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Extrasolar Planets: Detection Methods and Observational Campaigns Extrasolar Planets: Detection methods and Observational campaigns Eetu Halsio University of Oulu Bachelor's Thesis July 22, 2020 1 Contents 1 Introduction 3 2 Detection methods for Extrasolar Planets 3 2.1 Timing Pulsars and Pulsating Stars . 4 2.2 The Doppler Technique . 5 2.3 Astrometry . 7 2.4 Transit Photometry . 9 2.5 Gravitational Microlensing . 10 2.6 Direct Imaging . 13 3 Campaigns 14 3.1 Past and ongoing space based campaigns . 15 3.1.1 CoRoT . 15 3.1.2 Kepler . 16 3.1.3 K2 . 17 3.1.4 TESS . 18 3.1.5 GAIA . 20 3.1.6 CHEOPS . 21 3.2 Past and ongoing ground based campaigns . 21 3.2.1 WASP . 21 3.2.2 OGLE . 22 3.2.3 HARPS . 23 3.3 Upcoming space based campaigns . 24 3.3.1 JWST . 24 4 Conclusions 25 2 1 Introduction The universe contains hundreds of billions of galaxies and each of these galax- ies have hundreds of billions of stars. Many of these stars have planets as their companions and scientists are trying to search them also in hope of nding life.[1] Planets that are orbiting another star than the Sun, are called extrasolar planets, also known as exoplanets.[2] There is a wide diversity of dierent extrasolar planets.[3] They are found around dierent kinds of stars that vary extremely from each other e.g. by temperature, mass and size[1]. Extrasolar planets can be categorized by masses, compositions and orbital elements.[2] These planets are much harder to detect than planets in the Solar System, mainly because they are so far from the Earth[3]. The First successful nd of extrasolar planets happened around 1990 by radio pulsar timing (subsection 2.1)[1]. In 1995 two astronomers, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz found the rst extrasolar planet around solar-like star using ELODIE spectrograph. In 2019, they were awarded Nobel prize in Physics for their discovery. Since the rst nding the research of extrasolar planets has grown considerably. Before dierent kind of space campaigns were launched, most of the ex- trasolar planet ndings have been found using the radial velocity method. Today, the most used detection method is transit photometry. Space mis- sions like CoRoT and Kepler utilized this method to observe extrasolar plan- ets with great success and increased greatly the number of known extrasolar planets.[1] By November 2019 there have been 4 099 conrmed extrasolar planets according to Nasa's archieve. In this Bachelor's Thesis, I will review extrasolar planet detection meth- ods and mention some of the well known space and ground campaigns. 2 Detection methods for Extrasolar Planets Extrasolar planets can be detected using direct or indirect methods. Each detection method is more or less sensitive to dierent class of extrasolar planets and its environment.[3] Extrasolar planets are located far from the Solar System. The closest observed extrasolar planet resides at a distance of ∼ 4 light-years. Planets are very faint compared to their host stars, which are so luminous that they 3 overshine their little companion. For such reasons, most of the methods are indirect. Indirect methods can detect extrasolar planets by observing their host star.[3] They take advantage of the planet's inuence on the host star, such as temporarily reducing the host star's luminosity or causing visible motion on it by making it "wobble". Indirect methods include e.g. pulsar and pulsating star timing, the doppler technique, astrometry, transit and microlensing, which are intro- duced in this thesis. 2.1 Timing Pulsars and Pulsating Stars The rst successful extrasolar planet detection was obtained through pulsar timing. Pulsars are very rapidly rotating neutron stars, stellar remnants that are formed in supernova explosions, with very strong magnetic elds.[1] They emit stable and periodic pulses of radio waves that can be observed. Typical rotation frequency is ∼ 1 rotation per second but the fastest observed pulsar rotates ∼ 716 rotations per second. Observer's distance varies systematically in time, causing pulses to travel dierent distances. This is because the Earth rotates around the Sun and it's own axis of rotation. This variation can be taken into account and be reduced from the data, thus making the pulse signal constant.[3] The incoming signal can vary also because of the motion of the pulsar. If there is a planet with the pulsar, both rotate around their common barycenter. This motion causes a change in the distance between the pulsar and the Earth, therefore it also aects the travel time of the signal. If the pulsar has no planet, the distance between it and the Earth does not change, thus the frequency of incoming signal remains constant. The amplitude of the variation in the pulsars period is given by the equa- tion a sin i δT = ∗ (1) ∗ c where c is the velocity of light, a∗ the semi-major axis about the barycenter and i the angle between the orbit and the plane of the sky, i = 0 corresponds to the face on position.