots and boundary characteristics. Parent material type, soil subgroup classification depth and type of root-restricting layer were also determined. Site attributes recorded for ground inspections included: slope and aspect, surface expression, surface stoniness, slope position, landscape slope class, slope length, horizontal and vertical curvature, land use, depth to seepage, humus form, nutrient regime, moisture regime, drainage, depth to bedrock and a general description of vegetation. Terrain-specific data (e.g., parent material type) collected from the soil field program were incorporated into the terrain mapping and analysis. (See Table 2-1 for the number of plots.)

2.4 Detailed Mapping The terrain mapping of the PEAA was completed at a scale of 1:20,000, using the HD-MAPP system. This system has been accepted for environmental mapping by the BC MoE and the British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Range (BC MoFR), and more recently by Alberta Sustainable Resources Development (ASRD) as a tool for provincial mapping programs (e.g., Grassland Vegetation Inventory). The process involves digitally scanning aerial photographs at a resolution of 10 to 15 microns. The scanned images are then draped over a digital elevation model (DEM) to create files that can be viewed in 3D on a computer monitor using special 3-D glasses. The user is able to zoom down from original scales of 1:60,000 to 1:15,000, to scales as large as 1:1,000. Advantages of the system include delineation of subtle landscape features that are important from a routing perspective (e.g., unstable terrain) and increased accuracy of terrain classification. This digital mapping is also easily transferable between disciplines, allowing the terrain, soil, TEM and geotechnical disciplines to work closely together. Whenever possible, the most recent aerial photographs were obtained for the PEAA, from either Alberta or British Columbia government agencies. Most aerial photographs were at scales of 1:30,000 or 1:40,000. Photographs at these scales were not available for two areas: the area south of Grande Prairie and the area near Burns Lake. Photographs at a scale of 1:60,000 were used for Grande Prairie and at a scale of 1:15,000 for Burns Lake. Most aerial photographs were black and white. After reviewing published baseline information, a team of terrain specialists began delineating terrain polygons (mapping). This process involved viewing the digital imagery in HD-MAPP at an approximate scale of 1:20,000. Terrain polygons were delineated by recognizing relatively homogeneous areas with similar:  slope  surficial material type  surface expression  drainage  geomorphic modifying processes

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Vegetation was also used as an indicator of drainage and surficial material type. For example, lodgepole pine stands are commonly found on glaciofluvial terraces and outwash plains that are well-drained to rapidly-drained. Terrain polygons were delineated in accordance with the British Columbia terrain mapping guidelines. The minimum map polygon size was 1 cm2, an area equivalent to 4 ha at 1:20,000. The minimum polygon size rule was followed, except where strongly contrasting terrain types were identified and additional detail was needed to characterize the pipeline route. On-site symbols were added where necessary to outline specific landforms and geomorphic processes. For a list of the key terrain attributes, as shown on the alignment sheets, see Sections 2.4.1 to 2.4.3, and for on-site symbols, see Section 2.4.4.

2.4.1 Surficial Material Surficial material consists of non-lithified, unconsolidated sediments. It forms by weathering of local bedrock material, deposition of sediments by ice and water, biological accumulation and human and volcanic activity. Surficial material is classified according to mode of formation, transport and deposition. It can also be described by whether a process is ongoing, e.g., active (A), or dormant or complete, e.g. inactive (I) (Howes and Kenk 1997). See Table 2-2 for a list of the surficial material types mapped for the Project.

2.4.2 Surface Expression Surface expression refers to the form (assemblage of slopes) and pattern of forms expressed by the land surface. This three-dimensional shape is equivalent to a landform. Surface expression symbols may also describe how unconsolidated surficial material relates to the underlying unit (Howes and Kenk 1997). See Table 2-3 for a list of the surface expressions used for terrain mapping.

2.4.3 Geomorphic Modifying Processes Geomorphic processes are natural mechanisms of weathering, erosion and deposition that result in the modification of surficial material and terrain features (Howes and Kenk 1997). See Table 2-4 for a list of the geomorphic modifying process classes used for the terrain mapping. These are distinguished from surficial material types (see Section 2.4.2) by a combination of either on-site symbols, or by being located after the hyphen that follows the surficial material type code (e.g., Mb-L, where the unit consists of morainal blankets [Mb] with surface seepage [L]).

2.4.4 On-Site Symbol Mapping On-site symbols are geographic representations used to describe landforms, features or geomorphological processes that may not be obvious from mapped terrain polygons alone (Howes and Kenk 1997). See Table 2-5 for a list of the on-site symbols used on the alignment sheets in Appendix A on CD.

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Table 2-2 Surficial Material Types

Symbol Surficial Material1 Description A Anthropogenic Artificial material; areas disturbed as a result of human activity. C Colluvium Material moved downslope as a result of gravity. Large- scale landslides are generally mapped on the basis of parent material, but are indicated on the alignment sheets by an on-site symbol. D Weathered bedrock Bedrock decomposed or disintegrated in situ by processes of mechanical and/or chemical weathering E Aeolian Material transported and deposited by wind. F Fluvial Material transported and deposited by streams and rivers. FG Glaciofluvial Material that exhibits clear evidence of having been deposited by glacial meltwater rivers. L Lacustrine Sediments that have settled from suspension and underwater gravity flows in lake environments. LG Glaciolacustrine Lacustrine material deposited in or along the margins of temporary glacial lakes. M Moraine Material deposited directly by glacier ice without modification by any other agent of transportation, either through basal lodgement or melting and ablation of ice. N Water Water (e.g., lakes, rivers). O Organic Sediments composed largely of organic material resulting from the accumulation of vegetative matter; contain at least 30% organic matter by weight. R Rock Bedrock outcrops and rock covered by a thin mantle (up to 10 cm thick) of unconsolidated or organic material. W Marine Sediments deposited in saltwater or brackish water bodies by settling from suspension and submarine gravity flows. WG Glaciomarine Sediments of glacial origin laid down in a marine environment in proximity to glacier ice.

NOTE: 1Defined in Howes and Kenk (1997).

Table 2-3 Surface Expression Classes

Symbol Surface Expression1 Definition a Moderate slope Slope 27-49% b Blanket Surface material >1-m thick c Cone Fan-shaped, slope >26% d Depression Hollow f Fan Fan-shaped, slope <26% h Hummocky Non-linear rises and hollows, most slopes >26% j Gentle slope Slope 6-26% k Moderately steep slope Slope 50-70%

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Table 2-3 Surface Expression Classes (cont’d)

Symbol Surface Expression1 Definition m Rolling Elongate rises and hollows p Plain Slope 0-5% r Ridged Elongate rises s Steep slope Slope >70% t Terrace Stepped topography u Undulating Non-linear rises and hollows, most slopes <26% v Veneer Surface material <1 m thick

NOTE: 1Defined in Howes and Kenk (1997).

Table 2-4 Geomorphic Modifying Processes

Label Geomorphic Modifying Process1 A Snow avalanche B Braided channel E Channelled by meltwater F Slow mass movement H Kettled I Irregularly sinuous channel J Anastomosing channel L Surface seepage M Meandering channel P Piping R Rapid mass movement U Inundation V Gully erosion

NOTE: 1Defined in Howes and Kenk (1997).

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Table 2-5 On-Site Symbols

Geomorphic Modifying Symbol Process or Landform1 Definition Snow Avalanche Area of rapid downslope movement of snow and ice, as well as incorporated rock, surficial material and vegetation debris, by flowing or sliding. Debris flows are also common within avalanche areas. Drumlin Streamlined hill or ridge of till with the long axis paralleling direction of flow of a former glacier. Esker Sinuous low ridge composed of sand and gravel formed by deposition from meltwater running through a channel beneath or within glacier ice. Gully erosion Landform with steep or gently sloping sides, and a steep or gently sloping longitudinal profile. Active running water, mass wasting and/or snow avalanching are typically present. Landslide headscarp Headwall initiation zone for a mass wasting process (large) including slides, slumps, lateral spread and earthflow; typically moderate to deep-seated. Landslide headscarp Headwall initiation zone for small/shallow mass wasting (small) processes including debris slides, debris flows and torrents. Large meltwater channel A channel eroded by glacial meltwater either under the (left side) glacier or along its side. Large meltwater channel (right side) Escarpment A steep slope that is usually much wider than it is high, such as the risers of river terraces and steep faces associated with eroded stratified rocks. It is produced by erosion and faulting, and topographically interrupts or breaks the general continuity of more gently sloping land surfaces. NOTE: 1Defined in Howes and Kenk (1997).

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2.4.5 Post-fieldwork Classification and Ratings – PEAA Following the field inventory program, the preliminary terrain classification was refined by terrain specialists using HD-MAPP in conjunction with field site data. All data were entered into a computer database that conforms to the structure of the British Columbia digital terrain database. Each terrain polygon may have up to three surficial material types (e.g., 50% moraine, 30% colluvium and 20% residual material). However, most polygons are relatively homogeneous and contain only one surficial material type.

2.4.6 Additional Mapping – Pipeline Route Detailed mapping at 1:2,000 was done along the pipeline route, rather than mapping on a polygon-by- polygon basis (polygons were mapped at 1:20,000), to compile information specific to the RoW. The depth to bedrock and thickness of organics were estimated along the pipeline route by breaking the length of the pipeline RoW into segments. The length of each segment should only be considered approximate, as they have been derived from aerial photograph interpretation. The field investigations were not intended specifically to address either depth to bedrock or thickness of organics, which are discussed below.

2.4.6.1 Depth to Bedrock As the pipeline will be placed in a trench approximately 1.8 m deep, it is important to know the depth to bedrock. The presence of bedrock within the trench depth will determine the amount of trenching or blasting required. For the bedrock classification system, see Table 2-6. Depths should be considered estimates, as they are based mainly on aerial photograph interpretation, supplemented with minimal field investigation (pertaining to depth to bedrock).

Table 2-6 Depth to Bedrock Classes

Class1 Description 1 Bedrock is exposed at surface along the pipeline route 2 Bedrock is within 1 m of surface along the pipeline route 3 Bedrock is between 1–2 m from surface along the pipeline route 4 Bedrock is greater than 2 m from surface along the pipeline route

NOTE: 1 Classes developed by Colt Engineering (McIver 2005, pers. comm.).

2.4.6.2 Thickness of Organics For mapping along the pipeline route, the thickness of organic units was recorded using organic classes (see Table 2-7). The classes assigned should be considered estimates, as they are based mainly on aerial photograph interpretation, supplemented with minimal field investigation (pertaining to thickness of organics).

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Table 2-7 Organic Classes

Class Description 1 Organics less than 1-m thick 2 Organics greater than 1-m thick

2.5 Identification of Geohazards A geohazard is defined by the International Centre for Geohazards as a geological state that represents or has the potential to develop further into a situation leading to damage or uncontrolled risks. This definition implies that geohazards are widespread phenomena that are related to geological and environmental conditions and involve long-term and short-term geological processes. Geohazards range from relatively small features to very large ones (e.g., submarine or surface landslides) and can affect local and regional socio-economics to a large extent (Geertsema et al. 2008). In addition, human activities—e.g., construction in an area of active rockfall without appropriate mitigation—could result in significant risk. Therefore, mitigation and prevention are paramount. To fully assess the potential environmental effects of the Project on terrain resources and the potential effects of terrain on the constructed pipeline, it is important to identify the geohazards within the PEAA. Geohazards were identified through a combination of aerial photograph interpretation, field investigation and exchange of information among project geotechnical engineers. Definitions are taken primarily from RIC (1996b). The geohazards encountered are described in Sections 2.5.1 to 2.5.5.

2.5.1 MassWasting For this project, mass wasting includes deep-seated landslides, shallow to moderately deep landslides, rockfalls, debris flows, avalanches, lateral spreading, lateral stream erosion (scour) and sedimentation, and wind, shallow stream or overland (flow) erosion.

2.5.1.1 Deep-seated Landslides For this project, deep-seated slides are considered to be more than approximately 10 to 15 m deep. Deep-seated slides may occur along weak clay layers in both soil and rock, such as nearly horizontal clay beds in glaciolacustrine deposits and weak clay layers in some of the bedrock sequences.

2.5.1.2 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides Shallow to moderately deep slides are considered to be up to 10 to 15 m deep. They occur within weaker soil or rock units and are often located on steeper slope segments than the deep-seated slides. In addition, these slides often occur on top of the deep-seated slides as a result of disturbance and cracking in the shallower material, caused in part by underlying deep-seated movement. The overlying slides typically have much higher rates of movement than the deep-seated slides and may respond rapidly to changes in pore pressure conditions. A special class of shallow to moderately deep slides may occur in some of the glaciomarine clays near Kitimat, as glaciomarine clay is more sensitive to disturbance or motion and fails more easily than other types of surficial deposits (e.g., Geertsema et al. 2005).

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Earthflows consist of masses of completely re-moulded soil that “flow” down slope, either rapidly or slowly. Groundwater blow-off failures (Cavers 2003) are groundwater-induced failures that lead to extreme piping (internal erosion) of the soil. They typically form in bedded glaciofluvial deposits along steep slope segments, where groundwater flow from permeable layers becomes blocked. This is commonly associated with the near-surface soil being reworked by vegetation, frost or other mechanisms. When the stored groundwater builds up sufficient pressure, the sediment layers may be blown off, with large amounts of stored groundwater draining rapidly, causing piping and surficial erosion of a canyon with an amphitheatre-shaped head scarp. Subsequent sloughing may also occur.

2.5.1.3 Debris Flows Debris flows occur when debris (i.e., accumulations of fluvial, bedrock, vegetative and colluvial material along streams) is mobilized by high stream flows and groundwater seepage (Jakob 2005). Debris flows are commonly initiated by rockfall in the upper reaches of the stream valley. The resulting mixture of water and soil can sweep down the stream channel, causing substantial erosion in some areas and deposition of debris in other areas. Debris flows can be rapid and disastrous and form a considerable part of alluvial fans.

2.5.1.4 Rockfall Rockfall includes both rock falling from bedrock cliffs and falls of boulders from very steep colluvial or till slopes. Rock toppling, rockfall and other failures of jointed rock masses occur in a few locations near the pipeline route. Engineering implications of rockfall hazard are discussed in Hungr and Evans (1989).

2.5.1.5 Avalanches Avalanches include the movement of snow, sediment and debris by snow down a slope. Even large avalanches do not usually directly affect a buried pipeline. However, above-ground structures, such as aerial crossings or expansion bends, could be affected. Avalanches may also block stream channels, subsequently resulting in avulsion or downcutting erosion. Changes to surface drainage conditions following major avalanches, coupled with periods of rapid snowmelt, are an important consideration, because they could result in exposure of the pipeline if suitable mitigation measures are not undertaken. Avalanches across access roads could also affect the ability to access and respond to various pipeline situations. Case studies, risk assessment, mitigation and background knowledge are presented in Weir (2002).

2.5.1.6 Lateral Spreading Lateral spreading involves lateral ground movement that is typically, but not necessarily, triggered by a seismic event. A lateral spread could involve large lateral movements and have a major impact on the pipeline.

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2.5.1.7 Stream Erosion and Sedimentation Stream erosion includes the possibility of lateral erosion, re-occupation of subchannels, or downcutting or scour exposing the pipeline. The possibility of secondary interactions, such as lateral erosion triggering slope instability, may also occur. Avulsion (channel switching such as on alluvial fans) is a special case of stream erosion. Where avulsion occurs on a large alluvial fan, the stream may relocate to a different part of the fan by as much as 100 m or more from the original stream crossing. This may cause downcutting erosion or sedimentation over a section of the pipeline where erosion was not considered in the design of the crossing. Avulsion on alluvial fans may be triggered by a variety of events such as high flows (rain or melting snow), ongoing deposition along the stream channel or debris flows or avalanches blocking the channel.

2.5.1.8 Wind and Water Erosion (Shallow Stream and Overland Flow) Wind and water erosion are two of the main agents of siltation, which could be a widespread occurrence along the pipeline route, particularly during and immediately following construction. The main consequences are environmental, including potential effects on streams and fish. Overland flow of surface water may be an important erosive element in agricultural areas with uniform slopes. In forested and hilly areas, gully and rill erosion by water in shallow streams is far more prevalent.

2.5.2 Settlement For this study, settlement includes both consolidation and karst-induced settlement or displacement.

2.5.2.1 Consolidation Settlement Normally consolidated silt, clay or peat may be subject to settlement where additional loads, such as fills, are placed.

2.5.2.2 Karst-induced Settlement or Displacement Karst is formed by chemical dissolution, in limestone, gypsum and other soluble rocks (BC MoF 2003). Potential indicators that a karst geohazard may be present include:  regions of carbonate bedrock  channels and furrows separated by ridges resulting from solution on bedrock surfaces  sinking streams, i.e., small streams that disappear underground into soluble bedrock  dolines or sinkholes (down-dropped areas where loss of ground has occurred, formed by karst processes)  caves

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2.5.3 Seismicity

2.5.3.1 Seismic Motion Seismic motion refers to ground-shaking due to a seismic event. Seismic motion has the potential to affect the pipeline, as well as above-ground infrastructure, by causing rockfall, earthflow or other instabilities on the landscape. Shaking, if severe enough, can damage the pipeline and infrastructure.

2.5.3.2 Liquefaction Liquefaction involves a loss of cohesion in water-saturated granular material such as sand or clay, often as a result of seismic shaking. Liquefaction can result in severe settlement, displacement and related problems.

2.5.4 Tsunami Tsunamis present a potential hazard for the terminal and pipeline infrastructure close to sea level. They may be generated locally by landslides into or within the marine environment, or they may have distant sources in the Pacific Rim basin (Clague et al. 2000).

2.5.5 Acid Rock Drainage Acid rock drainage (ARD) and metal leaching refer to:  increased acidity and metal concentrations in runoff and seepage water that flow from rock containing

reactive sulphide minerals such as pyrite (FeS2)  metal leaching that may or may not require the presence of high acidity Exposure of rock to water and oxygen results in the oxidation of sulphide minerals, which produces sulphuric acid as a by-product. The acid produced by this reaction may dissolve other minerals and cause the release of metals to the environment. ARD as described here is a natural process that is enhanced by the excavation of sulphide-bearing bedrock. ARD is discussed mainly in separate reports found in Volume 3, Appendix E of the Application.

2.6 Quality Control Quality control (QC) and quality assessment (QA) were completed during preliminary mapping, the field inventory program and final mapping, as outlined in the following subsections.

2.6.1 Preliminary Mapping The preliminary terrain interpretation was reviewed early in the process, to ensure that the mapping adhered to project mapping standards. Line work that was not acceptable was modified and underwent further review to ensure conformance with project standards.

