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Natural Sciences Master Dissertations
2016 Impact of human-wildlife conflicts on natural resources management in Tanzania: A case study of Saadani National Park
Kassim, Alli
The University of Dodoma
Kassim, A. (2016). Impact of human-wildlife conflicts on natural resources management in Tanzania: a case study of Saadani National Park. Dodoma: The University of Dodoma. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/712 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. IMPACT OF HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS ON NATURAL
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN TANZANIA: A CASE STUDY
OF SAADANI NATIONAL PARK
By
Alli Kassim
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Natural Resources Management of the University of Dodoma
The University of Dodoma
October, 2016
CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certifies that he has read and hereby recommends for acceptance by the University of Dodoma, a dissertation entitled “Impacts of Human Wildlife
Conflicts on Natural Resources Management in Tanzania: A Case Study of
Saadani National Park,” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Natural Resources Management.
……………………………………………….
Dr. Enock Makupa
(Supervisor)
Date………..…………
i DECLARATION
AND
COPYRIGHT
I, Alli Kassim, hereby declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other university for a similar or any other award.
Signature ……………………
No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the author or the University of Dodoma. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost gratitude goes to the Almighty God whose blessings have abundantly been enough for me and my family to manage all the necessities during the whole time of my study. In a very Special manner, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Enock Makupa, of the University of Dodoma for his massive assistance and constructive critique that made this work very possible. Moreover, special and legitimate thanks are provided to my wonderful wife, Mariam Abeid
Mruke, for her contribution and tolerance for the loneliness all the time when I was busy and several times out of my habitat during different stages towards the accomplishment of this dissertation.
In a special way, I would like to offer special thanks to my uncle, H.E Dr. Jakaya
Mrisho Kikwete, for his education advice and full sponsorship of this programme; actually, this work would not be possible without his financial support. May the
Almighty God bless him abundantly. Also, I would like to pay special appreciation to my beloved parents, the late Mr. Kassim Said Shakha and the late Mwajuma Iddi
Setumbi, whose special guidance from my childhood has enabled me to be who I am.
May their souls rest in eternal peace, Amen. I would like also to thank my sisters and brothers, Mohammed, Kamaliza, Saidi, Mwanaalama, Salama and Stegemei, for their guidance and financial supports at different stages of my life; actually, their supports enabled me to reach this stage. I am sincerely grateful to my College mates whose education support and inspiration gave me more strength to continue with this work.
Just to mention a few, Charles Cleth, Josephat E. Nyarara and Gerald Mafuru. May
God bless them all.
iii DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my beloved parents, the late Mr. Kassim Said Shakha and late Mwajuma Iddi Setumbi, who in very difficult settings built a strong foundation which has made possible for me to reach this stage today! For sure, they left the sign in this World. May their Souls rest in eternal peace, Amen.
iv ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to find out the impact of human wildlife-conflicts on natural resources management in Saadani national park, Tanzania. The data for the study were collected from three villages vicinity to Saadani National Park
(SANAPA), namely Mkange, Saadani and Matipwili villages. The study cover 97 households survey and 13 key informants interviews including the ward and village executive officers, District officials and Saadani National Park officials. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used for data analysis. The findings revealed that the participants were aware of the Human Wildlife Conflicts (HWC) which exists in Saadani National Park. Most of the HWC are associated by the increase in population, change of weather and the increase in the wildlife population in the study area. The results shows that majority of the households are not aware of the ecosystem benefits which they get from SANAPA. The existence of the HWC has impacted many, including the death and injuries of people, livestock predation; destruction of properties as well as the loss of biodiversity. The participants of the study believe that HWC in Saadani is largely due to the lack of awareness among people, boundaries disputes and also because there are no appropriate legal institutions established to educate the people and make reconciliations of the conflicts. It is concluded in this study that fencing, compensation and establishment of land right and boundaries are the chief means that could be used to overcome the
HWC in SANAPA and Tanzania in general.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ...... i DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... ix LIST OF FIGURES ...... x LIST OF PLATES ...... xi LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... xiii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background Information ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 5 1.3.1 The General Objectives of the Study ...... 6 1.3.2 Specific Objectives ...... 6 1.4 Research Questions ...... 6 1.5 Significance of the Study ...... 7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.0 Introduction ...... 8 2.1 Definition of Key Concepts ...... 8 2.1.1 Natural Resources ...... 8 2.1.2 Conflicts ...... 9 2.1.3 Conservation ...... 9 2.1.4 Human-Wildlife Conflicts ...... 9 2.2 Theoretical Literature Review ...... 10 2.2.1 Theory of Carrying Capacity ...... 10 2.2.2 The Livelihood Theory ...... 11 2.2.3 Institutional Approach Theory to Natural Resources Management ...... 13 2.3 Empirical Literature Review ...... 14
vi 2.3.1 Human-Wildlife Conflicts Globally ...... 14 2.3.2 Human Wildlife Conflicts in Africa ...... 16 2.3.3 Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Tanzania ...... 18 2.4 Efforts to Address Human-Wildlife Conflict in Tanzania ...... 20 2.4.1 Institutional Framework and Arrangement ...... 20 2.4.2 Legal Framework ...... 21 2.4.3 Land Tenure System in Tanzania ...... 22 2.5 General Weakness of Institutional Arrangement ...... 24 2.6 Research Gap ...... 24
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 25 3.0 Introduction ...... 25 3.1 Selection of the Study Area ...... 25 3.1.1 Location ...... 26 3.1.2 Climate ...... 27 3.1.3 Soils ...... 27 3.1.4 Vegetation ...... 27 3.1.5 Wildlife ...... 28 3.1.6 Demography ...... 29 3.1.7 Major Economic Activities ...... 30 3.2 Research Design ...... 30 3.3 The Target Population ...... 31 3.4 Sampling Frame ...... 31 3.4.1 Sampling Unity ...... 32 3.5 Sample Size ...... 32 3.6 Sampling Procedure ...... 33 3.7 Type of Data ...... 34 3.7.1 Primary Data ...... 35 3.7.2 Secondary Data ...... 35 3.8 Data Collection Methods ...... 35 3.8.1 Household Survey ...... 36 3.8.2 Interviews ...... 37 3.8.3 Documentary Reviews ...... 37 3.8.4 Focus Group Discussion ...... 37 vii 3.9 Data Processing and Analysis ...... 38 3.10 Reliability and Validity ...... 39 3.11 Research Ethics ...... 40
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 41 4.0 Introduction ...... 41 4.1 Characteristic of the Respondents ...... 41 4.1.1 Sex of the Respondents ...... 41 4.1.2 Education Status of the Respondents ...... 42 4.1.3 Marital Status of the Respondents ...... 43 4.1.4 Age of the Respondents ...... 45 4.1.5 Respondents‟ Duration of Staying in the Area of the Study ...... 45 4.1.6 Household Size ...... 46 4.1.7 Economic Activities of Respondents ...... 47 4.2 Ecosystem Goods and Services Provided by Saadani Ecosystem ...... 48 4.3 Type and Nature of Human-Wildlife Conflict in the Study Area ...... 52 4.3.5 Change of Weather ...... 59 4.5 Impact of Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Households ...... 64 4.6 The Impact of HWC on Natural Resources Management ...... 68
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECCOMENDATIONS ...... 77 5.0 Introduction ...... 77 5.1 Summary of the Key Findings ...... 77 5.2 Conclusion ...... 78 5.3 Recommendations ...... 80 5.4.1 Further Research Direction ...... 81 REFERENCES ...... 82 APPENDICES ...... 89
viii LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Common Animals Found in Saadani National Park ...... 29 Table 2: Selection of Respondents at the Study Area ...... 33 Table 3: Sex of the Respondents ...... 42 Table 4: Education Status of the Respondents ...... 43 Table 5: Age of the Respondents ...... 45 Table 6: Respondent‟s Time of Residence in Village ...... 46 Table 7: Household Size ...... 46 Table 8: Respondents‟ Ranks of the Ecosystem Services ...... 50 Table 9: Causes of HWC...... 54 Table 10: legal institutions which deal with HWC in SANAPA...... 61 Table 11: Households responses about participation in reconciliation meetings ...... 64 Table 12: Effect of Human Wildlife Conflicts in households...... 65 Table 13: Impact of HWC on natural resources...... 69 Table 14: Mitigation Strategies Identified by the respondents ...... 73
ix LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Map of Study Area. Source: Tanzania National Parks, 2016 ...... 26 Figure 2: Marital Status of the Respondents. Source: Field Study, 2016 ...... 44 Figure 3: Economic Activities of Respondents Source: Field Study, 2016 ...... 47 Figure 4: Understanding of Ecosystem Goods. Source: Field Study, 2016 ...... 48 Figure 5 Time of the day where HWC is common. Source: Field Data (2016)...... 60 Figure 6: The Impact of HWC on Natural Resources Management ...... 71
x LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1: Photo of Villagers Fetching Water ...... 51 Plate 2: A Picture of Pumpkins Farm in Buffer Zone ...... 55 Plate 3: Warthogs Living Inside the Village with Communities ...... 58
xi LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendices I: Households Questionnaire ...... 89 Appendices II: Checklist for Key Informants Interviewer ...... 93
xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
CBRN Community Based Natural Resources Management CCS Community Conservation Services FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDG Focus Group Discussion GIS Geographical Information System HWC Human Wildlife Conflict IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature KI Key Informants MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment NBS National Bureau of Statistics NBST National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania NEP National Environmental Policy NP National Park NPs National Parks NRM Natural Resources Management PA Protected Area Pas Protected Areas SANAPA Saadani National Park SMART Systematic Measurable Accuracy Reliable and Timed SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science TANAPA Tanzania National Parks UNEP United Nation Environmental Programme URT United Republic of Tanzania VEO Village Executive Officer WEO Ward Executive Officer WMA Wildlife Management Area
xiii CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces the problem of the study and provides an overview of the same. It focused on the background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, and significance of the study as well as the organization of the study.