[4] The timing method does not restrict only to pulsars but can be used for pulsating stars as well. A pulsating star is a type of variable star that vary in brightness because of the expansion and the contraction of the star. The 4 change in the brightness can also occur if the star is in a binary system with a orbiting planet that eclipses. Pulsar timing is a very accurate method of nding planets. By observing typical pulsars, it should be possible to detect planets with a mass from a terrestial planet up to the mass of a Jovian planet. Lower mass objects with a mass ∼ the Moon and larger asteroids are possible to detect in a millisecond pulsar timing residuals.[1] The precision reduces greatly for pulsating stars, therefore the minimum observable mass of a planet is larger[3]. 2.2 The Doppler Technique The Doppler technique, also known as radial velocity method, detects the excess motion, (i.e. motion of star rotating around the system's common barycenter) of a star that is caused by an orbiting planet[5]. The method utilizes the Doppler eect where the star's observed wavelengths are either blue or red shifted because of the star's radial motion with respect to the observer[6]. Gravity governs the interaction between star and planet, thus a more mas- sive planet causes larger response in the stellar motion around the barycenter. In addition, gravity weakens with the square of the distance. Planets closer to the star induces bigger reex motion, also their orbital period is shorter, therefore they are more easier to detect.[5] Star's spectrum consists of numerous features that are doppler shifted. By tting these doppler shifts it is possible to determine star's radial velocity.[3] Velocity semi amplitude K follows the equation 2πG1=3 M sin i 1 K = p p (2) 2=3 2 Porb (M∗ + Mp) 1 − e where Mp the planet's mass, M∗ observed star's mass, Porb orbital period, G gravitational constant, e planet's orbital eccentricity and i inclination of the orbital plane respect to the plane of sky.[3] There are some restrictions for the method. Inclination of the system is crucial in the radial velocity method. In order to doppler eect to take place, the star must have a radial motion with respect to the observer. The shifts in wavelength are not observed if the system is observed face on, i.e. i = 0.[4] Also stars themselves are not all suitable because of the stellar activity. Radial velocities are aected by magnetic active regions in the star. 5 These regions contain features e.g. spots and faculae, that impacts on the overall ux measured from the region. These regions move in and out of the sight as the star rotates aecting the measured blue- and red-shifted light.[7] In the gure 1 is shown the radial velocity of binary star system KIC 9164561 as a function of orbital phase. In this binary system, primary A star has a mass of ≈ 2M and the white dwarf's (WD) mass was determined to be ≈ 0:197M . The spectrum of the target was then cross-correlated with the spectrum of the Vega to determine the radial velocities of 11 dierent time points. Figure 1: Radial velocity measurement for KIC 9164561 with uncertainties. Negative slope in velocity corresponds to movement towards the observer and vice versa. Sinusoidal curve represents best-t circular orbit.[8] 6 2.3 Astrometry Planets interact with stars via gravity, therefore both of the objects rotate around the system's common barycenter. The observed motion of the rotat- ing star is projected onto the plane of the sky. This motion of the star with respect to the observer is called the wobble. This motion is visualised in the gure 2 that shows the motion of the Sun around the common barycenter of the Solar System. The orbit with the faintest numbers illustrates the eect of Jupiter on the motion of the Sun. The green orbit with slightly more apparent numbers shows the eect of Jupiter and Saturn. The red orbit with the most apparent numbers is the sun's motion in response to the all eight planets and pluto. [3] The motion of a planet follows Keplerian laws but instead of Keplerian orbital elements, (eccentricity e, semi-major axis a, inclination i, argument of periapsis ! and longitude of ascending node Ω), often Thiele-Innes constants (A, B, F and G) are used to linearize equations (equation (4)) for simplicity.[1] In terms of the Keplerian elements, star's amplitude of the wobble, ∆θ, is given by equation M a ∆θ ≤ p ∗ (3) M∗ r∗ where Mp planet's mass, M∗ star's mass, a∗ star's orbital semi-major axis and r∗ the distance to the star from observer.[3] The wobble is more noticeable when the distance to the star is relatively short and the mass of the planet is large.
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