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2.6.2 Field Inventory Program The field program QA consisted of field correlation, field assessment and a review of the field plot cards. The field correlation was undertaken at the beginning of the field programs. Field crews worked together for a day to:  ensure that all team members had a similar understanding of the purpose of the program  standardize data collection efforts  ensure that all individuals shared a common understanding of surficial material, terrain stability and surface erosion Individuals commonly worked with members from other teams to ensure consistency between teams.

2.6.3 Final Mapping and Classification Mapping without field checking and ground verification would not be possible, because of the difficulty of distinguishing certain types of deposits using aerial photographs alone. Field data were plotted and the mapping reviewed and updated based on the findings on the ground. The final mapping was reviewed to ensure compliance with project mapping standards, and classifications of terrain units were reviewed to assess their level of congruence. For surficial material and geomorphic modifying processes, a subjective evaluation was made. If there was a measurable difference in the engineering properties of the material (e.g., moraine as opposed to organic), then the classification was deemed not acceptable. At least 50% of all terrain classifications were reviewed at some stage of the classification process. All polygons along the pipeline route in the Coast Mountains physiographic region were reviewed. Randomly selected polygons were reviewed in the other five physiographic regions. As the terrain maps were used as a foundation for both the soil and TEM programs, the maps underwent a second quality check during the soil and TEM mapping programs. Where discrepancies in the terrain classifications were noted by the soil or TEM team, the maps were reviewed and classifications were reconciled.

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3 Results of Baseline Investigations Geology and terrain conditions along the pipeline route were evaluated based on physiographic regions. The regions have relatively homogeneous geographic features, such as landforms, regional climatic conditions, general elevations, local relief and soil profile morphology (Bostock 1967; Bostock 1970; Holland 1976). The six physiographic regions, defined by Pettapiece and Holland, are:  Eastern Alberta Plains (Pettapiece 1986)  Southern Alberta Uplands (Pettapiece 1986)  Alberta Plateau (Holland 1976)  Rocky Mountains (Holland 1976)  Interior Plateau (Holland 1976)  Coast Mountains (Holland 1976) These regions are shown in Figure 3-1. See Table 3-1 for the approximate start and end points of each physiographic region along the pipeline route. Results of the terrain analysis are discussed on the basis of the six physiographic regions previously identified. Statistical data is generally provided for both the PEAA and PDA.

Table 3-1 Physiographic Regions Crossed by the Pipeline Route

Province Physiographic Region Start Point1 End Point2 Length (KP) (KP) (km) Alberta Eastern Alberta Plains 0 168.1 168.1 Southern Alberta Uplands 168.1 516.7 348.6 British Alberta Plateau 516.7 568.0 51.3 Columbia Rocky Mountains 568.0 670.0 102.0 Interior Plateau 670.0 1060.1 390.1 Coast Mountains 1060.1 1172.19 112.09

NOTES: Start and end kilometres for each physiographic region are based on broad regions by Pettapiece (1986) (Alberta) and Holland (1976) (British Columbia) and subsequently refined through detailed analysis of terrain types using HD- MAPP. 1 The eastern start point is near Bruderheim, Alberta. 2 The western end point is the Kitimat Terminal, south of Kitimat, British Columbia.

2010 Page 3-1 A L A S K A

Williston Lake Fort St. John Peace River Reach eace Utikuma P er Lake i v Peace R Rycroft Chetwynd Dawson Creek Manson P Aiyansh a r Lesser Slave Lake r e Creek s v New Hazelton n i ip R

Kitwanga R y High Mackenzie k e

o a Alberta Prairie c Rocky m h Plateau S B Mountains iver Grande ti R r a Tumbler Ridge api Valleyview e Coast Smithers b W Prairie v Prince McLeod i Athabasca Telkwa in A L B E R T A e R Mountains Lake Rupert L a Terrace a Southern AlbertaSwan Hills c k Interior Plateau s e ver a Ri Fort KP 500 er Uplands b ena iv a ke St. James Cutbank R th Newbrook S Houston A Burns Lake KP 250 Kitimat Eastern Alberta KP 750 Whitecourt Vimy Fraser Lake er Plains KP 1000 or Riv Morice François McGreg er Lake Vanderhoof iv KP 1172.2 Fraser Fort Hutton R r KP 0 Lake e

y v Bruderheim Fraser a i O Ootsa Lake Lake W F h o ra R ts i se d a l r l d La l R i ke o iv o Kemano w W e Stony Plain Hoult and er Willmore cL Prince M R Wilderness Clore Tunnels Iv e George e Park Edson ak r Hinton atalkuz L er Edmonton N an Riv Hixon w Tweedsmuir r e Camrose McBride Pembin ve h a R i c Provincial Park t Wells a k Quesnel s a Jasper S Winfield rth

B R I T I S H F Valemount N o Bashaw r

a Jasper National s C O L U M B I A e Park of Canada r Alexandria R Kilometre Post iv e r Wells Gray Rocky Mountain Pipeline Horsefly Provincial Park House Red Deer

Tunnel

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Provincial Park/Protected Area

Urban Area 0 50 100 150

Kilometres JWA-1038983-029-001 Kamloops Reference: Pipeline Route R Projection Parameters: Lambert Conformal Conic Central Meridian: 120°E 1st Standard Parallel: 50°N Latitude of Origin: 40°N 2nd Standard Parallel: 70°N Kelowna Kootenay Lake

Okanagan Lake Lower Arrow REFERENCES: NTDB Topographic Mapsheets provided by the Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, Department of Natural Resources. All rights reserved. Lake CONTRACTOR: FIGURE NUMBER: DATE: Jacques Whitford AXYS Ltd. ENBRIDGE NORTHERN GATEWAY PROJECT 3-1 20091208 PREPARED BY: PREPARED FOR: SCALE: AUTHOR: APPROVED BY: Physiographic Regions along the Pipeline Route 1:5,000,000 JP2 DC PROJECTION: DATUM: LCC NAD 83 Z:\Clients\Enbridge\Gateway\Figures\MXD\JWA-CAL-029_Physio\JWA-CAL-029-001_Route_R_8-5x11.mxd Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Section 3: Results of Baseline Investigations

3.1 Eastern Alberta Plains From its starting point near Bruderheim (northeast of Edmonton) to Green Court, Alberta (KP 0 to KP 168.1) the pipeline route crosses the Eastern Alberta Plains physiographic region (Pettapiece 1986).

3.1.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology Along the pipeline route, elevations range from 700 m asl near Bruderheim to approximately 800 m asl near Green Court. Topography ranges from nearly level and very gently undulating in the Bruderheim and Edmonton areas to gently undulating and rolling near Mayerthorpe and Green Court. Much of the region is currently used for agriculture (e.g., annual crops, pasture). The bedrock of the Eastern Alberta Plains includes the Horseshoe Canyon and Scollard Formations (Journeay et al. 2000a). These formations are flat lying and generally have not been affected by past tectonic activity. The Upper Cretaceous Horseshoe Canyon Formation is the uppermost bedrock unit across most of the region and includes sandstone, mudstone and shale. Localized ironstone concretions and scattered coal seams may also be present (Shetsen 1990). Some bentonitic seams are present, but the formation is generally less subject to slope instability than the Scollard Formation. The underlying Scollard Formation is Cretaceous to Tertiary in age and comprises sandstone and mudstone, with numerous interbeds of shale and coal (Journeay et al. 2000a). The presence of bentonitic and smectitic clay creates low shear strengths in some of the beds. As a result, the Scollard Formation is an important factor for regional slope stability (AMEC 2006). Except for local areas on the walls of the North Saskatchewan River valley, exposures of the Horseshoe Canyon and Scollard Formations are uncommon. A few outcrops of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation are found north of Lac St. Anne. Surficial material is usually more than 2 m thick. For the total length of depth-to-bedrock classes mapped along the pipeline route, see Table 3-2. These numbers should be considered estimates, as they are based mainly on aerial photograph interpretation.

Table 3-2 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Eastern Alberta Plains

Depth to Bedrock1 Length2 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) At the surface 0.0 0.0 Within 1 m of surface 0.0 0.0 Between 1 and 2 m 0.0 0.0 Greater than 2 m 168.1 100.0 Total 168.1 100.0

NOTES: 1 Based on 1:2,000 scale mapping 2 Measured along the pipeline RoW

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3.1.2 Hydrography The Eastern Alberta Plains region is drained by the North Saskatchewan River, its tributaries and tributaries of the Athabasca River. These watercourses have cut into the relatively soft bedrock of the region, producing valleys of various sizes. The North Saskatchewan River flows in a broad U-shaped valley averaging approximately 75 m deep and 800 m wide. Major tributaries of the Athabasca River include the Pembina and Paddle Rivers and their tributaries. The drainage divide between the two major river systems is just east of the Pembina River. See Table 3-3 for a list of the major watercourses that the pipeline route crosses within the region.

Table 3-3 Major Watercourses along the Pipeline Route – Eastern Alberta Plains

Watercourse KP North Saskatchewan River 4.0 Riviere Qui Barre 63.9 Pembina River 131.6 Paddle River 138.2 Little Paddle River 164.0

3.1.3 SurficialGeology See Table 3-4 for a summary of the extent of surficial material along the pipeline route within the region. See Table 3-5 for a summary of the depth of organic accumulations along the pipeline route. See Table 3-6 for the surficial material in the areas intended for project infrastructure. Statistics are based on overlying parent material. For example, glaciolacustrine veneers and blankets overlying till are shown as glaciolacustrine, not till. The Surficial Geology and Depth to Bedrock Atlas (see Appendix A on CD) provides alignment sheets at a scale of 1:20,000 showing the surficial deposits along the pipeline route. The Eastern Alberta Plains region section of the atlas can be consulted for exact locations of surficial units.

Table 3-4 Surficial Material along the Pipeline Route – Eastern Alberta Plains

PEAA PDA Percent of Percent of Physiographic Physiographic Surficial Material1 Area Region Area Region (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 13.2 0.1 0.1 <0.1 Colluvium 3.7 <0.1 0.3 <0.1 Aeolian 658.7 3.9 32.2 3.9 Fluvial 271.0 1.6 14.3 1.7 Glaciofluvial (deltaic) 302.0 1.8 17.9 2.2

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Table 3-4 Surficial Material along the Pipeline Route – Eastern Alberta Plains (cont’d)

PEAA PDA Percent of Percent of Physiographic Physiographic Surficial Material1 Area Region Area Region (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Glaciolacustrine 8,650.9 51.7 431.3 52.1 Lacustrine 139.3 0.8 7.9 0.9 Moraine 5,814.5 34.8 284.6 34.4 Organic 749.6 4.5 37.6 4.5 Water 120.6 0.7 1.4 0.2 Total 16,723.5 100.0 827.6 100.0

NOTE: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

Table 3-5 Thickness of Organics along the Pipeline Route – Eastern Alberta Plains

Depth of Organic Accumulations Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) <1 m 4,584 2.7 >1 m 3,575 2.1 Non-organic 160,386 95.2 Total 168,545 100.0

NOTES: Based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 1 Measured along the pipeline RoW

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Table 3-6 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Project Infrastructure – Eastern Alberta Plains

Initiating Station near Mayerthorpe Stockpile North Saskatchewan Bruderheim Mearns Stockpile Site Cherhill Stockpile Site Site River Staging Area Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Aeolian 1.9 100.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Glaciolacustrine 0 0 8.0 30.0 9.4 60.0 10.3 100.0 2.0 100.0 Moraine 0 0 18.6 70.0 6.3 40.0 0 0 0 0 Total 1.9 100.0 26.6 100.0 15.7 100.0 10.3 100.0 2.0 100.0

NOTE: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Surficial deposits along the entire pipeline are mainly of Late Wisconsinan (Pleistocene) age. Older deposits are quite rare and are usually found at depth in areas of very thick surficial units; no such units were identified in this study for any of the regions. Within the Eastern Alberta Plains region, fine-textured glaciolacustrine sediments are the most common surficial material in both the PEAA and PDA. This material occurs along 51.7% of this portion of the PEAA and 52.1% of this portion of the PDA, and was deposited primarily in glacial Lake Edmonton (Bayrock 1972). Glaciolacustrine deposits include silt and clay that locally contain dropstones from ice rafts. Field data indicate that clay is dominant, with lesser amounts of silt. The topography of the glaciolacustrine deposits varies from level to very gently sloping and undulating. Near Mayerthorpe, it is undulating to hummocky. Moraine (till) is the second most common surficial material mapped. Within this region, moraine forms 34.8% of the surficial material in the PEAA, and 34.4% in the PDA. Field data show that these tills are predominantly clay-rich (50 to 80%) with lesser amounts of silt (20% to 50%). Morainal deposits are often quite thick—generally less than 25 m in upland areas, but up to 100 m in buried valleys (Shetsen 1990). Morainal material is the most common surficial material for the area intended for the Mearns stockpile site (70%), followed by the Cherhill stockpile site (40%). Organic accumulations have developed in some lowland depressions. Along the pipeline route, most organic layers are less than 1 m thick (Table 3-5), although sampling suggests that they may approach 4 m locally. Approximately 5% of the PEAA within the Eastern Alberta Plains consists of organic deposits. Most organic layers have developed over clay-rich glaciolacustrine sediments. In this region, 3.9% of the PEAA and PDA is covered by wind-blown silt and sand, which forms dune fields and extensive but discontinuous aeolian veneers. These deposits are likely derived from glaciofluvial and glaciolacustrine deposits. Aeolian sediments cover 100% of the land area of the initiating station near Bruderheim. These units are sensitive to wind erosion unless stabilized by vegetation (St-Onge 1972). Areas of deltaic and glaciofluvial sand were exposed after glacial lakes drained. Approximately 1.8% of the PEAA and 2.2% of the PDA consists of sandy glaciofluvial deposits. These units are sensitive to wind erosion if they are not stabilized by vegetation (St-Onge 1972). Fluvial sediments account for 1.6% of the PEAA and 1.7% of the PDA, and are found on the beds, floodplains and lower terraces of river valleys (e.g., North Saskatchewan, Pembina and Paddle Rivers). These deposits consist mainly of fine sand, silt and clay, with minor coarse-grained sand and gravel. Field investigations indicate that some fluvial veneers are underlain by glaciofluvial material. Slopes of incised valleys generally consist of colluvial material derived from glaciolacustrine sediments and weakly lithified bedrock. Less than 0.1% of the area consists of colluvial material.

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3.1.4 Geohazards The Eastern Alberta Plains region has four areas where geohazards were identified. The main area of concern is at the North Saskatchewan River crossing (KP 4.0 to KP 4.5 . Shallow and moderately deep landslides were identified within a gully immediately north of the RoW along the west bank of the North Saskatchewan River. The remaining three areas are of less concern. Potential wind and water erosion could be a problem between the initiating station near Bruderheim and the east bank of the North Saskatchewan River (KP 0 to KP 4.0) where sandy aeolian veneers and blankets are present. Stream erosion could occur at the Pembina River (KP 131.6 to KP 131.8 ) and Little Paddle River (KP 164.0 to KP 164.1) crossings. These meandering rivers exhibit cutbanks several metres high that may be eroding, especially during flood phases of the rivers.

3.2 Southern Alberta Uplands The Southern Alberta Uplands extend westward from the Eastern Alberta Plains boundary at KP 168.1 to KP 516.7 at the Alberta–British Columbia boundary. It is analogous to the Alberta Plateau physiographic region in eastern British Columbia, despite the different naming of each province’s portion.

3.2.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology The landscape of this physiographic region commonly reflects the mainly flat lying bedrock topography. However, broad valleys have been cut into the surface in several areas (Knapik and Lindsay 1983; Fenton et al. 1994). Deposition of glacial sediments over the bedrock surface has resulted in subdued topography across much of the region (Knapik and Lindsay 1983) and recent uplift has caused streams to erode, creating deeper valleys and resulting in a plateau–benchland landscape. Elevations range between 800 and 975 m asl. The Southern Alberta Uplands physiographic region is underlain by three major formations: the Upper Paskapoo, Wapiti and Scollard Formations (Knapik and Lindsay 1983; Journeay et al. 2000a). The rock strata in the eastern portion of this region are generally flat lying, whereas thrust faults parallel to the overall trends of the Rocky Mountains occur along the western margin (Journeay et al. 2000a). As in the Eastern Alberta Plains, the Tertiary to Cretaceous Scollard Formation contains sandstone and mudstone, with interbedded shale, coal and some bentonite (Journeay et al. 2000a). As discussed previously, the Scollard Formation is subject to instability, with shallow and deep-seated slides. The Palaeocene Upper Paskapoo Formation contains cross-bedded sandstone with interbedded sandstone, siltstone and mudstone. Lenticular or laterally discontinuous strata are common, and shale and coal are present locally. In general, the Upper Paskapoo Formation exhibits better stability conditions than the Scollard Formation, but slides and other signs of slope instability can occur along the coal seams and some related clays. The Upper Wapiti Formation is Late Cretaceous in age and is composed of non-marine cross-bedded sandstone with scattered conglomerate, siltstone and mudstone. Coal seams are found locally (Twardy and Corns 1980; Journeay et al. 2000a). Continuous seams of bentonite and other highly plastic clays

Page 3-8 2010 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Section 3: Results of Baseline Investigations have been found within the formation and widespread, large, deep-seated slope failures have been identified (AMEC 2006). Historical seismic records suggest that a number of small earthquakes have occurred within the Southern Alberta Uplands, most of less than 4.5 magnitude. These have occurred in the area north of Hinton and northwest of Edson (Adams and Basham 2001). Bedrock outcrops can be found within the valleys of some of the larger river systems, including the Wapiti and Smoky Rivers. However, the region is mostly covered by glacial and postglacial deposits. The thickness of surficial deposits is highly variable, ranging from minimal to several metres (St-Onge and Richard 1975; Andriashek 2001). Most of the PDA within this physiographic region is characterized by surficial deposits over 2 m thick. See Table 3-7 for the areal extents of the various depth-to-bedrock classes mapped. These numbers should be considered estimates, as they are based mainly on aerial photograph interpretation.

Table 3-7 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Southern Alberta Uplands

Depth to Bedrock Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) At the surface 0 0.0 Within 1 m of surface 135 0.0 Between 1–2 m 4,100 1.2 Greater than 2 m 343,637 98.8 Total 347,872 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 1 Measured along the pipeline RoW.