1.1 Background Information
Human-wildlife conflict (henceforth HWC) is defined as any interaction between humans and the wildlife that results in a negative impact on human social, economic or culture. Such conflicts also have a negative impact on the conservation of wildlife populations, or on the environment (Bond, 2005). Bond (2015) added that HWC is the competition between humans and wildlife in relation to habitat, livelihood assets, such as crops and livestock and physical safety. These conflicts over natural resources result in disagreements and disputes over access to, control and use of natural resources (FAO, 2000). It is argued that the ultimate cause of the conflicts is people‟s different perception on the uses of resources, such as land, forests, water, pastures and wildlife (FAO, 2000). Because of the lack of awareness, people want to manage these areas in different ways than they are planned by authorities to be used.
The emerging natural resources conflicts also arise when these interests and needs are incompatible, or when the priorities of some user groups are not considered in policies, programmes and projects (FAO, 2000). If these conflicts are not addressed immediately, it is obvious that the sustainability of the wildlife protected areas is in danger. This will, consequently, affect the socio-economic status of the same people in conflicts with the wildlife.
1 This assertion is confirmed by Kidegesho (2013) who argued that sustainable natural resources management in many protected areas (PA), including national parks (NP) and wildlife management areas (WMA), is threatened by the escalating natural resources use conflicts. Distefano (2011) came with the same observation but adding that HWC is fast becoming a serious threat to the survival of many endangered species in the world.
It is important to know that the problem is more intensive in the tropical areas and developing countries whose national income could be enriched by tourism activities.
Many of the people in these areas depend on livestock holding and agriculture which is an important part of their livelihood and income (FAO, 2000) but, because of poor technology, there is a little production and so many of them herd large flocks of animals and several pieces of land to maximize production. Generally, one can argue that the primary causes of human-wildlife conflicts are demographic, economic, institutional and technological. UNEP (1995) explained that the costs inflicted by wildlife conservation to people, and the human problems constraining wildlife sector has made human-wildlife conflicts one of the major challenges calling for the attention of the conservationists.
In Africa, HWC is a common problem. Conflicts are seemingly between people and wildlife rather than people and the wildlife management authorities. The conflicts are common in areas where wildlife and human population coexist and share limited resources (Distefano, 2011). It is apparent that the conflicts may not end in the near future if appropriate interventions are not made because the current human population growth rate increases demand of resources and access to land. In some areas, the conflicts are intensified by the reason that people do not receive any benefit from the wildlife though they co-exist with the wild animals which cause 2 destructions or because their areas are taken for wildlife conversation (O‟Connell-
Rodwell et al., 2000). For example, in Zimbabwe, in 1996, 241 livestock were killed by lion, baboon and leopard while, in Kenya, ranches lost an average of 2.4% of total livestock per annum which amounted loss of US$ 8,749 (Distefano, 2011). In addition, in Benoue National park Cameroun, baboon, elephants, warthog and green parrots reported to cause a loss of 31% of annual crop income and 18% of annual livestock income per household.
In Tanzania, human-wildlife conflicts vary according to geography, land use patterns, human behaviour, and the habitat and behaviour of wildlife species or individual animals within the species. Some cases or destructions by wild animals are reported by the people living near the wildlife conservation areas in Tanzania
(Destefano, 2011; Kigedesho and Shemweta; 2000; Nyahongo; 2007). For example, in Serengeti National Park, Holmen et al., (2000) indicated that 708 livestock belonging to 132 households from seven villages were killed by predators in 2003 in
Western Serengeti whereby the spotted hyenas were responsible for 98% kill.
Apart from the destruction of property, large carnivores are, sometimes, reported to attack and killing of people (Herrero, 1985; Løe and Røskaft, 2004; Nowell and
Jackson, 1996; Packer et al., 2005; Saberwal et al., 1994; Nyahongo and Røskaft,
2011). This contributes to socio-economic problems since some family members are killed and some costs are incurred in treating the people injured by the animals
(Kideghesho, 2006).
Saadani National Park represents the areas with intensified conflicts over natural resources uses conflict and HWCs. For example, in 2010, three to ten people were killed and attacked by crocodile and lion while farms and storage bins were
3 destroyed by elephants (Muruthi, 2005; Beatrice, 2012); however, other impact resulting from the conflicts were not empirically stated. Elsewhere, such conflicts have direct impacts, including injury and death from encounters with dangerous and aggressive animals, including loss of families‟ economy due to the loss of crops and livestock, damage of storage bin and damaged of infrastructure (Brayant, 2005). The conflicts have a great implication on the natural resources management, especially to large carnivore and ungulates such as elephants; consequently, people kill the animals when they see them in the people‟s residents. Ogada et al., (2003) shown that species most exposed to conflicts are also shown to be more prone to extinction because people kill them frequently.
It has been seen that the local people perceive wildlife conservation as a legal responsibility rather than an economic and social advantage or opportunity (FAO,
2000; Shemweta and Kighedesho, 2000). This being the case, people do not take care of the animals for their social and economic advantages which lead to the increase of poaching, poisoning, contamination diseases and, above all, the humans-wildlife conflicts. Given the importance of the wildlife in the socio-economic arenas and in supplying different biodiversity values (MEA, 2003; MEA, 2005), it is important that the conflicts are quickly addressed to bring peace and harmony as well as protect the lives of the wild animals that are being frequently attacked by the people. However, the nature of the conflicts along with the impact of the conflicts is not well known in our areas. Thus, studies like this are important to establish the nature, impacts of the conflicts as well as make the people know the socio-economic advantages of the wildlife in their areas and the whole country in general.
4 1.2 Statement of the Problem
Establishment of NPs and other forms of PAs in all over the world is one of the ways that enable countries to earn local and foreign currencies and also protect the rich biological diversity from disappearance due to unsustainable use (FAO, 2000). On the other hand, it restricts access to the land and valuable resources to rural communities, which for a long time used the lands for cultivation, pasture and for other livelihood activities (Skonhoft, 1998).
Saadani National Park (SANAPA) is one of the areas in Tanzania where HWCs are experienced. There have been repeated invasions by the local community who either cause degradations or blockage of wildlife migratory corridors (Muruthi, 2005;
Beatrice, 2012). The contests of the HWC are ever changing and increasingly to the villages‟ vicinities to the SANAPA. Though there have been several attempts made by the responsible authorities to resolve the conflicts, the conflicts still escalate, there were 75 reported HWC in SANAPA in the period from 2005 to 2010 (Beatrice,
2012). This continuation of the conflicts led the researcher to the assumptions that the nature of the conflicts is not yet known and so the responsible authorities do not use the appropriate measures to address the problem. It was also sought that the impacts of the conflicts are not yet known and, so, leading the people to engage in repeated conflicts which cause injuries and killing of the animals.
This assumption is built from Shemwetta and Kideghesho‟s (2000) argument that local people perceive wildlife conservation as a legal responsibility rather than an economic and social advantage or opportunity; thus, they do not care if the animals are killed. Unfortunately, there is insufficient research conducted in Saadani National
Park to provide empirical information about the subject at hand.
5 Instead, the earlier studies concentrated on biodiversity and conservation (Bryant,
2005) and human-wildlife conflicts in Africa at large (Bryant, 2005). Therefore, the present study was necessary to fill this apparent gap. It was thought that the findings of this study would provide a better understanding of the nature and impact of the human-wildlife conflicts on natural resources management (such as water, land, forest and wild animals).
