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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributions to International Polar Year Science A Selection from Smithsonian at the Poles Contributions to International Polar Year Science Igor Krupnik, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller Editors A Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge WASHINGTON, D.C. 2009 This proceedings volume of the Smithsonian at the Poles symposium, sponsored by and convened at the Smithsonian Institution on 3–4 May 2007, is published as part of the International Polar Year 2007–2008, which is sponsored by the International Council for Science (ICSU) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Published by Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press P.O. Box 37012 MRC 957 Washington, D.C. 20013-7012 www.scholarlypress.si.edu Text and images in this publication may be protected by copyright and other restrictions or owned by individuals and entities other than, and in addition to, the Smithsonian Institution. Fair use of copyrighted material includes the use of protected materials for personal, educational, or noncommercial purposes. Users must cite author and source of content, must not alter or modify content, and must comply with all other terms or restrictions that may be applicable. Cover design: Piper F. Wallis Cover images: (top left) Wave-sculpted iceberg in Svalbard, Norway (Photo by Laurie M. Penland); (top right) Smithsonian Scientifi c Diving Offi cer Michael A. Lang prepares to exit from ice dive (Photo by Adam G. Marsh); (main) Kongsfjorden, Svalbard, Norway (Photo by Laurie M. Penland). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Smithsonian at the poles : contributions to International Polar Year science / Igor Krupnik, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller, editors. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-9788460-1-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. International Polar Year, 2007–2008. 2. Polar regions—Research—Congresses. 3. Research—Polar regions—Congresses. 4. Arctic regions—Research—Congresses. 5. Antarctica—Research—Congresses. 6. Polar regions—Environmental conditions—Congresses. 7. Climatic changes—Detection—Polar regions—Congresses. I. Krupnik, Igor. II. Lang, Michael A. III. Miller, Scott E. G587.S65 2009 559.8—dc22 2008042055 ISBN-13: 978-0-9788460-1-5 ISBN-10: 0-9788460-1-X The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48–1992. 000_FM_pg00i-xvi_Poles.indd0_FM_pg00i-xvi_Poles.indd iiii 111/17/081/17/08 88:41:32:41:32 AAMM “The Way We See It Coming”: Building the Legacy of Indigenous Observations in IPY 2007– 2008 Igor Krupnik ABSTRACT. All early International Polar Year/International Geophysical Year (IPY/ IGY) initiatives were primarily geophysical programs and were exemplary products of the long-established paradigm of “polar science.” Under that paradigm, scholarly data to be used in academic publications were to be collected by professional scientists and/or by specially trained observers. Arctic indigenous residents had hardly any documented voice in the early IPY/IGY ventures, except by serving as “subjects” for museum collecting or while working as dog-drivers, guides, and unskilled assistants to research expeditions. Natural scientists with strong interest in Native cultures were the fi rst to break that pat- tern and to seek polar residents as a valuable source of expertise on the Arctic environ- ment. The Smithsonian has a distinguished tradition in working with indigenous experts and documenting their knowledge, from the days of the First IPY 1882– 1883 to the most recent projects on indigenous observations on Arctic climate change. The paper explores the unique role of IPY 2007–2008 and of recent efforts focused on the documentation of indigenous knowledge of Arctic environment and climate change, by using the experience of one IPY project, SIKU— Sea Ice Knowledge and Use— and research collaboration with local Yupik Eskimo experts from St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. INTRODUCTION This paper explores the emerging links among Arctic people’s ecological knowledge, climate change research, and cultural (or “social science”) studies in the polar regions. Residents of the Arctic are no strangers to today’s debates about climate change and global warming (Kusugak, 2002; Watt-Cloutier, 2005). Their knowledge on the Arctic environment is being increasingly sought as a source of valuable data for documenting and modeling Arctic climate change (ACIA, 2005). Still, such a rapprochement is not yet an established practice, as many scientists still view Arctic people’s perspectives on climate change as merely “anecdotal evidence.” Social science’s interest in Arctic people’s observations of climate change is, Igor Krupnik, Department of Anthropology, Na- similarly, a rather recent phenomenon, barely 10 years old (McDonald et