3.2.2 Hydrography The Southern Alberta Uplands are drained by tributaries of the Peace and Athabasca Rivers. The Peace River system drains to the north and northeast and comprises the Smoky, Wapiti, Simonette, Iosegun, Latornell and Little Smoky Rivers. Some of the tributaries of the northeast-draining Athabasca River are the McLeod, Pembina and Sakwatamau Rivers. The sources of most of these rivers are in the Rocky Mountains and adjacent foothills (Twardy and Corns 1980). Other smaller rivers arise from springs and organic basins throughout the area. Drainage patterns vary from trellis to subparallel to dendritic (Twardy and Corns 1980). See Table 3-8 for a list of the major watercourses crossed by the pipeline route in the Southern Alberta Uplands.

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Table 3-8 Major Watercourses Crossed by the Pipeline Route – Southern Alberta Uplands

Watercourse KP Athabasca River 187.3 Sakwatamau River 200.4 Chickadee Creek 218.9 Two Creek 241.8 Iosegun River 258.9 Little Smoky River 291.0 Waskahigan River 318.2 Deep Valley Creek 338.8 Tributary of Deep Valley Creek 340.7 Unnamed tributary 350.7 Simonette River 360.0 Latornell River 371.9 Tributary to Smoky River 398.5 Smoky River 421.4 Gold Creek 431.8 Big Mountain Creek 435.3 Bald Mountain Creek 445.9 Pinto Creek 473.4 Wapiti River 493.3

3.2.3 SurficialGeology The Surficial Geology and Depth to Bedrock Atlas (see Appendix A on CD) illustrates the surficial sediments found along the pipeline route in the Southern Alberta Uplands region. See Table 3-9 for a summary of surficial sediments and Table 3-10 provides a summary of the organic matter depth classes along the pipeline route. Moraine is the most common surficial material found in the Southern Alberta Uplands, accounting for almost 52% of the material in the PEAA and almost 54% of the material in the PDA. Tills are commonly yellow to olive, and slightly to moderately stony with some of the larger clasts derived from the Canadian Shield to the northeast. Information collected during the field program shows that the till matrix consists of silt with lesser amounts of clay. Coarse fragment content of the till is generally less than 20%. Till derived primarily from the Paskapoo Formation (Mayberne Till; Twardy and Corns 1980) has a dominantly sandy clay loam matrix. Till derived primarily from the Wapiti Formation (Edson Till; Twardy and Corns 1980) generally has a clay loam matrix (Knapik and Lindsay 1983). In uplands and steeply sloping areas, till commonly forms blankets or veneers less than 2-m thick. In lowlands and areas of low to moderate relief, till thickness is usually 1 to 5 m, but can locally exceed 10 m (Knapik and Lindsay 1983; Andriashek 2001).

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Table 3-9 Surficial Material Types in the PEAA and PDA – Southern Alberta Uplands

PEAA PDA Percent of Percent of Physiographic Physiographic Surficial Material Area Region Area Region (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 124.2 0.3 0.3 <0.1 Bedrock 30.1 0.1 0.1 <0.1 Colluvium 118.4 0.3 2.4 0.1 Aeolian 805.0 2.2 45.1 2.6 Fluvial 1,563.4 4.3 55.1 3.2 Glaciofluvial 5,336.0 14.7 256.1 15.0 Glaciolacustrine 6,897.5 19.0 329.3 19.3 Lacustrine 1.2 <0.1 0.0 0.0 Moraine 18,712.0 51.6 912.2 53.6 Organic 2,525.8 7.0 95.8 5.6 Water 175.5 0.5 6.3 0.4 Total 36,289.1 100.0 1,702.7 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

Table 3-10 Thickness of Organics along the Pipeline Route – Southern Alberta Uplands

Depth of Organic Accumulations Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) <1 m 14,016 4.0 >1 m 8,946 2.6 Non-organic 324,910 93.4 Total 347,872 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 1 Measured along the pipeline RoW.

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Glaciolacustrine deposits form approximately 19% of the PEAA and 19.3% of the PDA in the Southern Alberta Uplands, and are at elevations of less than 850 m. These deposits generally consist of dark grey-brown clay and yellow-brown silt that is between 1 and 5 m thick. In some places, glaciolacustrine veneers overlie till. Approximately 15% of the PEAA and 15% of the PDA in the Southern Alberta Uplands is glaciofluvial material. Information collected during the field program shows that these deposits are composed of sand, with minor silt and gravel. Glaciofluvial deposits are usually well sorted and stratified, and deposit thickness varies considerably. In places, glaciofluvial veneers less than 1 m thick were found overlying moraine. Organic material accounts for approximately 7% of the PEAA and 6% of the PDA surficial material. Organic accumulations (bogs and fens) are found in topographic depressions and poorly drained areas. In many areas, the organic deposits are underlain by fine-textured glaciolacustrine and morainal material. Within this PDA segment, most organic deposits are less than 1 m thick (Table 3-10). Other surficial material types individually account for less than 8% of the PEAA in this region. Approximately 4.3% is fluvial deposits. Aeolian deposits form 2.2% of the PEAA and consist mainly of fine-grained sand and silt. Colluvial material makes up less than 1.0% and is found along riverbanks and the lower parts of eroded escarpments. Colluvial veneers commonly have a sandy matrix. Tables 3-11 to 3-14 provide a summary of the surficial material in the areas intended for project infrastructure in the Southern Alberta Uplands. As in the PEAA, moraine is the dominant surficial material in the PDA for most of the areas intended for project infrastructure, covering 100% of the areas intended for the Athabasca River West and Fox Creek staging areas and the Kaybob and Deep Valley Creek stockpile sites. It is also dominant in the areas intended for the Whitecourt West stockpile site (87.4%), the Deep Valley Creek construction camp (about 79%) and the Calahoo Creek stockpile site (60%).

Table 3-11 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Pump Station and Access Roads – Southern Alberta Uplands

Smoky River Pump Smoky River Pump Whitecourt Pump Whitecourt Pump Station Station Access Station Station Access Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Glaciofluvial 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 100.0 0.1 100.0 Glaciolacustrine 2.9 80.6 0.2 80.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Moraine 0.7 19.4 0.12 19.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 3.6 100.0 0.3 100.0 2.8 100.0 0.1 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping. Statistics have been rounded to one decimal place. For some surficial materials this means that areas less than 0.1ha have been rounded up to 0.1ha.

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Table 3-12 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Staging Areas – Southern Alberta Uplands

Athabasca River East Athabasca River West Fox Creek Latornell River Staging Pinto Creek Staging Staging Area Staging Area Staging Area Area Area Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Aeolian 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 100.0 Fluvial 0.4 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciolacustrine 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 1.6 100.0 Moraine 0.0 0.0 2.0 100.0 2.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 Total 0.4 100.0 2.0 100.0 2.0 100.0 1.7 100.0 1.6 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

Table 3-13 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Construction Camps and Stockpile Sites – Southern Alberta Uplands

Braaten Whitecourt Construction Deep Valley Creek Construction Braaten Stockpile Calahoo Creek Deep Valley Creek Camp Construction Camp Camp Site Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 0.0 0.0 5.2 21.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciofluvial 8.6 59.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.7 60.0 4.7 40.0 14.7 100.0 Glaciolacustrine 0.1 1.0 0.0 0.0 5.7 23.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 Moraine 5.7 39.5 19.4 78.9 18.8 76.7 5.8 40.0 7.1 60.0 0.0 0.0 Organic 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 14.5 100.0 24.6 100.0 24.5 100.0 14.5 100.0 11.8 100.0 14.7 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-13 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Construction Camps and Stockpile Sites – Southern Alberta Uplands (cont’d)

Kaybob Stockpile Site Latornell River Stony Creek Stockpile Whitecourt Stockpile Whitecourt West Stockpile Site Site Site Stockpile Site Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.7 100.0 0.0 0.0 Aeolian 0.0 0.0 3.1 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Fluvial 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciofluvial 0.0 0.0 9.4 60.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciolacustrine 0.0 0.0 3.1 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 12.6 Moraine 23.5 100.0 0.0 0.0 17.6 99.8 0.0 0.0 11.8 87.4 Total 23.5 100.0 15.6 100.0 17.6 100.0 11.7 100.0 13.5 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-14 Surficial Material along the proposed Powerline Easements – Southern Alberta Uplands

Smoky River Powerline Whitecourt Powerline Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 0.0 0.0 1.1 6.7 Fluvial 3.9 5.2 5.6 35.1 Glaciofluvial 16.7 21.9 8.1 50.9 Glaciolacustrine 46.3 61.0 0.0 0.0 Moraine 7.8 10.3 0.0 0.0 Organic 1.0 1.3 0.9 5.9 Water 0.2 0.3 0.2 1.4 Total 75.9 100.0 15.9 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping

Glaciolacustrine sediments are also common in the areas intended for project infrastructure, such as the Pinto Creek staging area (100%) and the Smoky River pump station and access road (about 80%). Glaciofluvial sediments cover 100% of the areas intended for the Whitecourt pump station and access road. They are also dominant in the areas intended for the Latornell River stockpile site (60%), the Braaten construction camp and the Braaten stockpile site (approximately 60%), and cover 40% of the area intended for the Calahoo Creek stockpile site. The area intended for the Athabasca River East staging area is covered by fluvial deposits (100%), and the area intended for the Latornell River staging area by aeolian deposits (100%). Anthropogenic surficial material (i.e., disturbed lands) accounts for 100% of the area intended for the Whitecourt stockpile site and 21% of the area intended for the Deep Valley Creek construction camp. Surficial materials along the proposed Smoky River powerline easement consist mainly of glaciolacustrine (61.0%), glaciofluvial (21.9%) and moraine deposits (10.3%). Fluvial deposits are very minor and account for about 5% of the surficial deposits. The main surficial materials along the proposed Whitecourt powerline are glaciofluvial and fluvial deposits (50.9% and 35.1% respectively). Areas characterised by anthropogenic disturbance account for 6.7% of the surficial deposits. Minor organic accumulation and water are present in topographic lows and account for 7.3% of the surficial materials.

3.2.4 Geohazards The Southern Alberta Uplands region has 43 sites where geohazards were identified. These geohazards include deep-seated landslides (9 sites), shallow to moderately deep landslides (13 sites), lateral stream erosion and scour (17 sites), erosion from wind, shallow streams or overland flow (3 sites) and consolidation settlement (1 site). The powerline easements fall within the PEAA and are therefore not discussed separately.

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3.2.4.1 Deep-Seated Slides

Ancient deep-seated landslides have been identified along the sides of the Swan Hills, southeast of Whitecourt (KP 178.4 to KP 181.6). More active deep-seated landslides occur:  west of the PDA at the north approach to the Athabasca River (KP 187.3 to KP 187.5)  at the west approach to the Little Smoky River (KP 291.0 to KP 291.8 ), triggered by river undercutting  west of Latornell River (KP 371.9 to KP 372.1)  in the west valley wall of the Smoky River (KP 421.4 to KP 422.4 )  at the Pinto Creek meander bend (KP 473.4 to KP 473.6 ), where the slide caused shifting of the creek  at the Wapiti River (KP 493.3 to KP 493.9 )

Possible deep-seated landslides were also identified at:  the east approach to the Little Smoky River (KP 291.0 to KP 291.7)  the Latornell River (KP 371.9 to KP 372.9)  Pinto Creek (KP 473.4 to KP 474.6 )

3.2.4.2 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides Shallow to moderately deep landslides have been identified during mapping and fieldwork at:  the northern approach to the Athabasca River (KP 187.3 to KP 187.5 ). These are likely caused by gullied terrain and piping and blow-out failure.  a narrow corridor near Sakwatamau River, along moderately steep slope cutbanks (KP 200.4 to KP 202.0 )  a steep, narrow gully (KP 215.9 to KP 216.0)  the east approach to the Iosegun River (KP 258.6 to KP 258.8)  the Iosegun River (valley) (KP 258.9 to KP 259.0 )  the tributary to Smoky River west of the PDA (KP 395.7 to KP 395.8)  the east valley wall of the Smoky River (KP 420.0 to KP 420.9)  Gold Creek (KP 431.8 to KP 432.3 )  Big Mountain Creek (KP 435.3 to KP 436.2 )  Bald Mountain Creek (KP 445.9 to KP 446.0)  the Wapiti River area (KP 493.3 to KP 493.9 )

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3.2.4.3 Lateral Stream Erosion, Scour and Sedimentation Ongoing stream erosion through lateral migration or scour was observed at:  the Athabasca River (KP 187.3 to KP 187.9)  the Sakwatamau River (KP 200.4 to KP 201.2 )  Chickadee Creek (KP 218.9 to KP 219.1)  Two Creek (KP 241.8 to KP 241.9)  the Iosegun River (258.9 to KP 259.2)  the Little Smoky River crossing (KP 291.0 to KP 291.1) and the west approach (KP 291.1 to KP 291.9)  the Waskahigan River (KP 318.2 to KP 318.8 )  Deep Valley Creek (KP 338.8 to KP 339.5)  a tributary to Deep Valley Creek (KP 340.7 to KP 341.2)  an unnamed tributary (KP 350.7 to KP 350.8)  the Simonette River (KP 360.0 to KP 360.5 )  the Latornell River (KP 371.9 to KP 372.9 )  a tributary to Smoky River (KP 395.7 to KP 395.8)  the Smoky River floodplain (420.9 to KP 422.6)  Gold Creek (KP 431.8 to KP 432.3)  Big Mountain Creek (KP 435.3 to KP 436.1)  Bald Mountain Creek (KP 445.9 to KP 446.0)

3.2.4.4 Wind and Water Erosion Overland flow erosion was observed along steep slopes at:  the east approach to the Iosegun River (KP 258.8 to KP 259.1)  a tributary to Deep Valley Creek (KP 340.5 to KP 340.9)  an unnamed tributary (KP 350.7 to KP 350.8)  Big Mountain Creek (KP 435.3 to KP 436.1)  Bald Mountain Creek (KP 445.9 to KP 446.0)

3.2.4.5 Consolidation Settlement Consolidation settlement was observed to be a potential geohazard at the Iosegun River (KP 258.9 to KP 259.2 ), where the soft, highly erodible soils are saturated with groundwater.

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3.3 Alberta Plateau The Alberta Plateau physiographic region is situated immediately west of the Alberta–British Columbia boundary and east of the Rocky Mountains. It is analogous to the Southern Alberta Uplands physiographic region in Alberta. The pipeline route crosses the Alberta Plateau for 51.3 km between KP 516.7 and KP 568.0.

3.3.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology The Alberta Plateau consists of flat to gently rolling topography. The elevation of the land surface is commonly between 900 and 1,200 m asl with a maximum elevation of 1,500 m (Ryder 1978). Areas of high elevation are characterized by rugged and rocky topography. Hills in the region are commonly mesa- like (flat-topped). Lowland areas are characterized by broad river valleys; glaciofluvial terraces are locally found in deeply incised valleys. The bedrock underlying this region is Triassic to Cretaceous in age and primarily consists of the Spray River, Brazeau and Smoky Assemblages. Several thrust faults are present within them (Journeay et al. 2000a, 2000b). The Spray River assemblage is Triassic to Jurassic in age and contains continental margin siltstone, sandstone and limestone. The Smoky Group is Upper Cretaceous in age and contains marine shale with siltstone and sandstone. The Upper Cretaceous Brazeau Group consists of marine sandstone, conglomerate and shale (Journeay et al. 2000b). Typically, these formations contain less highly plastic clay than many of the rock types to the east and, as a result, bedrock stability is better (AMEC 2006). Most of the PDA in this region is characterized by surficial deposits greater than 2 m thick. See Table 3-15 for the total area of different depth-to-bedrock classes mapped along the pipeline route.

Table 3-15 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Alberta Plateau

Depth to Bedrock Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) At the surface 0 0 Within 1 m of surface 0 0 Between 1–2 m 1,624 3.2 Greater than 2 m 49,000 96.8 Total 50,624 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 1 Measured along the pipeline RoW.

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3.3.2 Hydrography The Peace River is the largest watercourse in the Alberta Plateau. It flows to the east and occupies a valley 200 m deep and 3 to 6 km wide. The main tributaries of the Peace River in the PEAA include Kinuseo Creek and the South Redwillow River. These tributaries are characterized by deeply incised valleys that locally expose sedimentary bedrock. See Table 3-16 for a list of the major watercourses crossed by the pipeline route in this region.

Table 3-16 Major Watercourses along the Pipeline Route – Alberta Plateau

Watercourse KP Hiding Creek 517.9 South Redwillow River 531.9 Creek 548.1 548.1

3.3.3 SurficialGeology The Surficial Geology and Depth to Bedrock Atlas (see Appendix A on CD) illustrates the surficial sediments within the PEAA. See Table 3-17 for a summary of the surficial material along the pipeline route within the Alberta Plateau. Table 3-18 provides a summary of the depth of organics along the pipeline route and Table 3-19 summarizes the surficial material identified in the areas intended for project infrastructure in the Alberta Plateau.

Table 3-17 Surficial Material along the Pipeline Route – Alberta Plateau

PEAA PDA Percent of Physiographic Percent of Physiographic Surficial Material Area Region Area Region (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Bedrock 13.4 0.3 0.0 0.0 Colluvium 2.1 <0.1 0.0 0.0 Fluvial 114.5 2.2 4.7 1.9 Glaciofluvial 780.6 15.2 45.6 18.4 Lacustrine 1.4 <0.1 0.0 0.0 Glaciolacustrine 549.4 10.7 30.1 12.1 Moraine 3,075.6 59.7 143.7 58.0 Organic 578.6 11.2 23.6 9.5 Water 34.9 0.7 0.1 <0.1 Total 5,150.5 100.0 247.8 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping. Statistics have been rounded to one decimal place. For some surficial materials this means that areas less than 0.1ha have been rounded up to 0.1 ha.

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Table 3-18 Thickness of Organics along the Pipeline Route – Alberta Plateau

Depth of Organic Accumulations Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) <1 m 5,997 11.8 >1 m 1,705 3.4 Non-organic 42,922 84.8 Total 50,624 100.0 NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 2 Measured along the pipeline RoW.