1.3.1 The General Objectives of the Study
The overall objective of the study was to assess the impact of human-wildlife conflicts on natural resources management in Saadani National Park, Tanzania.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
i. To identify important ecosystem goods and services provided by the Saadani
ecosystem.
ii. To assess the types and nature of human-wildlife conflicts commonly in the
study area.
iii. To analyze important institutions arrangement in dealing with human-
wildlife conflicts in the study area.
iv. To examine the impact of human-wildlife conflicts to natural resources in the
study area.
1.4 Research Questions
i. What are the ecosystem good and services provided by Saadani
ecosystem?
ii. What are the causes and nature of the human-wildlife conflicts in the
study area?
6 iii. What are the impacts of human-wildlife conflicts in the study area?
iv. What are the available conflicts resolution mechanisms that can be used
to overcome challenges in solving the human-wildlife conflicts in the
study area?
1.5 Significance of the Study
The findings of this study would help planners, decision makers, policy makers and other wildlife stakeholders like game officers, conservators as well as the community in general to design appropriate measures of dealing with human-wildlife conflicts.
For instance, the study provides, scientifically, accurate information about the risks of not involving the local community in solving human-wildlife conflicts in natural resources management. Specifically, the study provides information about the human-wildlife conflicts and the effectiveness of different legal institutions in solving the human-wildlife conflicts which could go hand in hand with alleviating poverty to community surrounding parks at the same time improving the natural resource management.
The study findings would provide the baseline for the government to re-assess and re-evaluate the effectiveness of institutions dealing with resolving HWC in the study area. Lastly, the findings of this study would also contribute to the existing body of knowledge and can be used as a stepping stone to solving the HWC in wildlife management in Tanzania in general.
7 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
According to Barley (1999), a literature review is an essential part of the research because it sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundations of the research.
Literature review gives the researcher insight into what has already been done by others and enable the researcher to know the kind of additional data needed in the study. The review helped the researcher to expand the variables such as the meaning of key concepts; theories related to human-wildlife conflicts and gave him insights on what is the impact of human-wildlife conflicts on natural resources management.
It is from the knowledge obtained from the review of the literature that the researcher identified the gap between what is already known and what needs to be researched as well as the appropriate research methodology and instruments were developed.
2.1 Definition of Key Concepts
This section provides definitions of the terms used in this study; the key terms provided in this section include the human-wildlife conflict, conservation, conflicts and natural resources.
2.1.1 Natural Resources
Natural resources are useful raw materials that we get from the Earth (Swafford,
2016). They occur naturally, which means that humans cannot make natural resources (Swafford, 2016). Instead, we use and modify natural resources in the ways that are beneficial to us. The materials used in human-made objects are natural resources. Some examples of natural resources are animals, natural gas, water, soil and trees (Swafford, 2016).
8 Under this study, the natural resources are wild animals, forest, land and water resources.
2.1.2 Conflicts
Conflicts are struggles over values and claims to status, power and resources in which the aim of the opponent is to neutralize injury or eliminate their rivals (Coser,
1956). Conflict may also be defined as incompatibility of interests, goals, values, needs, expectations, and/or social cosmologies (or ideologies) (Dennen and Falger,
1990). For the sake of this study, conflict means disagreements and disputes over access to, and control and use of natural resources, particularly wildlife resources
2.1.3 Conservation
Conservation refers to the wise use of resources (Schmink, 1999). It is long term maintenance of ecosystem biodiversity through the management of multiple forms of resource use and encompasses a broad and complex range of social and ecological interactions and negotiations (Schmink, 1999). Therefore, conservation must take account of economic, ecological, cultural and aesthetic values of people to support conservation when they become an active participant in the process and are motivated (Makombe, 1994).
2.1.4 Human-Wildlife Conflicts
Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is defined as any interaction between humans and wildlife that results in negative impacts on human social, economic or cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife populations, or on the environment (Bond, 2005).
9 2.2 Theoretical Literature Review
This section discusses various theories and perspectives underlying the objectives of this study. A number of theories have been reviewed critically with the aim of laying the theoretical frame work of this study as explained bellow.
2.2.1 Theory of Carrying Capacity
The Theory of Carrying capacity was developed by Park and Burgess (1921 cited in
Wang 2010). It is an ecological concept that expresses the relationship between a population and the natural environment on which it depends for ongoing sustenance.
Carrying capacity assumes limits on the number of individuals that can be supported at a given level of consumption without degrading the environment and, therefore, reducing the future carrying capacity. That is, carrying capacity addresses long-term sustainability.
Exceeding the environment carrying capacity implies impairing the environment‟s ability to sustain the desired quality of life over the long term. In NP, exceeding environmental carrying capacity have a direct impact which resulted in wildlife to live outside the park due to the shortage of water, pasture and land for breeding where the crop raiding, livestock depredation and destruction increase. Other factors include the increase of human populations, ungulates and predators that find sufficient feed for several years, but at the cost of over-grazing and predation so that the land‟s future yield is reduced to below the original level. The reduction of environmental carrying capacity in Saadani National Park may increase human- wildlife conflict due to the fact that human-wildlife interaction will be increased, especial to the people living adjacent to the national park.
10 In addition, the theory of Carrying Capacity gives some insights about the human wildlife-conflicts since it informs that the carrying capacity of the environment will determine the extent of human-wildlife conflict in a particular piece of land (Holling,
2000). This means that the growing human population led to low carrying capacity of a particular land leading to human encroachment to other areas including in the game reserve and National Parks leading to human-wildlife conflicts (Nyahongo, 2007).
This led the researcher to presuppose that the human-wildlife conflict in Saadani is a result of the increase in population in the areas around the national park, the increase which also increased pressure over the available land. Thus, during data collection, the researcher examined to know if the nature of the conflicts results from the increase of the population on land.
The theory also informed the researcher the need to examine the kind of the interactions between human and the wild animals to understand the kind of interactions they have and if the interactions are the cause of the conflicts. Even though this theory produced insightful information necessary for the study, it does not help in understanding the impacts of the conflicts over resources and the appropriate legal measures that could be used to address the problem. It is for this reason that the theory was supplemented by other two theories namely the
Livelihood Theory and the Institutional Approach Theory to Natural Resources
Management.
2.2.2 The Livelihood Theory
Livelihood framework has been adopted as an analytical instrument in development studies in order to study livelihoods in developing countries (Ellis, 2000). The livelihood approach dates back to the work of Chambers in the mid 1980s and the
11 concept was later developed to sustainable livelihood approach, by the British
Department for International Development (Collminar and Gamper, 2002). In 1992,
Robert Chamber and Gordon Conway proposed a definition for sustainable rural livelihoods to be applied at the household level;
A livelihood comprises the components of capabilities assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for means of earning a living; a livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets and provide sustainable opportunities for the next generation and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods, at the local and global levels and in the short and long term (Krantz, 2001). According to Ellis
(2002), the concept of livelihoods is widely used in relation to poverty and rural development. Scoones (1998) identifies five types of capital, which are components of assets in the definition of livelihoods. These assets support strategies of individual and households to earn their means of living. Therefore, the livelihoods theory is adopted to express the complex processes and factors affecting livelihoods of people in relation to human-wildlife conflict and natural resources management.
That is, in establishing livelihoods strategies, it is better to consider the type of livelihoods resources available before making decisions on gaining access, and the characteristics of resources that influences the outcome and agents choices (Vatn,
2005). Example, people living adjacent to Saadani National Park should get an access of utilizing the natural resources available in a sustainable manner and also should be included in decision making and conflict resolution in natural resources utilization.
12 The information obtained through this theory informed the researcher to investigate how and what the community involved in the conflicts benefits from the Saadani
National Park with the assumption that the community may be benefiting well from the park; thus, they pick conflicts with the wild animals to express their dissatisfactions.
2.2.3 Institutional Approach Theory to Natural Resources Management
The Theory was proposed by Adihkari in 2001. The main argument of the theory is that institutions influence the sustainability of the resources and improve the livelihoods while conflicts are reduced and resolved. However, if there are no vigor institutions, there will be an increase of HWC which could lead to a high dependence and eventually lead to the degradation of natural resources, such as forest resources and wildlife.
The concept of Institutional approach is very important to be considered in the study of the impact of human-wildlife conflicts on natural resource management because institutions are means of securing livelihoods in local communities through reduction of human-wildlife conflict, like national parks which are centered on property right structure of the resources.
The theory informs the need for the inclusion of the community in making decisions and protection of the wild animals since the exclusion of the beneficiaries from access and use of national park resources in natural resources management system is usually difficult and costly (Hofstad, 2008). Thus, it is the institutions that make proper arrangements for involving the community in the activities related to wildlife conservation.