al., tional Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 1997). Of course, Arctic residents have been observing changes and refl ecting Institution, P.O. Box 37012, MRC 112, Wash- upon fl uctuations in their environment since time immemorial. Their knowl- ington, DC 20013-7012, USA ([email protected]). edge, however, has been “archived” within northern communities and was Accepted 9 May 2008. transmitted in indigenous languages via elders’ stories, personal observations, 111_Krupnik_pg129-142_Poles.indd1_Krupnik_pg129-142_Poles.indd 112929 111/17/081/17/08 88:34:39:34:39 AAMM 130 • SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUPNIK and information shared among hunters. As scientists be- cil for Science, 2004:18). For the fi st time, the IPY science came increasingly attentive to indigenous perspectives on program includes a special research theme with a goal Arctic climate change, several barriers to productive dialog and communication had to be overcome (see discussion in to investigate the cultural, historical, and social processes Krupnik, 2002; Laidler, 2006; Oakes and Riewe, 2006). that shape the sustainability of circumpolar human societies, and Over the past decade, this new emerging collaboration to identify their unique contributions to global cultural diver- produced numerous papers, volumes, collections, docu- sity and citizenship. (International Council for Science, 2004:15; mentaries, interactive CD-ROMs, and museum exhibits Krupnik et al., 2005:91– 92) (Figure 1; Ford et al., 2007; Herlander and Mustonen, 2004; Gearheard et al., 2006; Huntington and Fox, 2005; The new IPY includes scores of science projects fo- Krupnik and Jolly, 2002; Laidler, 2006; Laidler and Elee, cused on the documentation of indigenous environmental 2006; Oakes and Riewe, 2006). knowledge and observations of climate change (Hovelsrud One of the key tasks of the International Polar Year and Krupnik, 2006:344– 345; Krupnik, 2007); it serves as (IPY) 2007– 2008, articulated in its many documents, is an important driver to the growing partnership between to explore how data generated by polar residents can be Arctic residents and polar researchers. Many Arctic people matched with the observations and models used by polar also see IPY 2007– 2008 as the fi rst international science scientists (Allison et al., 2007:51– 52; International Coun- venture to which they have been invited and one in which FIGURE 1. New public face of polar science, the exhibit Arctic: A Friend Acting Strangely at the National Museum of Natural History, 2006. (Photograph by Chip Clark, NMNH) 111_Krupnik_pg129-142_Poles.indd1_Krupnik_pg129-142_Poles.indd 113030 111/17/081/17/08 88:34:40:34:40 AAMM “THE WAY WE SEE IT COMING”: INDIGENOUS OBSERVATIONS • 131 their environmental expertise is valued and promoted. anthropology. In 1883, Boas volunteered to do a post-doc This growing partnership in the documentation of polar study in human geography among the Canadian Inuit as residents’ observations of climate change is widely viewed a follow-up to the German IPY-1 observation mission on as a cutting edge of today’s Arctic social and cultural re- Baffi n Island (Cole and Müller-Wille, 1984; Müller-Wille, search. 1998). Boas’ research among the Baffi n Island Inuit in 1883– 1884 introduced to polar science much of what constitutes today the core of the “human agenda” of IPY SOCIAL SCIENCES IN EARLIER 2007– 2008: the study of indigenous knowledge, adapta- INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEARS tion, culture change, and Arctic people’s views on the en- vironment. There is no wonder that Boas’ monograph on All previous International Polar Year initiatives in the Central Inuit of Arctic Canada (1888/1964), as well as 1882– 1883, 1932– 1933, and, particularly, the Inter- books by Murdoch on the people of Barrow (1892/1988) national Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957– 1958, were and by Turner on the Inuit and Innu of Ungava Bay framed primarily, if not exclusively, as geophysical pro- (1894/2001), remain, perhaps, the most widely cited pub- grams focused on meteorology, atmospheric and geomag- lications of the entire IPY-1 program. It is also no accident netic research, and later, glaciology, geology, space studies, that these IPY-1 monographs on Arctic indigenous people oceanography, and sea ice circulation studies (Fleming and and their cultures were published by the Smithsonian In- Seitchek, 2009, this volume). We have hardly any record of stitution. They also remain the only science writings from Arctic residents’ involvement in previous IPYs, other than the First IPY that were ever read and used by Arctic in- serving as guides, manual laborers, unskilled assistants, digenous people, prior to the recent “rediscovery” by the or being prospects for ethnographic collecting. None of Norwegian Sámi of Sophus Tromholt’s photographs of these earlier IPY ventures organized primarily
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