Table 3-19 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Project Infrastructure – Alberta Plateau

South Redwillow River South Redwillow River Stony Lake Staging Area Surficial Construction Camp Stockpile Site Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Moraine 24.5 100.0 15.7 100.0 2.0 100.0 Total 24.5 100.0 15.7 100.0 2.0 100.0 NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

In this region, moraine is the most common surficial material, accounting for almost 60% of material within the PEAA and 58% in the PDA. Till blankets were deposited by two ice sheets: the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the northeast and the Cordilleran Ice Sheet in the west. On the Alberta Plateau, Laurentide till has a dull-brown matrix and contains boulders of granitic material derived from the Canadian Shield. Although it contains boulders, this till commonly lacks pebble-sized clasts. Till laid down by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet has a greyish brown to light yellowish brown calcareous matrix. This till contains numerous coarse fragments including quartzite pebbles and rare fragments of schist derived from the Rocky Mountains (Lord and Green 1986). Information collected during the field program confirms that Cordilleran tills contain a higher percentage of clastic coarse fragments. Glaciofluvial material was deposited in glacial outwash channels. In many places, these former meltwater channels are presently occupied by modern streams. Approximately 15% of the PEAA and 18% PDA in the Alberta Plateau are underlain by glaciofluvial material that includes sandy and silty deposits with minor gravel, silt and clay to coarse gravel with minor amounts of sand. These deposits are commonly one to several metres thick. In the Alberta Plateau, organic deposits account for nearly 11% of the surficial material found within the PEAA and 9.5% of the PDA. These deposits are commonly found in shallow depressions characterized by very poor drainage or adjacent to meandering streams. In most cases, organic deposits within the PDA are less than 1 m thick (Table 3-18).

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In the Alberta Plateau, glaciolacustrine deposits account for 10.7% of the surficial material within the PEAA and 12.2% within the PDA. Temporary glacial lakes formed on valley bottoms and at higher altitudes, where ice dams prevented downslope drainage (Maxwell 1987). Information collected during the field program indicates that these deposits generally consist of dark grey to brown clay and yellow to brown silt that is between 1 and 5 m thick. In some places, glaciolacustrine veneers overlie till. Other surficial material types individually account for less than 3% of the PEAA in the Alberta Plateau. About 2% is composed of fluvial deposits that commonly consist of reworked glacial and colluvial material. The remaining 0.3% consists of exposed bedrock, colluvium and lacustrine deposits. All infrastructure sites are on moraine.

3.3.4 Geohazards No geohazards were identified in the Alberta Plateau physiographic region.

3.4 Rocky Mountains The section of the pipeline route that traverses the Rocky Mountains physiographic region stretches from KP 568.0 to KP 670.0. The region is bordered by the Southern Alberta Uplands to the east and the Interior Plateau to the west.

3.4.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology The area crossed by the pipeline route lies between elevations of 760 and 1,460 m. This physiographic region is characterized by rugged mountains, plateaus, lowlands and valleys, but is less rugged than the Coast Mountains to the west. The Rocky Mountains Physiographic Region contains complex bedrock assemblages. Within this region seven tectonic assemblages have been identified (Wheeler et al. 1991). The widespread folding and faulting has produced aligned ridges that form curvilinear alpine and valley terrain. In general, the bedrock includes the Gog, Rocky Mountains, Rundle, Besa River, Kootenay, Smoky and Windermere Groups (Journeay et al. 2000b), although not all of these groups underlie the pipeline route. The age and geological composition of the groups are as follows:  Gog Group – Proterozoic to Cambrian; contains rifted continental margin sediments, including shallow-water quartzite, conglomerate and mafic lava flows  Rocky Mountains Group – Cambrian to Devonian; contains passive continental margin dolomite, limestone, sandstone and shale  Rundle Group – Devonian to Carboniferous; contains continental shelf carbonates and shale  Besa River Group – Devonian to Mississippian; contains marine shale, mudstone and shale  Kootenay Group – Jurassic to Cretaceous; contains marine sandstone and mudstone  Smoky Group – Upper Cretaceous; contains marine shale, siltstone and sandstone  Windermere Group – Palaeocene; contains clastic continental margin sandstone, siltstone and shale

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Rock types in the Rocky Mountains are typically much harder and stronger than the sedimentary rocks to the east. Resistant rock types, including sandstone and limestone, are widespread. Extremely hard and resistant quartzite and chert occur in several of the formations and rock groups. These rock types may be difficult and expensive to drill and blast. Most of the rock groups are reasonably stable. However, marine shales of the Smoky Group include some highly plastic clay content, and some large slides have occurred in areas underlain by this group (AMEC 2006). Historically, earthquakes are known to occur within the Rocky Mountains. The largest earthquake recorded in the southern Cordillera was of magnitude 6.0 and occurred in 1918 in Valemount in the Rocky Mountain Trench. Valemount is nearly 300 km south of the pipeline route. Although much of the PDA within the Rocky Mountains physiographic region is overlain by sediments over 2 m thick, 38.7% of the route has bedrock within 2 m of the surface or at the surface. See Table 3-20 for the total areas of depth-to-bedrock classes mapped. These numbers should be considered estimates, as they are based mainly on aerial photograph interpretation.

Table 3-20 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Rocky Mountains

Depth to Bedrock Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) At surface 16,114 15.8 Within 1 m of surface 7,174 7.0 Between 1–2 m 16,158 15.9 Greater than 2 m 62,473 61.3 Total 101,919 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 1Measured along the pipeline RoW.

3.4.2 Hydrography The headwaters of many rivers are found on either side of the continental divide in the Rocky Mountains. As meltwater from modern glaciers and snow packs is the primary source of water for these rivers, the discharge volumes vary greatly throughout the year, with peak flows occurring during the spring and early summer following snowmelt. See Table 3-21 for major watercourses crossed by the pipeline route in the Rocky Mountains physiographic region. The headwaters of the Murray River are in Monkman Park, south of the pipeline route. The Murray River flows northward towards the Fort St. John area (Alberta Plateau) where it joins the Peace River.

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Table 3-21 Major Watercourses Crossed by the Pipeline Route – Rocky Mountains

Watercourse KP Kinuseo Creek 1 561.5 Kinuseo Creek 2 566.0 Quintette Creek 575.1 Five Cabin Creek 580.8 Kinuseo Creek 3 588.1 Murray River 598.6 Hook Creek 602.5 Missinka River East 641.3 Missinka River West 646.0

3.4.3 SurficialGeology Surficial sediments found in the PEAA are shown in the Surficial Geology and Depth to Bedrock Atlas (see Appendix A on CD). See Table 3-22 for a summary of the surficial material along the pipeline route in the Rocky Mountains region. See Table 3-23 for a summary of the thickness of organic accumulations along the pipeline route. Tables 3-24 to 3-26 summarize the surficial material found in the areas intended for project infrastructure in the Rocky Mountains physiographic region. These numbers should be considered estimates, as they are based mainly on aerial photograph interpretation.

Table 3-22 Surficial Material Types along the Pipeline Route – Rocky Mountains

PEAA PDA Percent of Physiographic Percent of Surficial Material Area Region Area Physiographic Region (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 283.8 2.1 0.0 0.0 Bedrock 225.7 1.7 8.1 1.6 Colluvium 814.8 6.1 28.7 5.8 Fluvial 1,950.7 14.6 35.5 7.1 Glaciofluvial 1,750.9 13.1 34.6 7.0 Glaciolacustrine 968.7 7.2 55.1 11.1 Lacustrine 1.9 <0.1 0.0 0.0 Moraine 6,562.2 49.1 329.2 66.2 Organic 547.0 4.1 5.1 1.0 Water 242.9 1.8 1.0 0.2 Weathered Bedrock 15.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 Total 13,364.2 100.0 497.3 100.0 NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-23 Thickness of Organic Material along the Pipeline Route – Rocky Mountains

Depth of Organic Accumulations Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) <1 m 393 0.4 >1 m 172 0.2 Non-organic 101,355 99.4 Total 101,920 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 1 Measured along the pipeline RoW.

Table 3-24 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Project Infrastructure - Rocky Mountains

Tumbler Ridge Construction Camp Tumbler Ridge Pump Station Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Bedrock 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Colluvium 3.3 14.2 0.0 0.0 Fluvial 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciofluvial 16.4 70.4 3.4 100.0 Moraine 3.4 14.6 0.0 0.0 Organic 0.2 0.8 0.0 0.0 Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 23.3 100.0 3.4 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-25 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Stockpile Sites and Staging Areas – Rocky Mountains

Missinka River Quintette Creek Tumbler Ridge Missinka River Staging Tlooki Lake Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Area Staging Area Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Bedrock 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.6 0 0 0.12 2.3 Colluvium 0 0 0 0 0.3 1.7 0 0 0 0 Fluvial 2.4 12.1 0 0 2.8 16.0 0.12 <0.1 0 0 Glaciofluvial 9.6 48.5 0 0 12.0 68.6 0.12 <0.1 0 0 Glaciolacustrine 2.4 20.0 0 0 0 0 Moraine 7.8 39.4 9.6 80.0 0.7 4.0 3.9 99.9 0.8 81.0 Organic 0 0 0 0 1.6 9.1 0 0 0.2 16.7 Total 19.8 100.0 12.0 100.0 17.5 100.0 4.1 100.0 1.1 100.0

NOTES: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping. Statistics have been rounded to one decimal place. For some surficial materials this means that areas less than 0.1ha have been rounded up to 0.1ha. As a result the total area is slightly larger.

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Table 3-26 Surficial Material along the Tumbler Ridge Powerline Easement – Rocky Mountains

Tumbler Ridge Powerline Easement Surficial Material Area Percent (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 10.3 10.0 Colluvium 3.0 2.9 Fluvial 18.1 17.5 Glaciofluvial 52.5 50.9 Moraine 16.6 16.1 Organic 2.0 1.9 Water 0.4 0.4 Bedrock 0.1 0.1 Weathered Bedrock 0.3 0.3 Total 103.2 100.00

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping

Moraine is the most common surficial material and accounts for about 49% of the PEAA and 66% of the PDA in the Rocky Mountains region. Field plots show highly variable textures, although in most places till is characterized by a silty to sandy matrix. Data collected during the field program indicate that thick till commonly blankets the area and that till veneers overlie bedrock in steeper areas. River floodplains are commonly developed in broad valleys, and fluvial deposits of Holocene age lie adjacent to modern stream channels. Approximately 14.0% of the surficial material in the PEAA is fluvial; only 7.1% was mapped as fluvial within the PDA. Field data indicate that sand is the most common component of fluvial deposits, followed by silt and minor gravel. Approximately 7% of the PEAA within the Rocky Mountains region contains glaciolacustrine deposits. About 11% of material mapped within the PDA was classified as glaciolacustrine. These sediments consist of silty clay or silty sand, which was transported into glacial lakes by meltwater streams. Glaciofluvial material accounts for between 13.1% and 7.0% of material mapped within the PEAA and PDA. Data collected during the field program show textures ranging from sandy gravel to silty sand, with some rounded cobbles and boulders. Sediment exposures resulting from road construction and riverbank erosion show well stratified deposits up to a few metres thick. Colluvial deposits such as talus, colluviated glacial deposits and solifluction deposits are common in the Rocky Mountains. Approximately 6% of the PEAA and 5.8% of the PDA consists of colluvium, largely derived from till or bedrock. In addition to covering bedrock slopes, colluvial deposits also occur on steep river valleys and riverbanks. Fieldwork shows that colluvial veneers and blankets consisting largely of angular rubble occur on moderate to steep slopes. Organic accumulation occurs in some valleys where drainage is impeded. Small, sinuous meandering streams commonly cut through these organic basins. Approximately 4% of the surficial material in the

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PEAA in the Rocky Mountains is classified as organic, most of which is less than 1 m thick (Table 3-23). However, only 1.0% of the PDA in the Rocky Mountains region has organic material. Field observations indicate that the organic deposits are underlain by till, fluvial and glaciofluvial material. Glaciofluvial sediments are dominant in the Tumbler Ridge region in the areas intended for the Tumbler Ridge pump station (100%), Tumbler Ridge construction camp (70.4%) and Tumbler Ridge stockpile site ( 68.6%). Glaciofluvial deposits are also dominant in the area intended for the Missinka River stockpile site. In the Rocky Mountains physiographic region, moraine is a common surficial material in the areas intended for the Quintette Creek stockpile site and Tlooki Lake staging area (80% and 81.0% respectively), the Missinka River stockpile site and staging area (39.4% and 99.9% respectively), the Tumbler Ridge construction camp (14.6%) and the Tumbler Ridge stockpile site (3.4%). Glaciolacustrine sediments also occur in the area intended for the Quintette Creek stockpile site (20%). Fluvial sediments occur in the areas intended for the Missinka River stockpile site and staging area (12.1%, and less than 0.1% respectively) and the Tumbler Ridge stockpile site (16%). Organic sediments occur in the areas intended for the Tlooki Lake staging area (16.7%) and the Tumbler Ridge stockpile site (9.1%). Colluvial sediments are also present, covering 14.2% of the area intended for the Tumbler Ridge construction camp. The Tumbler Ridge powerline easement extends north and slightly east from the pipeline PDA and PEAA. The powerline easement follows the Murray River valley which is a relatively wide, glaciated valley. Over 50% of the surficial deposits within the powerline easement are composed of glaciofluvial sediments and these deposits along with present day fluvial sediments (17%) dominate the floor of the Murray River valley. Moraine makes up over 15% of the surficial material along the powerline easement and is generally found on gentle slopes sloping away from the river. About 10% of the powerline easement has been altered by anthropogenic activity and this is found at the northern end of the powerline easement near the town of Tumbler Ridge.

3.4.4 Geohazards - PDA The Rocky Mountains physiographic region has 26 sites where geohazards were identified. Geohazards include shallow to moderately deep landslides (7 sites), rockfall (1 site), debris flows (3 sites), avalanches (3 sites), lateral stream erosion or scour (3 sites), overland flow erosion (2 sites), consolidation settlement (1 site), karst (3 sites) and acid rock drainage (3 sites).

3.4.4.1 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides Shallow to moderately deep landslides have been identified during mapping and fieldwork in the Rocky Mountains at:  KP 566.2 to KP 579.6, where rockcuts at the ends of ridges strike diagonally across the pipeline route (potential for shallow sliding in soil veneers or bedrock slides)  a tributary of the Murray River (KP 596.9 to KP 597.4) at debris-mantled slopes, steep valley walls and an old slump block

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 KP 617.1 to KP 623.6, in organic material situated on locally steep slopes  the headwaters of the Hominka River (KP 625.0 to KP 626.5 )  KP 640.5 to KP 641.3, in gullied till, outwash and glaciolacustrine sediments  the Missinka River valley (KP 641.3 to KP 666.3 ), where glaciolacustrine deposits on moderately steep slopes can be unstable

3.4.4.2 Rockfall Rockfall is a potential hazard between KP 617.0 and KP 623.6.

3.4.4.3 Debris Flows The potential for debris flows exists at:  KP 577.8 to KP 579.2  KP 614.0 to KP 614.4  tributaries to the Missinka River (KP 631.9 to KP 636.7)

3.4.4.4 Avalanches Snow avalanche paths are a geohazard at:  KP 636.0  KP 636.8  KP 617.1 to KP 623.6

3.4.4.5 Lateral Stream Erosion, Scour and Sedimentation Ongoing stream erosion through lateral migration and scour was observed at:  an alluvial fan at Quintette Creek (KP 575.0 to KP 575.6)  KP 577.8 to KP 579.2  a large alluvial fan subject to major avulsion at Five Cabin Creek (KP 580.3 to KP 581.1)  a historically active fan at Kinuseo Creek (KP 596.0 to KP 588.1)  the Hook Creek area (KP 601.9 to KP 603.2), where some banks are undercut and log-jam potential is high  tributaries to the Missinka River (KP 631.9 to KP 636.7)

3.4.4.6 Overland Flow Erosion Overland flow erosion was observed along slopes at:  KP 627.6 to KP 628.9, where artesian groundwater flow was observed  the Missinka River valley (KP 641.5 to KP 666.5), at an area of low cutbanks

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3.4.4.7 Consolidation Settlement Consolidation settlement was observed to be a potential geohazard where organic deposits rest on gentle to moderate slopes between KP 627.6 and KP 628.9.

3.4.4.8 Karst At the headwaters of Hominka River (KP 625.1 to KP 626.6), limestone subject to karst processes appears to be present a short distance north of the PDA, and is much more obvious south of the PDA. Karst is also a potential geohazard where limestone outcrops at the Murray River (KP 598.3 to KP 600.2) and between KP 617.1 and KP 623.6.

3.4.4.9 Acid Rock Drainage Potential acid-generating rocks occur in the Rocky Mountains physiographic region at:  KP 601.1 to KP 605.6, where the Besa River Formation outcrops  KP 637.6 to KP 647.2, where the Miette Formation outcrops  KP 654.1 to KP 667.1, where the Misinchinka Group outcrops Further detailed mapping and sampling will take place along the route during the detailed design stages, to provide a better indication of the distribution of these rocks. ARD is mainly discussed under separate cover in AMEC (2009a, 2009b).

3.4.5 Geohazards – Powerline Easement Several geohazards have been identified along the Tumbler Ridge powerline easement. Given the wide and relatively flat nature of the valley, areas close to the Murray River will likely flood during spring melt. Debris slides have also been identified along some of the outer banks of the river and these are the direct result of riverbank erosion. On higher slopes there are some deep gullies some of which have debris flows associated with them. Seepage has also been identified in areas where bedrock is relatively close to the surface.

3.5 Interior Plateau Situated between the Rocky Mountains and the Coast Mountains physiographic regions, the Interior Plateau forms the Interior System of the Canadian Cordillera (Bostock 1948, 1970; Holland 1976). It stretches from KP 670.0 to KP 1060.1 of the pipeline route, a distance just less than 400 km. Elevations range from 680 m to 1,520 m asl along the pipeline.

3.5.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology Much of the bedrock within the Interior Plateau is flat-lying, resulting in mainly flat topography, with a few rolling hills. Drumlins and other glacial features result in low-relief, linear hills in several areas. The area is somewhat tectonically active and earthquakes have been recorded within the region. In 1986, a magnitude 5.5 earthquake occurred near Prince George, causing some minor damage (Natural Resources Canada [NRC] 2008, Internet site).