13 It is emphasized that the best option is the institutional arrangement that can be designed to ensure that the community is involved and at the same time making exclusion and elimination of free riding of the resources for sustainability (URT,
2009; URT, 2010). That is to say, a well designed institutional arrangement is a determinant for long term economic, social and ecological sustainability of the common pool resources, which also depends on the extent to which people uses the natural resources for their livelihoods and reduction of natural resources conflict between wildlife, park authorities and villagers. Following this knowledge, the researcher in this study made an investigation to understand how the responsible government authorities establish legal measures that build platforms for the involvement of the community in different matters, especially in making decisions and solving the conflicts, related to the national park and also make the community benefit from the presence of the national park.
2.3 Empirical Literature Review
This section reviews various researches concerning the impacts of human-wildlife conflicts in natural resources management that were done by the previous researchers in the world, Africa and in the study area.
2.3.1 Human-Wildlife Conflicts Globally
According to the 2003 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
World Parks Congress, human-wildlife conflicts occur when wildlife requirements encroach on those of human populations, which cost both the residents and wild animals (IUCN, 2005). Human-wildlife conflict has been in existence for as long as humans and wild animals have shared the same landscapes and resources. Human- wildlife conflicts not only occur in Africa but all over the world.
14 The case studies from countries all over the world demonstrate the severity of the conflict and suggest that greater in depth analysis of the conflict is needed in order to avoid overlooking the problem and undermine the conservation of threatened and potentially endangered species (Messmer, 2000). Humans can be economically affected by the destructions and damages to property and infrastructure such as agricultural crops, orchards, grain stores, water installation and fencing pipes, livestock depredation, transmission of domestic animal diseases, such as foot and mouth. Negative social impacts include missed school and work, additional labour costs, loss of sleep, fear, restriction of travel or loss of pets (Hoare, 1992; Human –
Elephant Working Group, HEWCG). The Human-Wildlife conflicts are particularly common in reserve borders where wildlife species that rely on extensive territories come into contact with human settlements. In effect, border zones of protected areas are considered as population sinks, critical zones in which conflict is the major cause of mortality (Woodroffe & Ginsberg, 1998). These case studies also demonstrate that conflict is most acute in the zones which a wide range of species coexists with high- density of human Populations (Vasagar, 2007; Destefano, 2011).
All continents and countries, whether developed or not, are affected by human- wildlife conflicts. However, there is an important distinction to be made between the level of vulnerability of agro pastoralists in the developing countries and that of well- off inhabitants of the developed nations. In Europe, several wildlife species are responsible for causing substantial damage both to crops (wild boar, wild rabbit, hare and wood pigeon) and to regenerating forests (red deer, roe deer). For this reason, some of these species are labeled as “pests” and can be killed outside of the hunting season. On the other hand, in Asia, large feline predators (tigers, leopards, lions and snow leopards) and elephants are the principal sources of conflict. 15 In India, in the state of Himachal Pradesh near the Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, wild carnivores – mainly snow leopards killed 18 percent of the total livestock holdings in
1995 (Mishra, 1997). In addition, elephant damage to crops accounted for an average loss of 14 percent of the total annual production (Madhusudan, 2003). In China, the rural inhabitants of the mountain area of Simao, near the Xishuang Banna Nature
Reserve, claimed that the damages caused by elephants reduced the community‟s annual income in 2000 by 28 to 48 percent, and that the total economic losses between 1996 and 1999 amounted to the US$ 314 600 (Zang& Wang, 2003). It is important to know that these effects are not peculiar to these countries; any country, in such conflicts is likely to face the same or more of the effects of human-wildlife conflicts. This, therefore, informs that the same effects are facing Tanzania due to the human-wildlife conflicts in Saadani and other national park areas.
2.3.2 Human Wildlife Conflicts in Africa
The need to make a quick intervention to end the HWC is further necessitated by the fact that HWC is fast becoming a serious threat to the survival of many endangered species in Africa and the world in generally (FAO, 2000). Human activities are, generally, seen as a major drive for the extinction of many mammal species
(Ceballos & Ehrlich, 2002; Dirzo& Raven, 2003; Cardillo et al., 2005), with larger species often more threatened than the smaller ones. For example, African lion
(Pantheraleo) is one of these mammals and its population is declining rapidly. From an estimated number of 200,000, African lions in 1975 (Myers, 1975), less than
100,000 remained by the early 1990s (Nowell & Jackson, 1996) and the current population estimates put the continent-wide population at circa 33,000 and it is observed that the population will continue to decrease (Riggioet al., 2012).
16 One major cause for this decline is indiscriminate and retaliatory killing as a result of the conflict between lions and humans (Bauer, 2008). However, the effects of human wildlife conflict vary from one area to another and level of vulnerability is based on the nature of animal found.
In many African countries, livestock and crop farming are the major income sources in rural communities (Powell & Williams, 1995) and substantial numbers of cattle and other livestock are roaming along the borders of national parks and, sometimes, even within these protected areas. Where wildlife and humans live in close proximity to each other, conflicts are often inevitable (Woodroffe, Thirgood & Rabinowitz,
2005). According to the IUCN (2003) old Parks Congress, human-wildlife conflicts occur when wildlife requirements encroach on those of human populations, with costs both to residents and wild animals (IUCN, 2005). Human-wildlife conflicts are particularly common in reserve borders where wildlife species that rely on extensive territories come into contact with human settlements.
In effect, border zones of protected areas are considered as population sinks, critical zones in which conflict is the major cause of mortality (Woodroffe & Ginsberg,
1998). These case studies also demonstrate that conflict is most acute in zones in which a wide range of species coexists with high-density of human Populations
(Vasagar, 2007; Destefano, 2011). The experiences from African countries demonstrate the severity of the conflict and suggest that greater in depth analysis of the conflict is needed in order to avoid overlooking the problem and undermining the conservation of threatened and potentially endangered species (Messmer, 2000).
17 2.3.3 Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Tanzania
Tanzania is endowed by the diversity of wildlife species. The high diversity of wildlife species which is attributable to a variety of habitats found in Tanzania has made Tanzania be classified as one of the „mega diversity nations‟ along with Zaire,
Indonesia and Brazil.
The known number of 4 classes of vertebrates and their endemics in the brackets are mammals 310 (13); birds 1016 (13); reptiles 245 (56); and amphibians 121 (40)
(World Resources Institute, 1995).
The contribution of the wildlife to the economy of the country cannot be underrated.
Tanzania recognizes the sustainable utilization of its wildlife resources as part and parcel of conservation. The major forms of wildlife utilization in Tanzania are game viewing, hunting and filming and photographic. These forms of utilization are the basis of the country‟s social and economic development through the provision of employment, generation of foreign currency and the market for local commodities.
The contribution of wildlife sector in Tanzania‟s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is
16% (MNRT, 2015).
Despite this contribution which is realized from wildlife sector, a number of problems make the wildlife a concern, especially to the socio-economic status of the communities in bordering the wildlife protected areas. These problems include the human-wildlife conflict. And the illegal utilization of natural resources; this occurs when the wildlife failed to effectively compete with other land uses in sustaining the livelihood of the adjacent communities exacerbates these problems. As a result, local people look at the wildlife as a liability rather than an economic and social status advantage; thus, making the wildlife conservation efforts be perceived a
18 contradiction to the socio-economic endeavors of the local communities (Kighedesho and Shemweta, 2006).
The human-wildlife conflicts results when the actions of humans or wildlife have an adverse impact upon the other (Nowell and Jackson, 1999). Although it is recognized that humans have profoundly impacted the wildlife and the environment in many ways, through habitat loss, pollution, introduction and spread of exotic and invasive species, overexploitation, and climate change. This document focuses mostly on those human-wildlife conflicts that result from the direct interaction between humans and wildlife.
The costs inflicted by wildlife conservation to people, and the human problems constraining wildlife sector in Tanzania has made human-wildlife conflicts one of the major challenges calling for the attention of the conservationists. In order to make the decisions best to both human and wildlife on how these conflicts, genuine factors and sources of these problems must be identified, ways should be sought to either minimize or mitigate these factors and sources of human-wildlife conflict (Messmer,
2000; Vasagar, 2007). There is a need to better understand the nature and complexity of factors contributing to the human-wildlife conflicts in Tanzania, including the climatic factors, land use, agricultural practices and wildlife management initiatives.
Reduced winter severity associated with long-term climate change and shifts in agricultural land use practices in recent decades has created favorable environmental conditions for some wildlife species, such as black rhino and elephants.
There are currently underway enhanced government efforts to conserve and protect species and their habitat.