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The Interior Plateau physiographic region is composed of three geological terranes and includes six groups. The terranes of the Interior Plateau include the Cache Creek, Stikine and Omineca Belt (Wheeler et al. 1991; Journeay et al. 2000b). The six major tectonic assemblages found within these terranes include the Slide Mountain, Cache Creek, Nicola, Gambier, Kamloops and Chilcotin Groups. The northwest–southeast trending Pinchi Fault separates two of the tectonic assemblages in the Cache Creek Complex from the Upper Triassic Talka Group rocks (Tipper 1971; Journeay et al. 2000b). The Interior Plateau is dominated by volcanic rock types formed in both marine and non-marine environments. The age and geological composition of the assemblages include:  Slide Mountain Group – Devonian to Triassic; contains ocean-margin basin volcanics (primarily pillow basalt and breccia)  Cache Creek Group – Mississippian to Upper Triassic; contains oceanic volcanics and sediments, including basalt, gabbro, peridotite, dunite and blueschist- to greenschist-grade sandstone and siltstone  Nicola Group – Triassic to Jurassic; igneous deposits formed in both marine and non-marine settings, arc-derived basaltic and andesitic extrusions and volcaniclastic flows  Gambier Group – Jurassic to Cretaceous; comprises greywacke, siltstone, conglomerate and basalt formed in a rift setting  Kamloops Group – Tertiary; includes non-marine basalt, andesitic and rhyolitic arc volcanics (Journeay et al. 2000b)  Chilcotin Group – Tertiary; youngest and simplest group; consists of non-marine basalt flows (Journeay et al. 2000b) The bedrock underlying the route is not typically prone to large deep-seated failures. However, such failures are known to occur in the Kamloops Group. The Kamloops Group does not underlie appreciable portions of the route (AMEC 2006). Most of the PDA within the Interior Plateau is characterized by surficial deposits greater than 2 m thick. See Table 3-27 for the areal extents of the various depth-to-bedrock classes mapped along the pipeline route. These numbers should be considered estimates, as they are based mainly on aerial photograph interpretation.

3.5.2 Hydrography The two major river systems through which the pipeline will cross are the Skeena and Fraser Rivers. The Fraser River has its source near the Alberta—British Columbia boundary, first flowing northwest through the Rocky Mountain Trench, then south into the Prince George Basin. It has important tributaries such as the McGregor, Salmon, Willow and Nechako Rivers, which also cross the PEAA. The Skeena River drains the northwest section of the Interior Plateau. It flows through the Coast Mountains, entering the Pacific Ocean at Prince Rupert. Its major tributaries include the Morice, Bulkley, Telkwa, Kispiox, Zymoetz, Kitsumkalum and Lakelse Rivers.

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Table 3-27 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Interior Plateau

Depth to Bedrock Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) At surface 1,367 0.3 Within 1 m of surface 9,328 2.4 Between 1–2 m 51,598 13.3 Greater than 2 m 326,226 84.0 Total 388,519 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 1 Measured along the pipeline RoW.

There are numerous water bodies ranging from pond size to more than 150 km long (e.g., Babine, Stuart, Takla, Francois and Ootsa Lakes). Some of these are artificial, or have been enlarged (e.g., Nechako Reservoir and Arrow Lakes). See Table 3-28 for a list of the major watercourses that the pipeline route will cross.

Table 3-28 Major Watercourses along the Pipeline Route – Interior Plateau

Watercourse KP Parsnip River 671.0 Angusmac Creek 710.4 Crooked River 718.2 Muskeg River 748.1 Mossvale Creek 751.1 Salmon River 763.0 Necoslie River 816.4 Stuart River 821.9 Pitka Creek 825.5 Sutherland River 856.2 Sheraton Creek 913.0 Endako River 929.3 Maxan Creek 948.2 Foxy Creek 960.5 Klo Creek 975.3 Buck Creek 986.7 Parrot Creek 993.1 Owen Creek 1002.4 Lamprey Creek 1018.5 Cedric Creek 1025.7

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Table 3-28 Major Watercourses along the Pipeline Route – Interior Plateau (cont’d)

Watercourse KP Morice River 1038.0 Crystal Creek 1044.4 Gosnell Creek 1059.0

3.5.3 SurficialGeology The Surficial Geology and Depth to Bedrock Atlas (see Appendix A on CD) illustrates the surficial sediments along the pipeline route within this region. See Table 3-29 for a summary of the surficial sediments. Table 3-30 provides a summary of the depth of organics along the pipeline route. The thickness values should be considered estimates, as they are based mainly on aerial photograph interpretation. Previous work suggests that glacial sediments cover most of the bedrock of the Interior Plateau (Clague 1983; Plouffe 1996; Plouffe 1997; Levson et al. 1998; Plouffe 2000; Mate and Levson 2001; Plouffe and Levson 2001; Levson 2002). Approximately 72% of the surficial deposits within the PEAA in this region are till (moraine); till accounts for 79.2% of the PDA. It contains 20% to 40% coarse fragments ranging in size from pebbles to boulders. Morainal deposits are generally greater than 1-m thick and can reach thicknesses of up to 15 m in some areas (Plouffe 1992).

Table 3-29 Surficial Material Types along the Pipeline Route – Interior Plateau

PEAA PDA Percent of Physiographic Percent of Physiographic Surficial Material Area Region Area Region (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 129.2 0.3 0.1 <0.1 Bedrock 169.7 0.4 3.3 0.2 Colluvium 893.3 2.1 25.1 1.3 Fluvial 1,837.6 4.3 48.4 2.6 Glaciofluvial 4,437.1 10.4 166.7 8.8 Glaciolacustrine 2,346.6 5.5 103.2 5.4 Lacustrine 3.3 <0.1 0.0 0.0 Moraine 30,860.2 72.2 1,500.9 79.2 Organic 1,683.1 3.9 44.4 2.3 Water 402.1 0.9 3.7 0.2 Total 42,762.2 100.0 1,895.8 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping

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Table 3-30 Thickness of Organic Material along the Pipeline Route – Interior Plateau

Depth of Organic Accumulations Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) <1 m 5,510 14.4 >1 m 6,082 1.6 Non-organic 376,927 97.0 Total 388,519 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 1 Measured along the pipeline RoW.

Glaciofluvial material was deposited in large meltwater channels, esker complexes and braided outwash streams (Plouffe 2000; Levson 2002). These sediments occupy approximately 10% of the PEAA and almost 9% of the PDA in the Interior Plateau. Field mapping indicates that these deposits commonly consist of well-sorted to poorly sorted sand and gravel. Glaciolacustrine deposits occupy 5.5% of the PEAA and nearly 5.5% of the PDA in the Interior Plateau. In the Fraser Basin subarea, sediments deposited in glacial lakes and meltwater channels are common. Approximately 12,000 years ago, an extensive glacial lake developed after the retreat of ice from a valley southeast of Stuart Lake (Plouffe 1997). These deposits are commonly between 1 and 10 m thick, although thicker units are found locally. The maximum elevation where glaciolacustrine sediments are found is regionally variable. Between Fort St. James and Babine Lake, a maximum elevation of 760 m is common (Tipper 1971; Plouffe 1997), but the maximum elevation from field observations for this study is 740 m. Local units of gravel and sand mark the position of fans or deltas that formed at the margins of the lake basin (Plouffe 1997). Very poorly drained organic accumulations are scattered throughout the area, occupying approximately 4% of the PEAA and only 2.3% of the PDA. Organic accumulations are generally less than 1 m thick (Table 3-30) along the pipeline route and are commonly underlain by many different types of surficial material (e.g., morainal, fluvial and glaciofluvial). Fluvial sediments form floodplains, alluvial terraces and fans. These deposits generally consist of sand, with minor silt and gravel. The PEAA and PDA within this region contain about 4% and 2.5% fluvial material. About 2% of the PEAA and 1% of the PDA were mapped as colluvium. Colluvial veneers and blankets commonly overlie bedrock on moderate to steep slopes. Geomorphological processes, such as gully erosion and slow and rapid mass movements, are common in these areas. The texture of colluvium is generally rubble and mixed fragments with minor amounts of sand and silt. Tables 3-31 to 3-35 provide summaries of the surficial material in the areas intended for project infrastructure in the Interior Plateau.

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Table 3-31 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Pump Stations – Interior Plateau

Bear Lake Pump Burns Lake Pump Fort St. James Houston Pump Station Station Pump Station Station Surficial Material1 Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Glaciofluvial 3.7 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 18.9 0.0 0.0 Glaciolacustrine 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 81.1 1.8 47.4 Moraine 0.0 0.0 3.7 100.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 52.6 Total 3.7 100.0 3.7 100.0 3.7 100.0 3.8 100.0

NOTE: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

Table 3-32 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Pump Station Access Roads – Interior Plateau

Bear Lake Pump Station Burns Lake Pump Station Fort St. James Pump Access Road Access Road Station Access Road Surficial Material1 Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Glaciofluvial 0.2 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 20.0 Glaciolacustrine 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 80.0 Moraine 0.0 0.0 1.4 99.9 0.0 0.0 Organic 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 Total 0.2 100.0 1.4 100.0 0.2 100.0 NOTES: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping. Statistics have been rounded to one decimal place. For some surficial materials this means that areas less than 0.1ha have been rounded up to 0.1ha. As a result the total area is slightly larger.

Table 3-33 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Staging Areas – Interior Plateau

Staging Area Staging Area Fort Staging Area Parrot Staging Area Bear Lake St. James Creek Sheraton Creek Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Glaciolacustrine 0.0 0.0 1.6 84.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Moraine 2.0 100.0 0.3 15.8 2.0 100.0 2.9 100.0 Total 2.0 100.0 1.9 100.0 2.0 100.0 2.9 100.0 NOTE: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-34 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Construction Camps – Interior Plateau

Gosnell Creek Maxan Creek Parsnip River Salmon River Taltapin Lake Construction Camp Construction Camp Construction Camp Construction Camp Construction Camp Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Fluvial 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.2 0.0 0.0 Glaciofluvial 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 24.4 99.6 0.7 2.8 0.0 0.0 Moraine 24.5 100.0 24.5 100.0 0.1 0.4 23.6 96.0 20.9 100.0 Organic 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 24.5 100.0 24.5 100.0 24.5 100.0 24.6 100.0 20.9 100.0 NOTE: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

Table 3-35 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Stockpile Sites – Interior Plateau

Bear Lake Beaver Lake Stockpile Buck Creek Burns Lake Co-op Lake Stockpile Site Site Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Fluvial 0.0 0.0 0.8 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.6 Glaciofluvial 13.3 100.0 1.7 10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.6 99.4 Moraine 0.0 0.0 14.5 85.3 22.9 100.0 7.9 100.0 0.0 0.0 Total 13.3 100.0 17.0 100.0 22.9 100.0 7.9 100.0 15.7 100.0

NOTE: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-35 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Stockpile Sites – Interior Plateau (cont’d)

Fenton Creek Foxy Creek Muskeg River Parsnip River Stuart River Thautil River Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Stockpile Site Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Colluvium 0.4 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Fluvial 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciofluvial 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.9 100.0 4.9 20.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciolacustrine 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.6 80.0 0.0 0.0 Moraine 23.1 98.3 12.3 100.0 22.1 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 36.1 100.0 Total 23.5 100.0 12.3 100.0 22.1 100.0 19.9 100.0 24.5 100.0 36.1 100.0

NOTE: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Moraine is the most common surficial material type, accounting for 100% of the areas intended for the Burns Lake pump station, Burns Lake access road, Gosnell Creek, Maxan, Taltapin construction camps, Buck Creek, Burns Lake, Foxy Creek, Muskeg River and Thautil River stockpile sites, and the Bear Lake, Parrot Creek and Sheraton Creek staging areas. Moraine is also present in the areas intended for the Fenton Creek and Beaver Lake stockpile sites (98.3% and 85.2%), Salmon River construction camp (96.2%), Fort St. James staging area (15.8%) and the Houston pump station ( 52.6%). Glaciolacustrine sediments cover 80% of the areas intended for the Fort St. James pump station and the Stuart River stockpile site. Approximately 84% of the area intended for the Fort St. James staging area is glaciolacustrine sediment, and over 47% of the area intended for the Houston pump station. Glaciofluvial sediments cover 100% of the areas intended for the Bear Lake pump station, access road and stockpile site, 100% of the Parsnip River stockpile site and 99.4% of the Co-op Lake stockpile site. About 10% of the area intended for the Beaver Lake stockpile site is also covered by glaciofluvial sediment. Fluvial sediments are found at the Co-op Lake stockpile site (0.8%), Beaver Lake stockpile site (4.5%) and the Salmon River camp site (1.2%). Table 3-36 provides a summary of surficial materials along the proposed powerline easements in the Interior Plateau.

Table 3-36 Surficial Material along the Powerline Easements – Interior Plateau

Bear Lake Powerline Easement Houston Powerline Easement Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 0.0 0.0 1.4 1.5 Colluvium 0.0 0.0 2.0 2.2 Fluvial 0.1 0.9 2.6 2.8 Glaciofluvial 1.8 15.4 27.2 29.3 Glaciolacustrine 0.0 0.0 12.7 13.7 Moraine 9.6 82.1 46.5 50.2 Organic 0.1 0.8 0.3 0.3 Water 0.1 0.8 0.0 0.0 Total 11.7 100.0 92.7 100.0

NOTES: Based on 1:20,000 scale mapping. Statistics have been rounded to one decimal place. For some surficial materials this means that areas less than 0.1ha have been rounded up to 0.1ha. As a result the total area is slightly larger.

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Moraine is the dominant surficial material in both powerline easements accounting for over 82% and 50% of the surficial deposits in the Bear Lake and Houston powerline easements respectively. Glaciofluvial deposits are also found along both easements and account for over 15% of surficial materials along the Bear Lake powerline easement and almost 30% of the Houston powerline easement. Glaciolacustrine sediments are also found in almost 14% of the Houston powerline easement.

3.5.4 Geohazards - PDA A total of 36 potential or known geohazard sites were identified in the Interior Plateau physiographic region. Geohazards identified include deep-seated slides (1 site), shallow to moderately deep slides (11 sites), debris flows (3 sites), lateral stream erosion or sedimentation (11 sites), erosion from shallow streams or overland flow (4 sites), consolidation settlement (5 sites) and acid rock drainage (1 sites).

3.5.4.1 Deep-seated Slides Very extensive deep-seated slides in glaciolacustrine clays extend far to the south, on both the east and west approaches at Stuart River (KP 821.9to KP 822.9 ).

3.5.4.2 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides Shallow to moderately deep landslides were encountered in the Interior Plateau physiographic region at:  potentially unstable glaciolacustrine deposits in the Parsnip River area (KP 670.4 to KP 672.7)  KP 679.2 to KP 685.2, where shallow slides occur in road-cuts in an area of wet terrain with moderate slopes  KP 657.1 to KP 698.0, where glaciolacustrine deposits with sand seams in low-lying areas are known to have stability problems on low cuts  Angusmac Creek, KP 710.4 to KP 711.0 , where moderately steep gullied slopes are present to the east and west, and potential instability exists  the Muskeg River area (KP 747.2 to KP 748.7), where local reports exist of cut-and-fill slope instability in fine-grained material. There is also the potential for undercutting causing instability on the west side of the planned crossing.  Salmon River area (KP 763.0 to KP 764.3), where there is evidence of shallow sliding and groundwater piping and gully erosion on the west side  Stuart River (KP 821.9 to KP 822.9), where moderately deep-seated slides are present along the lower valley wall on the west side of the river  Klo Creek valley (KP 975.3 to KP 975.6):  north and south of the PEAA, where small failures have been identified on moderately steep slopes

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 on the east approach slope, where groundwater blow-off failures are present  on the west slope, where small failures due to undercutting are present in glaciolacustrine sediments  the Lamprey Creek area (KP 1018.5 to KP 1019.5) along the east valley wall, where moderate to steep slopes are present and a slide was identified near the route  Cedric Creek (KP 1025.7 to KP 1026.4)  KP 1032.3 to KP 1053.3, where shallow surficial material is present on moderately steep, bedrock- controlled slopes

3.5.4.3 Debris Flows Debris flows are a potential geohazard within a tributary to Gosnell Creek at KP 1044.3, and on an alluvial fan between KP 1063.1 and KP 1067.3. Avalanche and debris flow run-out zones are present above the route between KP 1048.9 and KP 1054.5.

3.5.4.4 Lateral Stream Erosion, Scour and Sedimentation Stream erosion through lateral migration is ongoing at:  the Parsnip River (KP 671.0 to KP 671.6)  KP 687.1 to KP 698.0, together with avulsion at Chuchinka Creek  Angusmac Creek (KP 710.4 to KP 711.0)  the Crooked River (KP 718.2 to KP 718.9 )  the Muskeg River area (KP 748.1 to KP 749.6)  the Salmon River area (KP 763.0 to KP 764.3), where the floodplain is 450 m wide, and frequent debris jams occur  Klo Creek (KP 975.3 to KP 975.6)  Cedric Creek (KP 1025.7 to KP 1086.4)  a tributary to Gosnell Creek (KP 1044.3)  Gosnell Creek (KP 1059.0 to KP 1059.3), where frequent debris jams occur  KP 1066.1 to KP 1067.3, on an alluvial fan

3.5.4.5 Shallow Stream and Overland Flow Erosion Overland flow erosion occurs between:  KP 687.1 and KP 698.0  KP 710.4 and KP 711.0 , at Angusmac Creek

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 KP 975.3 and KP 975.6 at Klo Creek, where the approach is very steep, and fine-grained soils are present in the valley bottom  KP 1032.3 and KP 1035.3, where shallow surficial material is present on moderately steep, bedrock- controlled slopes

3.5.4.6 Consolidation Settlement Settlement through consolidation is a potential geohazard in organic terrain (muskeg) at:  the Parsnip River area (KP 671.0 to KP 673.3), where both organic and fine-grained soft sediments are present  Crooked River (KP 718.2 to KP 718.9), where artesian conditions were encountered in boreholes  the area north of Slender Lake (KP 739.0 to KP 740.9)  the Endako River (KP 929.3 to KP 930.0), where organic deposits are situated near the river, organic veneers are west of the river, and near the CN Rail embankment  Klo Creek valley (KP 975.3 to KP 975.6)

3.5.4.7 Acid Rock Drainage Potential acid-generating bedrock occurs in the region between KP 957.2 and KP 966.2, at Equity Silver Mine. Further detailed mapping and sampling will take place along the route during the detailed design stages, to provide a better indication of the distribution of these rocks. ARD is mainly discussed under separate cover in AMEC (2009a, 2009b).

3.5.5 Geohazards – Powerline Easement The Bear Lake powerline easement falls within the PEAA and is therefore not discussed separately. The majority of the proposed Houston powerline easement has no geohazards associated, however there is the potential of flooding in some areas from the Morice River due to spring melt. Slumping and debris slides have also been identified along the Morice River due to riverbank erosion.

3.6 Coast Mountains The most westerly section of the pipeline route is found in the Coast Mountains physiographic region, between KP 1060.1 and KP 1172.19

3.6.1 Topography and Bedrock Geology The Coast Mountains rise from sea level to a maximum elevation of about 2,700 m. Some areas consist of rugged mountains which are separated by deep valleys. Cirques, ridges, serrated peaks and small alpine glaciers characterize the highest mountain regions. Less rugged topography is found in other areas that are characterized by rounded mountains with elevations up to 1,800 m and by wide U-shaped valleys (Holland 1976).

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The Coast Mountains physiographic region possesses complex geology (Massey et al. 2005). Five primary assemblages are found, including the Hazelton Group, the Central Coastal Plutonic Complex, and the Skeena Carmacks and Kamloops Groups (Journeay et al. 2000c). The age and geological composition of the groups are as follows:  Hazelton Group – Jurassic; comprises marine and non-marine volcanic complexes consisting of breccia, shale, basalt and andesite  Central Coastal Plutonic Complex – mid Jurassic; contains a complex sequence of foliated diorite, hornblende-biotite-quartz granodiorite and quartz diorite (Journeay et al. 2000c)  Skeena Group – Lower Cretaceous; consists of marine and non-marine interbedded siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate (Alldrick and Lin 2007)  Carmacks Group – Upper Cretaceous; consists of non-marine volcanic basalt and andesite  Kamloops Group – Tertiary; consists of non-marine arc basalt, andesite and rhyolite; does not outcrop within the PEAA and is similar to the Kamloops Group in the Interior Plateau The predominant lithologies that underlie the pipeline route regionally are the Skeena Group, Bowser Group, Telkwa Formation (part of the Hazelton Group) and the Central Coastal Plutonic Assemblage. Except for the Central Coast Plutonic Assemblage, all of these formations contain rock types of variable competency. In particular, the Telkwa Formation varies from moderately weak to very strong. However, preliminary mapping indicates that where the Hoult and Clore Tunnels will cross the Coast Ranges, generally moderately strong to strong rock will be encountered. The Central Coast Plutonic Assemblage is generally very strong and competent. There are several regional faults in the area of interest (AMEC 2006). Although the Kitimat area is approximately 300 km east of the active Queen Charlotte Fault, historical records indicate that earthquakes centred on the fault have been felt in the Terrace area, just north of Kitimat. On 22 August, 1949, an 8.1 magnitude earthquake centred on the Queen Charlotte Fault affected road traffic in Terrace (Adams and Basham 2001; NRC 2008, Internet site). More recently, in 2001, relatively large (6.3 magnitude) earthquakes, centred on the Queen Charlotte Islands1, occurred on February 17 and October 11. These earthquakes were felt throughout western Canada, including the Kitimat, Terrace and Burns Lake areas (NRC 2008, Internet site). In 2007, several mid-size earthquakes centred on the Queen Charlotte Islands, occurred on April 28 (4.6 magnitude) and December 12 (5.6 magnitude) (NRC 2008, Internet site). Numerous smaller earthquakes, which have not been felt, have occurred in the area near the pipeline. Slightly more than 30% of the route through the Coast Mountains region has bedrock within 2m of the surface (see Table 3-37). This is a conservative estimate, as it was based mainly on aerial photograph interpretation.

1 In December 2009, the Queen Charlotte Islands were renamed Haida Gwaii. The previous name is retained for consistency with reviewed literature.

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Table 3-37 Depth to Bedrock along the Pipeline Route – Coast Mountains

Depth to Bedrock Length1 Percent of Physiographic Region (m) (%) At surface 535 0.5 Within 1 m of surface 5010 5.1 Between 1–2 m 24,308 25.0 Greater than 2 m 67,667 69.4 Total 97,520 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. Statistics do not include the tunnel sections. 1 Measured along the pipeline RoW.

3.6.2 Hydrography The drainage systems of the Coast Mountains are characterized by deep valleys, entrenched rivers and canyons. Numerous fjords and inlets characterize the western section of the Coast Mountains. See Table 3-38 for the major watercourses that the pipeline route will cross.

Table 3-38 Major Watercourses along the Pipeline Route – Coast Mountains

Watercourse KP Clore River 1072.4 Tributary of Clore River 1079.8 Hoult Creek 1086.9 Hunter Creek 1098.7 Chist Creek 1123.1 Cecil Creek 1131.4 Wedeene River 1144.6 Little Wedeene River 1148.7 Goose Creek 1155.8 Duck Creek 1156.7 Anderson Creek 1163.8 Moore Creek 1165.0

The most westerly part of the pipeline route runs along the north slope of the Kitimat River. This river flows through a wide, U-shaped valley that is part of a feature that has been named the Kitimat-Kitsumkalum Trough. This valley is too large to have formed solely by fluvial erosion and was likely produced by faulting (Duffel and Souther 1964). Although it contains rivers locally, the trough is an anomaly, as it does not currently contain a river along its entire length (Clague 1984). Before glaciation, the Skeena River probably discharged directly to the sea through this trough. The deposition of glacial sediments in the southern part of the trough may have forced the river to flow west toward Prince Rupert instead of south toward Kitimat (Clague 1984).

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The Kitimat River flows into Kitimat Arm, a short extension of Douglas Channel, which is a fjord. Douglas Channel locally contains rocky, steep-walled shorelines. The depth (190 to 570 m) and width (2.8 to 5.6 km) of the channel, from the Pacific Ocean up to the Port of Kitimat, make access possible for wide ocean-going vessels.

3.6.3 SurficialGeology The surficial sediments found along the pipeline route are illustrated in the Surficial Geology and Depth to Bedrock Atlas (see Appendix A on CD). See Table 3-39 for a summary of the surficial materials along the pipeline route within the Coast Mountain region.

Table 3-39 Surficial Material Types along the Pipeline Route – Coast Mountains

PEAA PDA Percent of Physiographic Percent of Surficial Material Area Region Area Physiographic Region (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 103.8 0.5 0.0 0.0 Bedrock 229.4 1.2 3.3 0.7 Colluvium 3,329.1 17.4 48.2 10.1 Fluvial 2,527.3 13.2 78.9 16.5 Glaciofluvial 2,670.3 13.9 90.6 19.0 Glaciomarine 1,838.7 9.6 52.0 10.9 Marine 27.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 Moraine 7,811.6 40.7 196.0 41.1 Organic 247.0 1.3 5.3 1.1 Water 384.4 2.0 2.6 0.6 Weathered bedrock 0.12 <0.1 0.0 0.0 Total 19,167.8 100.0 476.9 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping. Statistics have been rounded to one decimal place. For some surficial materials this means that areas less than 0.1ha have been rounded up to 0.1ha. As a result the total area is slightly larger.

The distribution of morainal material is variable in the Coast Mountains physiographic region (Clague 1984). About 40% of the PEAA and 41% of the PDA within the Coast Mountains region are underlain by till. In sloping areas, till veneers (0.5 to 1.0 m thick) are mixed with colluvial material and it is commonly difficult to differentiate between these two material types. Unlike till deposits, fine material is commonly lacking from the surface layers of steep colluvial deposits. The PEAA and PDA contain numerous floodplains, terraces and fans; about 13% of the PEAA and 16.5% of the PDA have fluvial sediments. Several hazards, including floods, landslides, bank erosion and gullying are associated with areas of fluvial sediment in this region (Clague 1978, 1984).

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Approximately 14% of the PEAA and 19% of the PDA are underlain by glaciofluvial material. During deglaciation, large quantities of sediment were deposited in numerous meltwater channels and along lower valley walls below till deposits. In places, meltwater also reworked tills locally. Field mapping identified glaciofluvial material as coarse textured with primarily coarse fragments and sand. A large, thick delta composed mainly of sand formed where a major meltwater river flowed into Kitimat Arm when sea levels were higher. The delta forms a planar unit that is terraced in some places and has a sloping edge in others. A substantial part of the end portion of the pipeline crosses this delta. Moderately coarse-textured colluvial material derived primarily from glacial till accounts for about 17% of the PEAA and 10.1% of the PDA within the Coast Mountains region. These deposits are generally less than 2 m thick and are most abundant on steeper slopes found between the town of Kitimat and the marine terminal, and along the walls of the Kitimat River valley. The material is often intermixed with glacial till deposits, making it difficult to differentiate between the two sediment types. On the north Kitimat Valley wall, where much of the forest cover has been removed, a high potential for slope instability is produced by the combination of forest removal and groundwater seepage. Early in deglaciation, when sea levels were higher, glaciomarine sediments were deposited in the Terrace–Kitimat area (up to the delta). As a result, glaciomarine muds are found at elevations of up to 170 m above modern sea level (Clague 1984). Sandy, blue-grey clay containing marine shells is locally exposed along the banks of the Kitimat River from its mouth to where it turns eastward out of the Kitimat–Kitsumkalum valley (Duffel and Souther 1964). About 10% of the PEAA and less than 11% of the PDA are composed of these glaciomarine sediments. The deposits have a relatively coarse texture, which may indicate that they were deposited in marine fan-deltas or that they were deposited near the large delta that the pipeline crosses. Glaciomarine deposits are generally considered to be potentially unstable due to their unique structure. Slope failures can occur at very low slope angles due to this instability. Many large flow slides (about 100) have been documented in the Terrace–Kitimat area (Geertsema 1996; Geertsema and Schwab 1997), including two at Lakelse Lake (Clague 1978; 1984). The landslides at Lakelse Lake were likely caused by site loading (Clague 1978). Other triggers for glaciomarine sediment failure include bank erosion, earthquakes and long periods of increased precipitation (Geertsema et al. 2006). Other surficial material types individually account for less than 3% of the PEAA in the region. Water (lakes, rivers, streams) accounts for less than 0.1%, and about 1% is bedrock. Organic deposits also account for just over 1% of the PEAA and nearly 1.1% of the PDA. Over half of the organic deposits identified within the Coast Mountains are more than 1m thick, and the remaining deposits are less than 1-m thick (Table 3-40).

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Table 3-40 Thickness of Organic Material along the Pipeline Route – Coast Mountains

Depth of Deposit Area1 Percent of Physiographic Region (ha) (%) <1 m 39 <0.1 >1 m 83 <0.1 Non-organic 97,398 99.9 Total 97,520 100.0

NOTES: Statistics based on 1:2,000 scale mapping. 1 Measured along the pipeline RoW.

Tables 3-41 to 3-45 provide a summary of surficial materials in the areas intended for project infrastructure in the Coast Mountains physiographic region. Moraine is the dominant surficial material in the areas intended for the following project infrastructure:  the Tunnel Centre staging area (100.0%)  the Tunnel Centre North excess cute disposal area (99.9%)  the Tunnel Centre South excess cute disposal area (99.9%)  the Tunnel West construction camp (95.6%)  the Tunnel West excess cut disposal area (95.6%)  the Tunnel Centre access road (94.6%)  the Tunnel West access road (69.9%)  the Tunnel East construction camp (69.9%)  the Tunnel East excess cut disposal area (66.1%)  the Tunnel East staging area (60.2%)  the Tunnel East North tunnel excess cut disposal area (44.1%)  the Tunnel East access road (43.9%)  the Tunnel Centre construction camp (35.8%) Glaciofluvial sediments are present in the areas intended for the following project infrastructure:  the Clearwater construction camp (100.0%)  the Clearwater pump station (100.0%)  the Clearwater pump station access road (100.0%)  the Clearwater stockpile site (100.0%)  the Tunnel North construction camp (64.0%)  the Tunnel East North tunnel excess cut disposal area (45.3%)  the Tunnel East tunnel excess cut disposal area (33.6%)  the Tunnel East staging area (39.8%)  the Tunnel East access road (29.2%)

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Table 3-41 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Construction Camps – Coast Mountains Clearwater Construction Tunnel East Construction Tunnel Centre Construction Tunnel West Construction Camp Camp Camp Camp Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Colluvium 0.0 0.0 4.0 30.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 4.4 Glaciofluvial 24.5 100.0 <0.0 <0.1 5.0 64.0 0.0 0.0 Moraine 0.0 0.0 9.4 69.9 2.8 35.8 5.8 95.6 Organic 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 <0.1 <0.2 0.0 0.0 Total 24.5 100.0 13.4 100.0 7.9 100.0 6.1 100.0 NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-42 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Access Roads – Coast Mountains Kitimat Terminal Tunnel East Access Tunnel Centre Access Tunnel West Access Kitimat Bypass Access Access Road Road Road Road Road Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Bedrock 0.8 9.2 0.4 4.5 <0.1 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.3 5.6 Colluvium 3.0 33.4 1.5 15.6 <0.1 3.9 0.0 0.0 1.5 30.3 Fluvial <0.1 0.1 0.6 6.6 <0.1 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciofluvial 0.2 2.2 2.7 29.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciomarine 4.5 51.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 54.9 Marine 0.3 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 9.3 Moraine 0.0 0.0 4.2 43.9 1.9 94.6 0.4 100.0 0.0 0.0 Water 0.0 0.0 <0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 8.9 100.0 9.5 100.0 2.2 100.0 0.4 100.0 5.1 100.0 NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-43 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Tunnel Excess Cut Disposal Areas – Coast Mountains

Tunnel East North Tunnel Centre Tunnel Centre Tunnel West Kitimat Terminal Tunnel East Excess Excess Cut North Excess Cut South Excess Cut Tunnel Excess Cut Excess Cut Surficial Cut Disposal Area Disposal Area Disposal Area Disposal Area Disposal Area Disposal Area Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Bedrock 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.7 <0.1 <0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Colluvium <0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 <0.1 0.1 0.1 1.2 8.0 25.0 Fluvial 0.0 0.0 0.5 8.9 <0.1 <0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciofluvial 2.5 33.6 2.4 45.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciomarine 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.8 40.0 Moraine 4.8 66.1 2.4 44.1 32.3 99.6 25.5 99.9 11.2 98.8 11.2 35.0 Total 7.4 100.0 5.4 100.0 32.6 100.0 25.6 100.0 11.3 100.0 32.0 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-44 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Remaining Project Infrastructure – Coast Mountains

Kitimat Pump Clearwater Pump Station Access Tunnel East Tunnel Middle Clearwater Kitimat Terminal Station Road Staging Area Staging Area Stockpile Site Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Colluvium 34.1 16.2 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciofluvial 0.0 0.0 3.7 100.0 0.5 100.0 0.8 39.8 0.0 0.0 19.9 100.0 Glaciomarine 166.3 79.2 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Moraine 8.3 4.0 0 0 0 0 1.2 60.2 16.6 100.0 0.0 0.0 Organic 1.1 0.5 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Water <0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 209.9 100.0 3.7 100.0 0.5 100.0 2.0 100.0 16.6 100.0 19.9 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

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Table 3-45 Surficial Material in Areas Intended for Remaining Project Infrastructure – Coast Mountains

Kitimat Terminal Kitimat Terminal PDA North of PDA South of Kitimat Pump Clore River Security Fence Security Fence Station Stockpile Site Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Bedrock 1.3 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 19.8 0.0 0.0 Colluvium 39.7 65.0 16.4 10.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Fluvial 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.5 82.2 Glaciofluvial 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Glaciomarine 4.1 6.7 124.7 80.9 0.9 80.2 0.0 0.0 Moraine 15.85 25.9 13.1 8.5 0.0 0.0 1.4 17.8 Water <0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 61.3 100.0 154.2 100.0 1.1 100.0 7.9 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping.

Colluvium is present in the areas intended for the following project infrastructure:  the Kitimat Terminal access road (33.4%)  the Clore River construction camp (30.0%)  the Kitimat Terminal (16.2%)  the Tunnel East access road (15.6%)  the Tunnel West construction camp (4.4%) Fluvial sediments are present in the areas intended for the following project infrastructure:  the Tunnel East North excess cut disposal area (8.9%)  the Tunnel East access road (6.6%) Bedrock outcrops in the areas intended for the following project infrastructure:  the Kitimat Terminal access road (9.2%)  the Tunnel East access road (4.5%)  the Tunnel East North excess cut disposal area (1.7%) Glaciomarine sediments are present in the areas intended for the following project infrastructure:  the Kitimat Terminal PDA south of the security fence (80.9%)  the Kitimat Terminal (79.2%)  the Kitimat pump station (80.2%)  the Kitimat Bypass access road (54.9%)  the Kitimat Terminal access road (51.4%)  the Kitimat Terminal excess cut disposal area (40.0%)  the Kitimat Terminal PDA north of the security fence (6.5%)

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Holocene marine sediments account for almost 3% of the sediments present in the area intended for the Kitimat Terminal access road. Table 3-46 summarises the surficial materials found along the powerline easements within the Coast Mountains physiographic region.

Table 3-46 Surficial Material along the Powerline Easements – Coast Mountains

Kitimat Pump Station Clore-Hoult Tunnel Powerline Easement Powerline Easement Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Anthropogenic 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.5 Bedrock 0.6 2.5 0.1 0.1 Colluvium 6.8 28.0 45.8 21.5 Fluvial 0.4 1.6 5.3 2.5

Table 3-46 Surficial Material along the Powerline Easements – Coast Mountains (cont’d)

Kitimat Pump Station Clore-Hoult Tunnel Powerline Easement Powerline Easement Surficial Material Area Percent Area Percent (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Glaciofluvial 0.0 0.0 21.2 9.9 Glaciomarine 13.6 56.0 19.1 8.9 Moraine 2.9 11.9 120.1 56.3 Organic <0.1 <0.1 0.5 0.2 Water 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 Total 24.4 100.0 213.3 100.0

NOTE: Statistics based on 1:20,000 scale mapping

The Kitimat Pump Station powerline easement is contained within the PEAA. Over half (56%) of the surficial materials are glaciomarine in origin. Almost 30% of the surficial materials are composed of colluvium and almost 12% is moraine. There are minor amounts of bedrock, fluvial deposits and organic material within the powerline easement. The Clore-Hoult Powerline Easement extends north and west of the pipeline PDA and PEAA. Over half (56%) of the surficial sediments within the Clore-Hoult powerline easement are composed of moraine and these deposits are found along the base of the valley and on the lower valley slopes. The higher steeper slopes and steeper slopes adjacent to the Clore River are characterised by colluvium (21%). Almost 10% of the surficial deposits along the powerline easement are composed of glaciofluvial sediments. These sediments are mainly found near Terrace and represent deltaic sedimentation during the last glaciation when sea level was higher than present. Almost 9% of the easement is composed of glaciomarine

2010 Page 3-51 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Section 3: Results of Baseline Investigations sediments which have been exposed due to isostatic rebound since the end of the last glaciation. Fluvial deposits make up 2.5% of the surficial sediments and these are associated with the present day Clore River.