19 In support of “sustainable development,” there is recognition of the importance of the natural environmental in the lives of people adjacent to the national park (Disefano,
2011). However, these efforts may have incidental consequences of increasing human-wildlife interactions, which need to be managed in order to maintain a healthy balance between the need for socio-economic development and protection of the natural environment.
Lastly, besides these conflicts, it is indisputable that the wildlife can contribute, significantly, to the economy of the country and to the welfare of the local communities who by, de facto, are the ones bearing the costs of conservation. The contribution of wildlife resources to the development of local communities will change the popular notion that has made people label wildlife as a liability.
2.4 Efforts to Address Human-Wildlife Conflict in Tanzania
2.4.1 Institutional Framework and Arrangement
In addressing the human-wildlife conflicts in Tanzania, a number of institutions need to make combined efforts since there are many different institutions dealing with issues related to the human and natural resources. Among others, they include land under the ministry of land, housing and human settlement, forest and wildlife under the ministry of natural resources and tourism, fisheries under the ministry of livestock and fisheries development, water under the ministry of water and environment under the vice president environmental affairs (URT, 1997b). This implies that there is a need to investigate how all these institutions work together to address the conflicts in Saadani and the absence of this collaboration is an obvious weakness in dealing with the problem in the country.
20 2.4.2 Legal Framework
Tanzania has made effort to ensure sustainable use of the natural resource through the establishment of several rules and policy to guide wise use of the resources.
These include the Forest Policy (URT, 1998a) and respective Forest Act 14 of 2002
(URT, 2002b); the Environmental policy and environment Management Act of 2004
(URT, 2004); Land policy (URT, 1996) and the respective Land Act of 1996 (URT,
1999a); Fisheries Policy of 1997 and the respective fisheries Act of 2003 (URT,
2003); the Wildlife Policy (URT, 1998b) and Water Policy (URT, 2002b) to ensure sustainable and equitable use of natural resources.
In 1998 Tanzania government reviews its 1953 Forest Policy and adopted the
National Forestry policy (URT, 1998). This policy seeks to achieve its policy goal of
„enhancing the contribution of the forest sector the sustainable development of
Tanzania and the conservation and management of natural resources for the benefit of present and future generation (LEAT, 2010). The national Forestry Policy (URT,
1998a) sets four priorities areas for legislation and implementation namely, forest land management, forest based industries and products, ecosystem conservation and management and institutional and human resources.
All these acts and policies are focused on protection, conservation, development, regulation and control of fauna and flora species. For example, the National Wildlife
Policy and the Regulatory System prevents illegal use of wildlife throughout the country to create an enabling environment which ensures sustainable wildlife schemes directly benefiting the local communities by retaining sufficient revenue from wildlife utilization in protected areas for management and development purpose
(URT, 1998b).
21 On the other hand, the National Environmental Policy (URT, 1997a) protects the land from degradation, first by identifying, six major problems which need urgent attention, land degradation, lack of accessible and good quality of water, environmental pollution, loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity, deterioration of aquatic systems and deforestation. These functions are given an intensive support from the NEP (URT, 1997b) which advocates for the formation of environmental committees to coordinate natural resources management at the regional, district and village levels.
As well, the National Land Policy of 1996 (URT, 1996) aims at promoting and ensuring a wise use of land, allocation and prevention of degradation and resolve conflicts. This policy reserves village land and some communal areas for conservation purposes. Similar to this is the Land Act number 4 of 1996 (URT,
1996) and Village Land Act number 5 of 1999 (URT 1999) which protect highly sensitive areas such as water catchment areas, forest, areas of high biodiversity value, national parks and wetlands.
2.4.3 Land Tenure System in Tanzania
The question of land tenure issues is fundamental to address when dealing with issues about human-wildlife conflicts. This implies that it is important to find out such information when researching about such conflicts like the human-wildlife conflict. It is argued that security of land tenure and resources influence the level of investment in land and conservation of land based on natural resources; on the other hand, management of land tenure and the allocation of the specific user rights (URT,
1996, URT I999a, URT 1997b). The president owns the land in trust for the present and the future generation.
22 It is also important for the people to be aware of the land tenure policies which, if not well understood, people will fall into conflicts. According to the Village Land Act
No 5 of 1999 (URT, 1999b) land is divided into three categories, namely reserved land, general land and village land. This observation calls the responsible authorities to make sure that they raise awareness among the people residing in the areas near the national parks to overcome the conflicts over the land used for wildlife conservations.
In Tanzania, the land set aside by the central Government for special purposes, including forest reserves, National parks, game reserves, land reserved for public utilities and highways, hazardous land and land designated under the Town and
Country Planning Ordinance (URT, 1999a). And the resources in the reserved land are managed under the specific legislation of that resource such forest under forest
Act. Village land includes all land inside the boundaries of registered village, in which the village councils and villages assemblies are given power to manage land matters. The village councils are required to divide village land into three additional categories namely communal land, occupied land and future land (URT, 1999b).
There is also the general land is neither reserved nor village land and, therefore, owned by the commissioner of lands on behalf of the central governmental (URT,
1999a). The government will use the land for the activities that are seen to be the best for the particular piece of land. However, it is obvious that not many people are aware of these legislations, something which may be intensifying the conflicts over natural resources in the country.
23 2.5 General Weakness of Institutional Arrangement
Although the institution arrangement is important in dealing with HWC, these institutions (policy and Acts) dealing with natural resources management have major weakness that each institution work independent (URT, 1999). To deal with HWC, there should be one major institution that will coordinate all these natural resources management institutions to address the gap.
2.6 Research Gap
The literature reviewed has established that the establishment of NPs and other forms of PAs in all over the world is one of the ways that enables countries to earn local and foreign currencies and also to protect the rich biological diversity from being disappearance due to unsustainable use (FAO, 2000).
The literature also informs that there are conflicts around the world, but more acute in the developing countries. Enough information is also presented to understand the nature of conflicts between human and the wildlife and their impact. However, there are insufficient literatures providing empirical evidence about the same in Saadani
National Pak. This research was then proposed to fill this gap by finding out the impact of human-wildlife conflicts in natural resources management in Saadani
National Park.
24 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter represents the way the study was conducted and the rationale for choosing the study area, research approach, research design, the targeted population, sampling techniques and sample size. Data collection methods and techniques, data analysis methods and issues of data credibility as well as research ethics are presented.
3.1 Selection of the Study Area
The study was carried out at Saadani National Park (SANAPA), based on a number of the reasons. First, the park boundaries and lands have been officially contested for so long particularly by 6 villages out of 12 villages surrounds the park (NBS, 2012).
Second, the park has a wide range of species including primates, ungulates
(including antelope, warthog, elephants, hippopotamus, buffalo, zebra as well as carnivores like lion, leopard and hyenas, etc. (Naughton, 1998); all these animals are in threat to disappear if the conflicts are left to continue. Thus, this study was necessary to be done in the area to provide some insight into the nature and the effects of the conflicts which are useful for addressing the conflicts in the area.
The study was carried out in three villages surrounding the SANAPA, namely
Saadani, Mkange and Matipwili out of the twelve (12) villages surrounding the park.
The selection of 3 villages are based on its location which adjacent to Sadani national parks; thus, the villages experienced a high level of the HWC due to the fact that the wildlife and human have frequent interactions in the area and they commonly share some resources than the rest of the villages which are very far in the study area. 25 3.1.1 Location
SANAPA is found in the Eastern part of Tanzania with the coverage of 1100 km2 along the Indian Ocean coast. The Park lies between 5o21‟22 and 6o24‟53 S and between 38o34‟13 and 38o51‟2 E. It borders with Pangani and Handeni Districts in the North. In the West, it borders with Bagamoyo District, in the East, it borders with the Indian Ocean while in the South it borders with the Bagamoyo Districts. It is the only wildlife sanctuary in Tanzania bordering the sea; hence, there is a maritime reserve (TANAPA, 2000). SANAPA is located in the centre of the historic triangle of Bagamoyo, Pangani and Zanzibar. The protected area of SANAPA encloses the former Saadani game reserve (209 km2), the former cattle ranches of Mkwaja (462 km2) and Razaba (about 200km km2) Zaraninge forest reserve 178 km2 and Madete
Ranger Station (Mkwaja south) (TANAPA, 2000). The figure 1 below is a map showing the location of the study area.
Figure 1: Map of Study Area. Source: Tanzania National Parks, 2016
26 3.1.2 Climate
SANAPA experiences two short rainy seasons from October to December (Vuli) and long rains from March to the beginning of June followed by four drier months from
July to October (Tobler, 2001). The mean annual temperature is 260 C with an annual range of 5c and a daily range of 80C (Milewiwski, 1993). In the dry season from July to October, there is inadequate grazing pasture leading the people surrounding national Park to, probably, encroach the park in searching for grazing pasture resulting in human-wildlife conflicts (Tobler, 2001).
3.1.3 Soils
The area has rich of heavy, black clay soil (Mbuga) that is dominant on many valleys along the coastline. The soil has fairly drainage; hence, influencing the community to engage in agricultural activities whereas cereals crops such as sorghum maize, cowpeas are grown around the sloping ground of fine texture subsoil, while at lowest lying basins along the coast there is saline clay soil dominated together with mangrove tree (Milewski, 1993). Therefore, since the area has deep, fertile soil which is accumulated at the foot of slope has led to the competition of land resource between human activity (cultivation, settlement) and large ungulate with high grazing intensity as a result of HWC.
3.1.4 Vegetation
Saadani ecosystem consists of a rich forest-savanna-grassland mosaic with a highly variable woody cover largely dominate the landscape. The small forest formations and grasslands are irregularly interspersed due to water and nutrient supply (Walker,
1993).
27 The strong and complex interactions between the woody and herbaceous plants such as Doum palm (Hyphaenecompressa), Acacia Zanzibarica, Acacia nilotica, A
Mellifera, Dichrostachyscinerea and Harrisoniaabyssinica give this vegetation a character of its own (Johansson, 1992). However, the ecosystem is gradually changing due to frequent bush encroachment, whereby woody covers are encroached mainly by the human activities such bush-fire, grazing and cutting down the forest.
This deteriorates the balance between grasses and woody plants as a result of herbivore change their grazing behaviour while the predator are being exposed from their natural habitat and directly affect wildlife management around Saadani ecosystem ( Bloesch, 2002).
3.1.5 Wildlife
SANAPA is also rich in different species of large mammals both ungulates and carnivores which are obviously responsible for the conflict with people living adjacent to the park (Table 1 below). These species differ in nature, type and capacity of nutrient intake (feeding nature) as well as habitat ranges (Roskaft et al.,
2007). Therefore, their co-existence with human may cause them to adapt and change their feeding habit as a result of human-wildlife conflict, including crop raiding and human attack. Apart from terrestrial mammals, Saadani ecosystem also has marine animals which include fish, sea turtles especially green turtles, gastropods, echinoderms and corals. They form an important part of the marine ecosystem and provide a source of livelihood among fishing communities
(Ambakisye, 2012).
28 Table 1: Common Animals Found in Saadani National Park Common name Scientific name Swahili name Waterbucks Kobusallipsiprymnus Kuro Bohor reedbucks Reduncaredunca Tohe Warthogs Phacochoerusaethiopicus Ngiri Giraffes Giraffacamelopardalis Twiga White bearded wildebeest Connochaetestaurinus Nyumbu Plain zebra Equusburchelli Pundamilia Eland Tragelaphusoryx Pofu Lion Pantheraleo Simba Hyenas Crocutacrocuta Fisi Genets Genettagenetta Kanu Porcupines Hystrixcristata Nnungu Civets Civettictiscivetta Fungo Buffalo Synceruscaffer Nyati/mbogo Bushbucks Tragelaphusscriptus Pongo Bush pigs Potamochoeruslarvatus Nguruwe pori Vervet monkey Chorocebuspygerthrus Tumbili Source: Ambakisye (2012)
3.1.6 Demography
According to the 2012 National Population Census, Bagamoyo District had a total population of 311,740 compared to the population of 227,342 in 2002 that means the population growth rate is 26.5% within the past 10 years (NBS, 2012). The birth rate is high with an average of 5 up to 6 children per women. The situation is caused by a large number of youth entering reproductive ages, early sexual initiation, early forced marriages and immigration. The tremendous influx of people surrounding the park leads to an increased pressure on the natural resources.
29 In SANAPA, households are dependent on farm and other natural resources for their food and livelihoods, and when the population becomes too large, there are simply not enough forests, land and other basic resources to sustain the population
(Ambakisye, 2012).
3.1.7 Major Economic Activities
The major economic activities in the study area include fishing, small scale and large scale farming, pastoralist, salt mining and ornamental carving (Ambakisye, 2012).
Out of 90% of the residents living in rural areas depend on crop production, salt making and fishing (Medard, 2010). The farming system is influenced by a population pressure, infertile soils and availability of alternative income generating activities such as fishing (Kolding et al., 2005). The important food crops grown in the areas are sorghum, maize and finger millet, groundnuts and beans while coconut is the main cash crop across villages (FAO, 2010). Many people, especially, the youth living along the coastline engage in fishing.
Fishing provides employment of people along the coastline, generating incomes and sustaining the fish trade within the country, although it contributes a little to the household‟s economy (Mkumbo et al., 2001). Therefore, the interplay between crops, salt making, fishing and farm income plays a major role in the socio-economic linkage, across the three selected village however the farming activities creates frequent human-wildlife conflict with community living adjacent to SANAPA due to resource competition (Nyahongo, 2007).
3.2 Research Design
A research design is a structure that guides the execution of a research method and the analysis of the subsequent data (Bryman, 2007).
30 A descriptive research design was used in this study because it provides good explanations of the cases; in order to have a broad understanding of the issues involved (Creswell, 2003). Furthermore, the design enabled the researcher to study, thoroughly, different aspects of the phenomenon. The approach is flexible in data collection and saves both time and costs (Kothari, 2004).
3.3 The Target Population
Population refers to all elements or phenomena under the study. According to
Kothari (2004), a population is a total number of subjects or a total number of elements of interest to the researcher. The targeted population in this study included the local communities, environmental/committee‟s chairperson in all three villages of
Saadani, Mkange and Matipwili, Bagamoyo District Natural Resource Officer,
Saadani National Park Officers, tour guides,, Ward executive officer and village executive officers of all the three selected villages. These could provide sufficient and relevant information on impacts of human-wildlife conflicts in natural resources management in the study area.
3.4 Sampling Frame
A sampling frame represents the list of individuals to which a sample for the study was drawn and has the property that identifies every single element and includes any subject of the population in the sample with appropriate contact information (Kombo and tromp (2006). In this study, the sampling frame was the households, the villages‟ environmental committees, the villages‟ agricultural extension officers in the study area, park officers, Ward executive officer, tour guides and the District natural resources officer.
31 3.4.1 Sampling Unity
A sampling unit can be a single element or a collection of the elements that is subjected to data analysis in the sample (Rwegoshora, 2006). The sampling unit for this study was the households from Mkange, Saadani and Matipwili villages which are the important source of the socio-economic data and the indicators to inform and monitor development (Cohen et al. 2000). The selection of the households in this study was influenced by the attestation made by DESASD (2005) that heads of the households hold more information of the household compared to other household members.
3.5 Sample Size
A sample can be defined as the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample (Kothari, 2004). A determination of a sample should neither be expressively larger nor too small. More importantly, a sample should be optimum. In this study, a sample of 97 respondents was picked. The choice of this sample was based on the relative proportional to the total population of the households in each village that is 5% of households of each village as supported by (Boyd et al, 1981) with his argument that the sample size should be figure greater than or equal to five percent of village household population. Indeed, the selected households provided relevant information regarding human-wildlife conflicts. The addition of 13 key informants (KI) helped the researcher to have some descriptive facts, simply because the KI were thought to be conversant with human-wildlife conflict trends, the total sample size of respondent were 110 (See Table 2).
32 In this study, the sample size was estimated by using the formula suggested by
N Yamane (1967), where household was the unit of analysis. n 1 Ne2
Where, n = required households sample size.
e = Detection error = 10%
N = Total number of households = 70312 (NBST, 2012).
Then the household sample was:
70312 70312 n = 99.99 100 1 703.130.01 703.13
Table 2: Selection of Respondents at the Study Area Village Household Population Percentage Sample size Total Saadani 660 5 33 33 Matipwili 640 5 32 32 Mkange 638 5 32 32 Sub-total 1938 97 97 Local Government Officers No. of Key Informants Village Executive Officers and WEO 4 4 District Natural resource officer 1 1 Agriculture extension officer 3 3 Park officers and tour guides 5 5 Total 13 110 Source: Field Data (2016)
3.6 Sampling Procedure
Purposive sampling and simple random sampling procedures were used in this study.
Purposive sampling is a deliberate selection of particular units of the universe to constitute to the sample that represents the universe (Kothari, 2004). Purposive sampling was preferred simply because the selection of the known characteristics to represent the population in the study area.
33 Purposive sampling was used to select the villages‟ executive officers, the District
Natural Resource Officer and the Park officers. The technique was also used to select the villages‟ environmental committee, tour guides, Ward executive officer, villages‟ executive officers, and agricultural extension officers who had vast knowledge about the natural resources management. These informants were deliberately selected because they had knowledge of the human wildlife conflicts on natural resource management in the area.