3.6.4 Geohazards - PDA A total of 55 potential geohazard sites were identified in the Coast Mountains, due largely to the steeper, more rugged topography of this region. Geohazards include deep-seated landslides (2 sites), shallow to moderately deep landslides (11 sites), rockfall (8 sites), debris flows (9 sites), snow avalanches (4 sites), lateral spreading (2 sites), lateral stream erosion and scour (9 sites), overland flow erosion (3 sites), consolidation settlement (2 sites), shaking (1 site), liquefaction (1 site), tsunami (Kitimat Terminal) and acid rock drainage (3 sites). Where glaciomarine sediments are found (e.g., in the Terrace to Kitimat area), terrain is prone to mass- wasting by gully erosion, shallow translational and deep-seated rotational debris slides or slumps, unconfined and channelled debris flow and debris torrents.

3.6.4.1 Deep-Seated Slides The potential exists for deep-seated slides or induced sliding in sensitive glaciomarine clay in localized areas below 170 m, between KP 1135.3 and KP 1172.0, and in fine-grained glaciomarine sediments at the Kitimat Terminal (at KP 1172.19).

3.6.4.2 Shallow to Moderately Deep Slides Shallow to moderately deep slides were identified as a potential geohazard within the Coast Mountains physiographic region at:  the east approach slope to Burnie and Clore river valleys (KP 1070.5 to KP 1071.1), where a shallow slide was mapped  a tributary to Clore River and adjacent areas (KP 1079.8 to KP 1079.9), where shallow slides were identified  Hoult Creek and upper Kitimat River valley (KP 1086.9 to KP 1098.3 and KP 1099.3 to KP 1101.3), where groundwater blow-off failures have occurred locally during logging road construction, and slides within logging fill roads were identified  Hunter Creek (KP 1098.7 to KP 1099.7), where several small, shallow slides in surface deposits were observed along the terrace scarp due to undercutting  the upper Kitimat River valley (KP 1101.3 to KP 1119.3), where:  potentially unstable, steep, gullied slopes were mapped  slides were identified in shallow colluvium over bedrock  groundwater blow-off failures as a result of logging road construction were observed locally  KP 1135.6 to KP 1137.2, where sliding was observed in glaciomarine sediments  KP 1135.3 to KP 1172.0, in areas below 170 m where sensitive glaciomarine clay is present

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 the Wedeene River area between KP 1144.6 and KP 1146.8, where retrogressive sliding, groundwater piping and erosion was observed in sensitive glaciomarine clay  the Little Wedeene River (KP 1148.7 to KP 1149.7), in an area of terraced deltaic and glaciomarine deposits, where shallow instabilities are related to river undercutting  the west side of Kitimat Arm (KP 1167.2 to KP 1171.4), where shallow surface slides were identified on steeply sloping, bedrock-controlled terrain with numerous small gullies or ravines  the Kitimat Terminal (KP 1172.19), in fine-grained glaciomarine sediments

3.6.4.3 Rockfall Several large, catastrophic rock slides have occurred in the Coast Mountains, including one at Zymoetz River that severed a natural gas pipeline (McDougall et al. 2006; Geertsema et al. 2008). Rockfall was observed:  between KP 1079.8 and KP 1079.9, near a tributary to the Clore River  at the west portal of the Hoult Tunnel (KP 1086.6 to KP 1086.9), along steep valley walls on the east side of the route  at Hoult Creek and upper Kitimat River valley (KP 1086.9 to KP 1098.3 and KP 1099.3 to KP 1101.3), where steep ravine walls are present  in the upper Kitimat River valley (KP 1101.3 to KP 1119.3), on isolated bluffs above the route  at KP 1136.2  along the southeast flank of Iron Mountain at KP 1142.6 to KP 1144.1  along the west side of Kitimat Arm (KP 1167.2 to KP 1171.4) where boulders can fall from within steep till slopes  at the Kitimat Terminal (KP 1172.19), from the steep, bedrock-controlled slopes

3.6.4.4 Debris Flows Debris flows or torrents are a potential geohazard within the Coast Mountains physiographic region at:  a tributary to Clore River and adjacent areas (KP 1079.8 to KP 1079.9)  Hoult Creek and the upper Kitimat River valley (KP 1086.9 to KP 1098.3 and KP 1099.3 to KP 1101.3), where gullies and ravines are subject to high water flows and debris flows  Hunter Creek (KP 1098.7 to KP 1099.7), where an active alluvial fan is prone to major avulsion, debris flows and torrents  KP 1101.3 to KP 1102.3, where the route crosses several active alluvial fans that are prone to avulsion, debris flows and torrents  the upper Kitimat River valley (KP 1101.3 to KP 1119.3), where the pipeline route crosses several gullied or ravine watercourses subject to high flows and debris torrents

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 Anderson Creek (KP 1163.8 to KP 1164.6)  the Moore Creek area (KP 1165.0 to KP 1165.2 )  the west side of Kitimat Arm (KP 1167.2 to KP 1171.4) in adjacent gully systems, and within a stream at KP 1167.9  the Kitimat Terminal (KP 1172.19), in several small, high-gradient streams

3.6.4.5 Snow Avalanching Snow avalanche run-out areas extend to, or across, the pipeline route at:  a tributary to Clore River and adjacent areas (KP 1079.8 to KP 1079.9), where two tracks are present very close to the route  the west portal of the Hoult Tunnel (KP 1086.6 to KP 1086.9), along steep valley walls on the east side of the route  Hoult Creek and the upper Kitimat River valley (KP 1086.9 to KP 1098.3 and KP 1099.3 to KP 1101.3), where:  possible avalanche debris could re-direct Hoult Creek  several tracks are present, including on a fan and cone complex at KP 1090.8 to KP 1091.7 and KP 1092.2 to KP 1093.0  the upper Kitimat River valley (KP 1101.3 to KP 1119.3)

3.6.4.6 Lateral Spread Lateral spreading is a potential geohazard between KP 1135.3 and KP 1172.0, where sensitive glaciomarine clay is present in localized areas below 170 m. Lateral spreading may also be a potential issue at KP 1158.6 to KP 1159.8 and is being investigated further.

3.6.4.7 Lateral Stream Erosion, Scour and Sedimentation Lateral stream erosion or sedimentation or both were observed at:  the Clore River (KP 1072.4 to KP 1072.7)  Hoult Creek (KP 1086.9 to KP 1098.3 and KP 1099.3 to KP 1101.3)  Hunter Creek (KP 1098.7 to KP 1099.7 ), where an active alluvial fan is prone to major avulsion, debris flows and torrents  KP 1101.3 to KP 1102.3, where the route crosses several active alluvial fans that are prone to avulsion, debris flows and torrents  the upper Kitimat River valley (KP 1101.3 to KP 1119.3), where the route crosses several gullied or ravine watercourses subject to high flows and debris torrents

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 KP 1115.9, where the Kitimat River is eroding laterally toward the logging road, aided by groundwater piping of sediments in the river bank  Chist Creek (KP 1123.1 to KP 1124.1), where lateral migration is extensive, and undercutting occurs along the terrace scarp  the Little Wedeene River (KP 1148.7 to KP 1149.7)  an outside meander bend west of Kitimat River (KP 1153.8 to KP 1155.3)  an outside meander bend of the Kitimat River (KP 1158.6 to KP 1159.8)  Anderson Creek (KP 1163.8 to KP 1164.6)  the west side of Kitimat Arm (KP 1167.2 to KP 1171.4), within several streams and gullies

3.6.4.8 Overland Flow Erosion Overland flow erosion on steep terrain is a potential geohazard at:  the east approach slope to Burnie and Clore river valleys (KP 1070.6 to KP 1071.1)  Cecil Creek (KP 1131.4 to KP 1132.2), at the steep eroded terrace scarps and valley walls  KP 1135.6 to KP 1137.2 in glaciomarine sediment

3.6.4.9 Consolidation Settlement Consolidation settlement is a potential geohazard in the region within the fine-grained, compressed deposits and existing fills between KP 1164.3 and KP 1164.9, and within fine-grained glaciomarine sediments at the Kitimat Terminal (KP 1172.19).

3.6.4.10 Seismicity Seismic motion (shaking) is a potential geohazard in the Coast Mountains physiographic region between KP 1060.1 and KP 1172.2. Liquefaction, due to seismic motion, is a potential geohazard within the glaciomarine units and existing fills between KP 1164.3 and KP 1164.9.

3.6.4.11 Tsunami A tsunami hazard exists for the docking infrastructure at the Kitimat Terminal (KP 1172.2). Tsunamis may be generated locally by terrestrial landslides that reach the ocean or by submarine slides, but they may also have distant sources in the Pacific Rim basin. This hazard is undergoing further study, and details can be found in the Overall Geotechnical Evaluation of Proposed Northern Gateway Pipeline Route (AMEC 2009c).

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3.6.4.12 Acid Rock Drainage Potential acid-generating rocks occur in the Coast Mountains physiographic region between:  KP 1073.3 and KP 1079.3, at Clore Ridge  KP 1081.3 and KP 1082.3, at Nimbus Ridge  KP 1088.3 and KP 1089.3, at the Hoult MINFILE showing  KP 1161.3 and the Kitimat Terminal Further detailed mapping and sampling will take place along the route during the detailed design stages, to provide a better indication of the distribution of these rocks. ARD is mainly discussed under separate cover in AMEC (2009a, 2009b).

3.6.5 Geohazards – Powerline Easements A number of geohazards have been identified along the Clore-Hoult powerline easement. The upper slopes of the easement are relatively steep and multiple small gullies have developed along these slopes. Where there is increased water runoff larger gullies have developed and some of these have debris flows and debris slides associated with them. Fans have developed at the base of these gullies due to deposition from the debris flows and slides. Seepage can be found in a few areas along the easement and there are several areas along the floor of the valley which may be flooded during spring melt. The Kitimat Pump Station powerline falls within the PEAA and is therefore not discussed separately.

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4 References

4.1 Literature Cited Adams, J. and P. Basham. 2001. Seismicity and Seismic Hazard. In G. R. Brooks (ed.). A Synthesis of Geological Hazards in Canada. Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 548: 7–25. Ottawa, ON. Alldrick, D.J. and C.M. Lin. 2007. Geology of the Skeena Group, Central British Columbia (NTS 093E,F,K,L,M; 103I,P). Ministry of Energy and Mines. British Columbia Geological Survey, Open File 2007-08. Victoria, BC. AMEC. 2006. Geotechnical Report on the Pipeline Route for the Proposed Enbridge Gateway Project Bruderheim, Alberta to Kitimat, B.C. Prepared for Northern Gateway Pipelines Inc. Calgary, AB. AMEC. 2009c. Overall Geotechnical Evaluation of Proposed Northern Gateway Pipeline Route. Prepared for Northern Gateway Pipelines Inc. Calgary, AB. Andriashek, L.D. 2001. Surficial Geology of the Wapiti area, Alberta, NTS 83L. Alberta Energy and Utilities Board. EUB/AGS Map 239. 1:250,000. Edmonton, AB. Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia. 2003. Guidelines for Terrain Stability Assessments in the Forest Sector. Burnaby, BC. Bayrock, L.A. 1972. Surficial Geology Edmonton (83H). Alberta Energy and Utilities Board. EUB/AGS Map 143. 1:250,000. Edmonton, AB. Bostock, H.S. 1948. Physiography of the Canadian Cordillera, North of the Fifty-Fifth Parallel. Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 247, Map 922A. Ottawa, ON. Bostock, H.S. 1967. Physiographic Regions of Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Map 1245A. Ottawa, ON. Bostock, H.S. 1970. Physiographic subdivisions of Canada. In: R.J.W. Douglas (ed.). Geology and Economic Minerals of Canada. Geological Survey of Canada. Economic Geology Report 1: 9– 30. Ottawa, ON. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Department of Agriculture, Soil Branch. 1998. Field Manual for Describing Terrestrial Ecosystems. Lands and Parks and British Columbia Ministry of Forests. Victoria, BC. British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Ministry of Environment. 1999. Mapping and assessing terrain stability guidebook. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Forest Practices Code of BC. Victoria, BC. British Columbia Ministry of Forests. 2003. Karst Management Handbook for British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of Forests. Victoria, BC. Cavers, D.S. 2003. Groundwater Blow-Off and Piping Debris Flow Failures. Conference Proceedings, 3rd Canadian Conference on Geotechnique and Natural Hazards. Clague, J.J. 1978. Terrain hazards in the Skeena and Kitimat River basins, British Columbia. In: Current Research, Part A. Paper 78-1a. Geological Survey of Canada. Ottawa, ON. Clague, J.J. 1983. Surficial Geology, Skeena River-Bulkley River Area, British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada, "A" Series Map 1557A, 5 sheets. 1:100,000. Ottawa, ON.

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Clague, J.J. 1984. Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology, Smithers—Terrace—Prince Rupert Area, British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir No. 413. Ottawa, ON. Clague, J.J., P.T. Bobrowsky and I. Hutchinson. 2000. A review of geological records of large tsunamis at Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and implications for hazard. Quaternary Science Reviews 19: 849-863. Duffel, S. and J.G. Souther. 1964. Geology of Terrace Map Area, British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 329. Ottawa, ON. Expert Committee on Soil Survey. 1983. The Canada Soil Information System (CanSIS). Agriculture Canada, Research Branch. Ottawa, ON. Fenton, M.M., B.T. Schreiner, E. Nielson and J.G. Pawlowicz. 1994. Quaternary geology of the Western Plains. In: G.D. Mossop and I. Shetsen (ed). Geological Atlas of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists and Alberta Research Council, 26: 413-420. Edmonton, AB. Geertsema, M. 1996. Earthflow Generated Wetlands. Prince Rupert Forest Region Forest Sciences. Extension Note #20. Prince Rupert, BC. Geertsema, M. and J.W. Schwab. 1997. Retrogressive Flowslides in the Terrace–Kitimat, British Columbia Area: from Early Post-deglaciation to Present—and Implications for Future Slides. Proceedings of the 11th Vancouver Geotechnical Society Symposium, 115–133. Vancouver, BC. Geertsema, M., D.M. Cruden and J.W. Schwab. 2005. A large rapid landslide in sensitive glaciomarine sediments at Mink Creek, northwestern British Columbia, Canada. Engineering Geology 83(1–3): 36-63. Geertsema, M., J.J. Clague, J.W. Schwab and S.G. Evans. 2006. An overview of recent large catastrophic landslides in northern British Columbia, Canada. Engineering Geology 83(1–3): 120–143. Geertsema, M., J.W. Schwab and A. Blais-Stevens. 2008. Landslides and Linear Infrastructure in West- central British Columbia. 4th Canadian Conference on Geohazards, Université Laval. Québec, QC. Holland, S.S. 1976. Landforms of British Columbia: a Physiographic Outline, 2nd Edition. British Columbia Department of Mines and Petroleum Resources, Bulletin 48. Victoria, BC. Howes, D.E. and E. Kenk. 1997. Terrain Classification System for British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of Environment and Surveys and Resource Mapping Branch, Fisheries Branch, MOE Manual 10 (Version 2). Hungr, O. and S.G. Evans. 1989. Engineering Aspects of Rockfall Hazard in Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 2061. 102p. Ottawa, ON. Jakob, M. 2005. A size classification for debris flows. Engineering Geology 79(3-4): 151-161. Journeay, J.M., S.P. Williams and J.O. Wheeler. 2000a. Tectonic Assemblage Map, Lesser Slave Lake, Alberta-British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 2948f. 1:1,000,000. Ottawa, ON. Journeay, J.M., S.P. Williams and J.O. Wheeler. 2000b. Tectonic Assemblage Map, Prince George, British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 2948e. 1:1,000,000. Ottawa, ON. Journeay, J.M., S.P. Williams and J.O. Wheeler. 2000c. Tectonic Assemblage Map, Prince Rupert, British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 2948d. 1:1,000,000. Ottawa, ON.

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Knapik, L.J. and J.D. Lindsay. 1983. Reconnaissance Soil Survey of the Iosegun Lake Area, Alberta. Alberta Research Council, Report No. 43. Edmonton, AB. Levson, V.M. 2002. Surficial Geology Compilation Map of the Babine Porphyry District. Ministry of Energy and Mines British Columbia Geological Survey. Geoscience Map 2002-2 1:100,000. Levson, V.M., A.J. Stumpf and A.J. Stuart. 1998. Quaternary geology and ice flow studies in the Smithers and Hazelton map areas (93 L and M): Implications for exploration. In: D.V. Lefebure and W.J. McMillan (eds.). Geological Fieldwork 1997. British Columbia Geological Survey, Ministry of Energy and Mines, Paper 1998-1: 5.1–5.8. Victoria, BC. Lord, T.M. and A.J. Green. 1986. Soil of the Fort St. John—Dawson Creek Area, British Columbia. Research Branch Agriculture Canada. British Columbia Soil Survey, Report No. 42. Ottawa, ON. Massey, N.W.D., D.G. MacIntyre, J.W. Haggart, P.J. Desjardins, C.L. Wagner and R.T. Cooney. 2005. Digital Geology Map of British Columbia: Tile NN8-9 North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands/Haida Gwaii. Ministry of Energy and Mines, British Columbia Geological Survey, Geofile 2005-5. 1:250,000. Victoria, BC. Mate, D.J. and V.M. Levson. 2001. Quaternary stratigraphy and history of the Ootsa Lake – Cheslatta River area, Nechako Plateau, central British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 38(4): 751-765. Maxwell, R. 1987. Biophysical Soil Resources and Land Evaluation of the Northeast Coal Study Area, 1977—1978 Jarvis Creek—Morkill River Area. Wildlife Branch British Columbia Ministry of Environment and Parks. British Columbia Soil Survey, Report No. 41. Victoria, BC. McDougall, S., N. Boultbee, O. Hungr, D. Stead and J.W. Schwab. 2006. The Zymoetz River landslide, British Columbia, Canada: description and dynamic analysis of a rock slide-debris flow. Landslides 3: 195-204. O'Leary, D., T. Rollerson, M. Zwierink and B.B. Miller. 2002. Terrain Inventory, Mapping and Classification System. Washington State Department of Natural Resources. Olympia, WA. Pettapiece, W.W. 1986. Physiographic Subdivisions of Alberta. Research Branch Land Resource Centre. 1:5,000,000. Ottawa, ON. Plouffe, A. 1992. Quaternary stratigraphy and history of central British Columbia. In: Geological Survey of Canada. Current Research, Part A, Paper 92-1A. 189–193. Ottawa, ON. Plouffe, A. 1996. Surficial Geology Burns Lake. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 3184. 1:100,000. Ottawa, ON. Plouffe, A. 1997. Ice Flow and Late Glacial Lakes of the Fraser Glaciation, Central British Columbia. In: Current Research 1997-A, Paper 1997-A. 133-143. Geological Survey of Canada. Plouffe, A. 2000. Surficial Geology Fort Fraser, British Columbia. "A" Series Map no. 1986A. 1:250,000. Ottawa, ON. Plouffe, A. and V.M. Levson. 2001. Late Quaternary glacial and interglacial environments of the Nechako River–Cheslatta Lake area, central British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 38(4): 719–731. Resources Inventory Committee (RIC). 1996a. Guidelines and Standards for Terrain Mapping in British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of Environment. Victoria, BC.