These informants were also thought to be knowledgeable about the impacts of natural resource management.
The study was also considered simple random sampling. This is a type of sampling which provides an equal chance to every member of the population to be included in the study (Kothari, 2004). Random sampling was used in selecting the local community at the household level to participate in survey simply because it permits a precise estimate of population parameters. Simple random sampling was done by assigning a number to each unit of the population; thus, a table of random number was used to determine which units are to be selected to constitute a sample by picking numbers across both columns and rows in the unrestricted manner. This method was preferred because the study dealt with a large number of communities across the three villages.
3.7 Type of Data
According to Kombo and Tromp (2006), data collection refers to the process of gathering specific information with the intent to prove or refute some facts. Both the primary and secondary data was employed in this study.
34 3.7.1 Primary Data
Grimsley (2015) defines the primary data as the information that is collected, specifically from the field using the research tools such as Focus Group Discussion
(FDG), survey questionnaires, interviews and observation for the purpose of the research project. The primary data used in this study were specifically adapted based on the research needs. They are the first hand experience obtained from the sources which would otherwise not have been obtained through other means (Ghauriand
Gronhaug, 2005).
3.7.2 Secondary Data
Secondary data are the data collected in the past or through other parties which can be found in journals, magazines and books (Grimsley, 2015). Secondary data was used in this study as they are good in saving the time and make the comparison with the primary data obtained in the study area (Ghauri & Gronhaug, 2005).
3.8 Data Collection Methods
Different methods were applied in order to increase the reliability of the data collection. According to Fontana and Frey (2005), the use of different methods known as “triangulation” tend to minimize the possibility of making erroneous conclusion while increasing the credibility of the findings. The researcher used different tools to secure their accuracy and validate data collection. The use of more than one data collection method permitted the researcher to combine strengths and rectify some of the deficiencies of using only one source of data. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected during the study by using several methods such as in-depth interviews, household questionnaires surveys, focus group discussions, and documentary reviews, the detail for each data collection methods is given below.
35 3.8.1 Household Survey
The questionnaires designed were used to obtain the information concerning the nature and impact of human wildlife conflicts on the natural resources. This questionnaire was comprised of open and closed-ended questions. The open-ended questions allow free responses and closed-ended questions allow easy coding. The questionnaires covered two aspects such as socio-economic aspects, as well as issues related to human-wildlife conflicts and its impact on the natural resource management, challenges and mechanisms which were used in resolving human- wildlife conflicts. One enumerator was selected from each village. The enumerators were identified in collaboration with the village government officials. The enumerators training were conducted by the researcher for two days to equip the three research assistants with the skills on how to fill the questionnaire and how to record the information during the interview.
The researcher thought that it was important to pre-test the questionnaire instrument to eliminate ambiguities and errors and also ensure that it produces the required and desired data. This opportunity was also used to further train the enumerators selected to participate in the study. With the help of the enumerators, the fifteen respondents sampled for the pilot study were provided with questionnaires and asked to fill them and later one they were collected by the enumerators back to the researcher. This enabled the researcher to reformulate/recast or remove the identified ambiguities questions and also helped the researcher to estimate the time that will be spent in each questions.
36 3.8.2 Interviews
An interview is a method of data collection that involves the presentation of oral/verbal responses (Kothari, 2004). In this study, the semi-structured interview was used in gathering the relevant information. The semi-structured interview is preferred over the unstructured interviews because they involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of recording (Kothari,
2004). The semi-structured interviews used had themes that included the human- wildlife impact on the natural resource management, its challenges and the mechanisms suggested resolving the human-wildlife conflict. The semi-structured interviews were administered to eight (13) informants who included the District natural resource officer, tour guides, Ward executive officer, village chairman‟s, park officers and VEO from the three villages.
3.8.3 Documentary Reviews
Some of the information, such as types and nature and magnitude of human wildlife conflicts were obtained from the District Natural resource office reports and
SANAPA office. These included reports, articles, books, journals, internet and newspapers. The district office and ward records on local community population, livelihoods and conflicts related information were considered.
3.8.4 Focus Group Discussion
According to Powel and Single (1996), focus group discussion (FGD) is a small group discussion, addressing a specific topic, which usually involves 6 to 12 participants, either matched or varied on specific characteristics of interest to the researcher.
37 The focus group discussion was done with the household heads to generate more information regarding the nature and impacts of the HWC in SANAPA.
The researcher held one focus group discussion in each of the three villages with some of the respondents who filled the questionnaire. The number of the participants of the focus group discussion was determined by the population of the households in each village; thus, in Matipwili Village, a total of ten (10) participants were involved in the focus group discussion; in Saadani Village, a total of twelve (12) participants were involved in the focus group discussion and in Mkange Village, a total of eight
(8) participants were involved in the focus group discussion.
The purpose of group discussion was to get the ideas, feelings, and experience of the villagers about the nature and impacts of the HWC in Villages vicinity to SANAPA.
The researcher introduced the topic to the group members and let the group discuss the matter while recording the discussion on their consent. The discussion was monitored so that it cannot lose its truck and make sure no domination of the discussion by one participant.
3.9 Data Processing and Analysis
In the process of analyzing the data, researcher coded and compiled all the quantitative data before he entered them in the computer programme using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 16) and Microsoft Excel. The analysis of the data was processed in order to provide a basic foundation for the study and answer the research questions by grouping them into headings in order to respond to key research objectives. Thus, the data falling in the quantitative category were coded and analyzed to yield percentage, frequency, tables and figures for systematic interpretation, organization and presentation.
38 This was used to make a linkage of various parts which helped to produce a comprehensive report while the qualitative data that were obtained through FGD and interviews were analyzed by using content analysis method followed by interpretation of the information obtained. The content analysis was done by grouping key data into different themes in relation to the research objectives.
3.10 Reliability and Validity
Validity refers to whether a set of indicators developed to measure a concept really measures what is supposed to measure (Kothari, 2004). In this study, validity was achieved through various ways.
First, by a carefully formulating the questions and pre-testing the questionnaires to make the questions clear and ensure that the researcher is aware of the research requirements, possible problems and how to easily overcome them during the time of data collection. Under this research, the validity of the instrument was tested by a pilot study with a sample of fifteen (15) respondents who were sampled from the three villages. The pilot study helped the researcher to identify and eliminate errors and make the necessary corrections.
Reliability concerns the issues of consistency of measurement over time; if the same results can be reproduced under a similar methodology, the research instruments are considered to be reliable (Bryman, 2007). In this research, the issue of reliability was assured by the use of different methods and tools during data collection.
To achieve the reliability of the study the following means was considered. The researcher made a proper selection of the informants who were the residents of the three villages and officials who were working in the national park to ensure that he obtains authentic information about the problem of the study.
39 The anonymity and confidentiality of the respondent were guaranteed so that the respondents were free to provide the information that is true for the study. A rapport with the respondents was established during the preliminary study to establish trust with the respondents and the credibility of the study was reinforced so as to yield the required information from the respondent. Pre- visiting study area (villages) around
SANAPA and prepare the interview guide questions were conducted during the preliminary study to observe if the questions will bring the intended results.
3.11 Research Ethics
In order to meet the objectives of the study, the researcher conformed to the rules for conducting a research. Before going to the field, the researcher sought an introduction letter from the office of postgraduate studies at the University of
Dodoma; this later was submitted to the responsible authorities where the researcher obtained permission from the authorities to collect data at the sampled areas. The researcher did not collect data from the respondents without a voluntary right of the respondents to participate or withdraw from the study, and agreement on the use of information for the study. Also, the researcher took all the necessary measures to protect the anonymity of participants. Any, information that was obtained from respondents remained confidential between two parties. In addition, the participants were requested not to write their names anywhere in the questionnaire to keep anonymity which was important to increase the confidentiality and bottom-heart participation of the participants.
40 CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the research findings and discussions. The chapter is organized into five sections. Section one presents the characteristics of respondents, section two addresses the ecosystem goods and services available in Saadani National Park, section three presents the findings of the type and nature of HWC, section four explain important institutions arrangement dealing HWC and the last section discusses the impact of human HWC on natural resources and mitigation strategies.
4.1 Characteristic of the Respondents
The selection of the respondents of the study was carefully done to ensure that both men and women of different ages, education background, marital status and occupation were included in the study. This was done with an understanding that conflicts may have different impacts on different people depending on their ages, sex, economic activities and even occupation. Therefore, by including people with different characteristics would help the researcher to obtain different views and opinions about the impact of the conflicts on their lives and the natural resources.
This is supported by (Kothari, 2004) that different participants‟ characteristics will help the researcher to get different views and opinions on the research study.