2010 Page 4-3 Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Section 4: References

Resources Inventory Committee (RIC). 1996b. Terrain Stability Mapping in BC: A Review and Suggested Methods for Landslide Hazard and Risk Mapping – Final Draft. British Columbia Ministry of Environment. Victoria, BC. Resources Inventory Committee (RIC). 1998. Standard for Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping in British Columbia. Terrestrial Ecosystems Task Force Ecosystems Working Group, British Columbia Ministry of Environment. Victoria, BC. Ryder, J.M. 1978. Geology, landforms, and surficial materials. In: K.W.G. Valentine, P.N. Sprout, T.E. Baker et al. (eds.). The Soil Landscapes of British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of the Environment, Resource Analysis Branch. 11–34. Victoria, BC. Shetsen, I. 1990. Quaternary Geology, Central Alberta; Alberta Energy and Utilities Board. EUB/AGS Map 213. 1:500,000. Edmonton, AB. Soil Classification Working Group. 1998. The Canadian System of Soil Classification, 3rd Edition. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Publication 1646. Ottawa, ON. St-Onge, D.A. 1972. Sequence of Glacial Lakes in North-central Alberta. Geological Survey of Alberta, Bulletin 213. Edmonton, AB. St-Onge, D.A. and S.M. Richard. 1975. Surficial Geology, Whitecourt, Alberta. Geological Survey of Canada, Map 1367A. 1:250,000. Ottawa, ON. Tipper, H.W. 1971. Glacial Geomorphology and Pleistocene History of Central British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 196. Ottawa, ON. Twardy, A.G. and I.G.W. Corns. 1980. Soil Survey and Interpretations of the Wapiti Map Area, Alberta. Alberta Research Council, Report 39. Edmonton, AB. Vold, T.R., R. Maxwell and R. Hardy. 1977. Biophysical Soil Resources and Land Evaluation of the Northeast Coal Study Area, 1976–1977, Volume 2 (Wapiti River–Murray River). Environment and Land Use Sub-Committee on Northeast Coal Development. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Report No. 50. Victoria, BC. Weir, P. 2002. Snow Avalanche: Management in Forested Terrain. Research Branch British Columbia Ministry of Forests. Land Management Handbook 55. Victoria, BC. Wheeler, J.O., A.J. Brookfield, H. Gabrielse, J.W.H. Monger, H.W. Tipper and G.J. Woodsworth. 1991. Terrane Map of the Canadian Cordillera. Geological Survey of Canada, “A” Series Map 1713A. 1:1,000,000. Ottawa, ON.

4.2 Personal Communications McIver, Louis. 2005. Project Engineer, Colt Engineering Ltd. October 2005. Calgary, AB.

4.3 Internet Site Natural Resources Canada (NRC). National Earthquake Database. Accessed: July 2008. Available at: http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/stndon/NEDB-BNDS/index-eng.php

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Geology and Terrain Technical Data Report Appendix A: Surficial Geology and Depth to Bedrock Atlas

Appendix A Surficial Geology and Depth to Bedrock Atlas

2010 Page A-1

PREPARED BY: REFERENCES:

171 P

ri 170

n 169

c

e

ss 168

Aiyansh R

o Terrace y

a 167

NTDB Topographic Mapsheets provided by theMajesty the Queen Right in ofCanada, Department ofNatural Resources. All rights r

l River 166

C luta

h a KP 1172.2

a h n n m 157k l e itsu Kitimat K 165 157j 157i 163 164 157h 162 KP 1100 161 157g 160 157f Kitwanga 159 PREPARED FOR: Kemano 158 157 Lake Morice 157e 157b 157d 157c 156 155 154 White Sail 153 Lake 152 151 New HazeltonNew Smithers 150

149

S

k

e

e

148 n a

R

E i

v

e u

r

t 147 s 146b 146c

KP 1000 Telkwa u

k

AUTHOR: DATE: CONTRACTOR: L

146d

a 146 k e Jacques Whitford AXYS Ltd. AXYS Jacques Whitford 145 Provincial Park Provincial Tweedsmuir 144b 144 146e Houston

JP2

143 O

142

o

t

s

20100122 a

141

L

a

k

e

140 B

F a b

i n e

r L

a a k n 139 e

ç

o APPROVED BY: Ootsa Lake Ootsa Burns Lake

i

s 138

T

a

k

L l

a

L

a a k k e 137

e DC eserved. 136 135

N 134 KP 900 at

a

l k 133

u 133b

z

W T L 132 r

e a e k s m

t e 131 b R l

o Lake Fraser e u a 130 r d L B a

l 129 k a e c k

w 128 a t ENBRIDGE ENBRIDGE GATEWAY PROJECT NORTHERN e r 127

R F

i r v a Fraser 126

e

s Fort

r e

r 125 L

a

Fort St. James

k

S

e t 124

u

a

r

t

123 L

a

k 122 e 121 120 Manson Creek Surficial Geology Mapping Index Index Mapping Geology Surficial

C 119

h i C O UM L BIA

l 118 a

k B RI ISH T o KP 800 117 Vanderhoof

R

i

v

116

e r 115 N

e British Columbia c

h 114

a

k Carp Lake

o N 113 Nation Riv

R a Park e zk r

o i v

Ri 112

e v r e r

111

McLeod Lake

P

Prince George a

110 r

s

n

i

p

109b R

109 e a c h 108 107

Mackenzie

P

106 a

r

s

n

i p

F

r

R

Quesnel a

105 i s

v

e

e r

r R

i

v 104 e r 103 Hixon KP 700 102 101 P

in

100 e

W R

i

l i l o v

w e

099 R r

I

v 098 e r

M 097

c 096

G

r

e 095

g Hutton

o

094

B r

r

o R

w S

n u

i ku

R n

v ka I 092

v R e e iv r e r r 093 Wells Chetwynd

091

F 090

r

Bowron a Provincial Park Provincial

087c s

Lake Provincial Park Provincial Park

e Gwillam Lake

088 087d Monkman r R 089

Projection Parameters: Reference: Pipeline Route R 2 0

RJCIN DATUM: PROJECTION: SCALE: FIGURE NUMBER:

Latitude ofOrigin: 40°N 2nd Standard Parallel: 70°N Central Meridian: 120°E 1st Standard Parallel: 50°N Lambert Conformal Conic i

v 087e

e er 087 v r Ri KP 600 y 087b ra ur 086 M Provincial Park/Protected Provincial Park/Protected Area National Park Tunnel Pipeline Map Frame Post Kilometre 085 LCC 087f Tumbler Ridge Tumbler 084 55 JWA-CAL-015-000a-3 083 Kilometres 1:1,500,000 082 081 Provincial Park Provincial 080

07 ver w Ri

Kakwa a atin 079 Kisk 078 Dawson NAD 83 077 McBrid 5 075 0

Z:\Clients\Enbridge\Gateway\Figures\MXD\JWA-CAL-015\JWA-CAL-015-000a-3.mxd PREPARED BY: REFERENCES: Cariboo River Cariboo riboo River Provincial Park Provincial 8 0 087c Monkman 088 089 087d Bowron Lake Bowron Reference: Pipeline Route R Projection Parameters: Latitude ofOrigin: 40°N 2nd Standard Parallel: 70°N Central Meridian: 120°E 1st Standard Parallel: 50°N Lambert Conformal Conic Bowron 087 Provincial Park Provincial Lake Park C O UM L BIA Gwillam Lake 087b River NTDB Topographic Mapsheets provided by theMajesty the Queen Right in ofCanada, Department ofNatural Resources. All rights r y 02 a 087e

B RI ISH T r 086 r

Map Frame Tunnel Pipeline Post Kilometre u M 085 087f Tumbler Ridge Tumbler 084 Cariboo Mountains 083 Bear Lake Hole Provincial Park Provincial 55 Wilderness Park 082 Kilometres Willmore 081 Provincial Park Provincial Provincial Park/Protected Provincial Park/Protected Area National Park 080 PREPARED FOR: 079 Kakwa McBride 07 Kiskatinaw River 078 077 075 076 5 KP 500 074 073 Terry Fox 072 071 Mount 070

K 069

a W k 068 w a

p

AUTHOR: DATE: CONTRACTOR: a

i Provincial Park Provincial Mount Robson t R 067

i Valemount i R S v m e i 066 o C v r ky u e t r R b I 065 v a e n Jacques Whitford AXYS Ltd. AXYS Jacques Whitford r k JP2

R 064 i v e r 063 Grande Prairie 20100122 062 061 059 060 KP 400 APPROVED BY: 057 National

Jasper Smo 058 ky River Park 055 S

im 056 eserved. on et 053 DC te 055b R 054 Ive Be r

r 052 l

Jasper a n d 051 Ri v e r 050

Switzer A. William W ildha

y 049 Hinton R iv Valleyview er ENBRIDGE NORTHERN GATEWAY PROJECT GATEWAY NORTHERN ENBRIDGE 048 047 046 KP 300 045

044 Little Smoky River 043 042 041 A L B E R T A A L BERT 040 039 Surficial Geology Mapping Index Index Mapping Geology Surficial High Prairie High Edson 038 037 036 M

c 035 L e o d

R 034 i v 033 er Whitecourt

L P e 032

s e

s m

031 e 030b Alberta

r b

KP 200

i S n

l a a Swan Hills Swan 030

v

R e

i L v

a e r k

e 027 029 028 025 026 Lake Chip 023 024 022

N

o 021

r t h 020 S a s ka 019 tche wan

018 A Riv t er Lake Wabamun h ab 017 as ca

Winfield R 016 iver 015 014 013 012 Stony Plain Edmonton 011 010 Lake Pigeon 009 008 RJCIN DATUM: PROJECTION: SCALE: FIGURE NUMBER: Vimy 007 006 Lake Calling 005 Athabasca 004 LCC Newbrook 003 AXYS-CAL-0 002 1:1,500,000 KP 0 001 Bashaw Bruderheim 15-000b-3 Elk Island National Park NAD 83 Camrose

Z:\Clients\Enbridge\Gateway\Figures\MXD\JWA-CAL-015\JWA-CAL-015_000b-3.mxd 6Evb4Ov

Ftu

8Fbv2Fa KP 3 LGu

KP 2 LGa 8 2 6 4 KP 4 9 1 LGka Fj FGs Fa FGka Cs 6Evb4Obv FGt FGu 8 2 FGu Obv 7Fp3Ov KP 6 9Fk1Ck

KP 5 8 2 7 3 FGs Fb Fvb Ov Ev N FGt LGk Obv 7 3 KP 7 LGj Fj Fvb LGu 7Evb3Ob KP 8 Ft Ev

KP 1

Evb

Legend Surficial Material Type Surface Expression Kilometre Post PDA Depth to Bedrock PDA Depth of Organic Materials C – Colluvium a – moderate slope (27 – 50% slope) PEAA At surface Organics <= 1m E – Eolian b – blanket (> 1 -3 meters in thickness) KP 0 F – Fluvial c – cone (> 26% slope) Ev Contours <=1m of surface >Organics > 1m FG – Glaciofluvial d – depression L - Lacustrine f – fan (< 26% slope) between 1 and 2m OPEN WATER LG - Glaciolacustrine h – hummocky Terrain Polygons Ev M – Moraine (till) j – gentle slope ( 6 – 26% slope) Av >2m below surface Surface N - Water k – steep slope (50 – 70%) Avb Decile 2 O - Organic m – rolling (6 – 26 % slopes) Ev expression 1 6Ov4Ev Surficial material 2 R - Rock p – plain (0 – 5% slope) Ev W - Marine Ebv Ev Decile 1 7 3 r – ridged FGv Mv Surface WG – Glaciomarine s – steep slope (> 70% slopes) expression 2 t – terraced Surficial u – undulating (0 – 26% slopes) NOTES : material 1 v – veneer (10 – 100 cm in thickness) 1. The differentiation between major deposits of till, glaciofluvial and glaciolacustrine is often difficult to interpret, especially on airphotos. Within the study area, the parent materials are often interbedded 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 2.The use of p, j, a, suggests that the topography is supported by the sediment and not by bedrock; the bedrock is either masked the overlying materials or is found at considerable depth. Kilometres

Projection Parameters:Lambert Conformal Conic Central Meridian: 120°E 1st Standard Parallel: 50°N Latitude of Origin: 40°N 2nd Standard Parallel: 70°N REFERENCES: NTDB Topographic Mapsheets provided by the Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, Department of Natural Resources. All rights reserved. PREPARED BY: PREPARED FOR: CONTRACTOR: ENBRIDGE NORTHERN GATEWAY PROJECT FIGURE NUMBER: Jacques Whitford AXYS Ltd. JWA-EDM-1-001

DATE: SCALE: 20091214 1:20,000

AUTHOR: APPROVED BY: Surficial Geology Mapping PROJECTION: DATUM: RH DO LCC NAD 83 T:\GIS\Projects\POG1485_Gateway2008\Figures\Atlas\JWA-1048334-EDM-Terrain_R.mxd 7 3 KP 16 Ev LGu

6Eb4FGu

KP 14 KP 15 LGu KP 13

LGvb

6LGka4Fj LGu KP 12 FGu

KP 6

LGk KP 7 KP 8 7 3 KP 9 LGj Fj KP 10 KP 11

Legend Surficial Material Type Surface Expression Kilometre Post PDA Depth to Bedrock PDA Depth of Organic Materials C – Colluvium a – moderate slope (27 – 50% slope) PEAA At surface Organics <= 1m E – Eolian b – blanket (> 1 -3 meters in thickness) F – Fluvial c – cone (> 26% slope) Contours <=1m of surface >Organics > 1m FG – Glaciofluvial d – depression L - Lacustrine f – fan (< 26% slope) Terrain Polygons between 1 and 2m OPEN WATER LG - Glaciolacustrine h – hummocky M – Moraine (till) j – gentle slope ( 6 – 26% slope) >2m below surface Surface N - Water k – steep slope (50 – 70%) expression 1 Decile 2 O - Organic m – rolling (6 – 26 % slopes) Surficial material 2 R - Rock p – plain (0 – 5% slope) W - Marine Decile 1 7 3 r – ridged FGv Mv Surface WG – Glaciomarine s – steep slope (> 70% slopes) expression 2 t – terraced Surficial u – undulating (0 – 26% slopes) NOTES : material 1 v – veneer (10 – 100 cm in thickness) 1. The differentiation between major deposits of till, glaciofluvial and glaciolacustrine is often difficult to interpret, especially on airphotos. Within the study area, the parent materials are often interbedded 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 2.The use of p, j, a, suggests that the topography is supported by the sediment and not by bedrock; the bedrock is either masked the overlying materials or is found at considerable depth. Kilometres

Projection Parameters:Lambert Conformal Conic Central Meridian: 120°E 1st Standard Parallel: 50°N Latitude of Origin: 40°N 2nd Standard Parallel: 70°N REFERENCES: NTDB Topographic Mapsheets provided by the Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, Department of Natural Resources. All rights reserved. PREPARED BY: PREPARED FOR: CONTRACTOR: ENBRIDGE NORTHERN GATEWAY PROJECT FIGURE NUMBER: Jacques Whitford AXYS Ltd. JWA-EDM-1-002

DATE: SCALE: 20091214 1:20,000

AUTHOR: APPROVED BY: Surficial Geology Mapping PROJECTION: DATUM: RH DO LCC NAD 83 T:\GIS\Projects\POG1485_Gateway2008\Figures\Atlas\JWA-1048334-EDM-Terrain_R.mxd 6Ev2Ovb2FGu KP 17 6Eb4FGu

8LGu2Ev KP 18 KP 16 KP 19 7 3 6 4 LGj Ev LGu Ov Ev 6Ov4Lp Evb LGa KP 20 6LGa4Fj Ej 8FGu2Eu FGd KP 14 Ev KP 21 6 4 8 2 Ev FGu Eu LGj LGu KP 22 Evb KP 15 8Eb2FGu LGvb 6Eb4FGu 7Fp3FGa

7LGu2LGa1FGu N Ft 8LGa2LGk 7FGu3LGu Sturgeon River

Legend Surficial Material Type Surface Expression Kilometre Post PDA Depth to Bedrock PDA Depth of Organic Materials C – Colluvium a – moderate slope (27 – 50% slope) PEAA At surface Organics <= 1m E – Eolian b – blanket (> 1 -3 meters in thickness) F – Fluvial c – cone (> 26% slope) Contours <=1m of surface >Organics > 1m FG – Glaciofluvial d – depression L - Lacustrine f – fan (< 26% slope) Terrain Polygons between 1 and 2m OPEN WATER LG - Glaciolacustrine h – hummocky M – Moraine (till) j – gentle slope ( 6 – 26% slope) >2m below surface Surface N - Water k – steep slope (50 – 70%) expression 1 Decile 2 O - Organic m – rolling (6 – 26 % slopes) Surficial material 2 R - Rock p – plain (0 – 5% slope) W - Marine Decile 1 7 3 r – ridged FGv Mv Surface WG – Glaciomarine s – steep slope (> 70% slopes) expression 2 t – terraced Surficial u – undulating (0 – 26% slopes) NOTES : material 1 v – veneer (10 – 100 cm in thickness) 1. The differentiation between major deposits of till, glaciofluvial and glaciolacustrine is often difficult to interpret, especially on airphotos. Within the study area, the parent materials are often interbedded 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 2.The use of p, j, a, suggests that the topography is supported by the sediment and not by bedrock; the bedrock is either masked the overlying materials or is found at considerable depth. Kilometres

Projection Parameters:Lambert Conformal Conic Central Meridian: 120°E 1st Standard Parallel: 50°N Latitude of Origin: 40°N 2nd Standard Parallel: 70°N REFERENCES: NTDB Topographic Mapsheets provided by the Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, Department of Natural Resources. All rights reserved. PREPARED BY: PREPARED FOR: CONTRACTOR: ENBRIDGE NORTHERN GATEWAY PROJECT FIGURE NUMBER: Jacques Whitford AXYS Ltd. JWA-EDM-1-003

DATE: SCALE: 20091214 1:20,000

AUTHOR: APPROVED BY: Surficial Geology Mapping PROJECTION: DATUM: RH DO LCC NAD 83 T:\GIS\Projects\POG1485_Gateway2008\Figures\Atlas\JWA-1048334-EDM-Terrain_R.mxd