4.1.1 Sex of the Respondents
The researcher considered gender of the respondents as one of the study variables because of the fact that it is directly linked to the study topic. This means that HWC affects both male and female individuals in the community, but the effects may be different depending on the gender. 41 Table 3 shows the distribution of sample respondents who involved in the study by gender.
Table 3: Sex of the Respondents Sex Village Responses Total Average Mkange Saadani Matipwili N % N % N % N % Male 21 65.6 24 72.7 24 75 69 71.15 Female 11 34.4% 9 27.3 8 25 28 28.9 Total 32 100% 33 100 32 100 97 100 Source: Field Study, 2016
The results indicate that, overall, the proportion of males was higher 69, which is equal to 71.1 % (n=97), compared to that of female 28.9% from all villages. This variation in gender representation could have been caused by the reason that it is the heads of the households who were involved in the study. In the community where the study was conducted and, in fact, most of the African societies, it is the men who head the households and women cannot speak for the family in the presence of men.
This is to say that the imbalanced representation of the gender in the study is the result of the characteristics of the community from where the study was conducted.
The few women, who participated in the study, could however, represent the views and opinions of other women in the society. This observation is supported by
Mwakaje, (2013).
4.1.2 Education Status of the Respondents
The education level of an individual is important as it signifies the ability of the respondent to analyze issues related to different life aspects. It was important to understand the education characteristics of the respondents since people‟s awareness of the problem and the effects of the problem on the lives of people are related to their level of education. 42 The reactions to the damages that may be caused by the wild animals are determined by their level of education. It is for this reason that the researcher tried to involve people with different levels of education in the study. Thus, the sample of the study included people with informal education, primary education, secondary and tertiary education as summarized in the table below.
Table 4: Education Status of the Respondents Education level Village responses Total Average Mkange Saadani Matipwili N % N % N % N % Informal 4 12.5 4 12.1 1 3.1 9 09.2 Primary 21 65.6 23 69.7 24 75.0 68 70.1 Secondary 6 18.8 5 15.2 7 21.9 18 18.6 Tertiary 1 3.1 1 3.0 0 0.0 2 02.1 Total 32 100 33 100 32 100 97 100
Source: Field Study, 2016
The information presented in Table 4 shows that 79.3% of the respondents had informal and primary education. This sample could have been affected by the reason that the study was conducted in the villages where most of the people in villages around Tanzania have the primary level of education. This observation is confirmed by Mwakaje (2013) who pointed out that the majority of local communities in the rural areas have the informal or primary education.
4.1.3 Marital Status of the Respondents
The marital status of the respondents is also directly linked to the study topic. This means that HWC affects both married individuals and non-married individuals in the community.
43 An important point with regard to this is that the impacts of conflicts may be interpreted differently between those people who are married and those who are not married. Thus, the sample of the study was carefully made to include the people with different marital statuses to obtain different views about the problem of the study. In this study, the majority of the respondents, i.e. 54.6%, were married, 28.7% single,
6.2% divorced, 6.2% were separated, while 4.2% were divorced. A quick interpretation that may be made from this is that those respondents who were married could have experienced more negative impacts because of the big size of the family than those who were single or divorced. Figure 2 shows the distribution of sample respondents by marital status.
60 54.6%
50
40 28.7% 30
20
6.2% 6.2% 10 4.2%
0 single marriage dirvoced widower separation
Figure 2: Marital Status of the Respondents Source: Field Study, 2016
44 4.1.4 Age of the Respondents
The sample of the study involved people of different ages, i.e. people with the ages ranging from those who were nineteen (19) years to those who aged sixty six (66) years and above. However, the majority of the participants are those who aged between nineteen (19) and thirty five (35) years. This is not far from the study by
Mwakaje, 2013) that 19-35 is the most active and productive group in a society and many of the households have people at this age. This is why the study had more participants of this age category. Above all, the sample of the study had age appropriate people who to give the information needed to meet the objectives of the study.
Table 5: Age of the Respondents Variable Village in responses in percentage Total Average Mkange Saadani Matipwili N % N % N % N % 19-35 18 56.2 17 51.5 12 37.5 47 48.4 36-50 5 15.6 10 30.3 9 28.1 24 24.7 51-65 6 18.8 5 15.2 7 21.9 18 18.6 66 and above 3 9.4 1 3 4 12.5 08 08.3 Total 32 100 33 100 32 100 97 100 Source: Field Study, 2016
4.1.5 Respondents’ Duration of Staying in the Area of the Study
In sampling the respondents of the study, it was important to include only those respondents who had stayed in the areas of the HWC since it is only those who had stayed in the areas can give the information about the nature and impacts of the conflicts than those who stayed in the areas in the time less than that. The information about the duration of staying in the areas is as summarized in Table 6 below.
45 Table 6: Respondent’s Time of Residence in Village Years of residence Village responses Total Average Mkange Saadani Matipwili N % N % N % N % 1 to 2 years 9 28.2 20 60.3 6 18.6 35 35.7 3 years and above 23 71.8 13 39.7 26 81.4 62 64.3 Total in % 32 100 33 100 32 100 97 100 Source: Field Study, 2016
Therefore, as it can be seen from the table 6 above, the majority of the respondents
(64.3%) had stayed in the areas for more than 3 years. This implies that they are aware of the incidences of human-wildlife conflicts in the villages studied from the experience they got from living in the areas for quite a good time.
4.1.6 Household Size
Table 7 below shows that the majority of the households surveyed had the household size of four (4) to six (6) people which made (45.4%). This has an implication that the families in the area of the study had a large number of people who might have increased more pressure on the available land. On the other hand, the impacts of
HWC may be more acute since there are big numbers of people in the families who might have encountered the problems of the conflicts.
Table 7: Household Size Family Size Village Responses In Percentage Total Average Mkange Saadani Matipwili N % N % N % N % 1-3 11 33.3 7 20 6 18.1 24 23.9 4-6 14 45.0 19 60 10 30.9 43 45.4 7 and above 7 21.7 7 20 16 50.0 30 30.6 Total 32 100 33 100 32 100 97 100 Source: Field Study, 2016
46 4.1.7 Economic Activities of Respondents
The information in Figure 3 below show that the majority of the respondents engaged in agriculture (60.9%), pastoralism (6.3%), fishing (10.2%), tour guide (8.3%) and others (14.3%). These economic activities necessitate the contact between human and the wildlife since they all depend on the same resources to survive. Above all, most of these activities are frequently affected by the damages caused by the wild animals, something which may be intensifying the conflicts. This is not far from study by (Nyahongo, 2007) indicating that most of rural communities engaged in agricultural activities.
14.3%
8.3% Farmers Pastoralist 10.2% 60.9% 6.3% Fishers Tour guides Others
Figure 3: Economic Activities of Respondents Source: Field Study, 2016
47 4.2 Ecosystem Goods and Services Provided by Saadani Ecosystem
The researcher, in this study, thought that it is important to understand the ecosystem goods and services that are provided by the Saadani National Park to the people in the villages that are involved in the conflicts with the wild animals. This information was important to make inferences about the nature of the conflict in the area. Thus, the household heads who participated in the study were asked to identify the ecosystem goods obtained from Saadani National Park. The results indicated that majority of the respondents (80%, n=97) were not able to identify any ecosystem goods obtained (Figure 4). Probably this high percentage is attributed to the low level of education about ecosystem goods available. However, the researcher observed that there are goods from the National Park that are available and used by the villagers from all the villages even though these villagers were not conscious of the benefits.
20%
80% Yes No
Figure 4: Understanding of Ecosystem Goods Source: Field Study, 2016
48 However, this understanding by the household heads is different from the officials who were involved in the study. The interviews with the executive officers of the villages, park officer, agriculture extension officers and the District natural resource officers confirmed that the villagers benefit from the ecosystem goods like firewood, fruits, vegetable, herbs, timber, and sometimes they get meat from the wild animals.
It was further revealed that people are allowed to get in the Zaraninge forest to obtain those identified goods in accordance with the established rules and regulations. For example, one of the village leaders had this to say:
...people in this villages use the ecosystem goods available, but they do not appreciate what they receive because they do not see if they are benefiting from Saadani national park while their farms and other properties are destroyed by ungulates and carnivore (Interview with Village leader, Matwipili).
Furthermore, respondents were asked to rank the ecosystem services available from one to five. A list of services was provided for the respondents to rank. This information was important to know if the people value the park and, thus, aware that destructions of the park will affect the services they enjoy. Ranking one meant that the service is highly available and ranking five meant that the service is less available. The findings show that climate regulation was ranked 1st while water services and regulation rated 2nd and other services were not mentioned (had no roles) by respondents (Table 8 below). This suggests that the role of the Saadani ecosystem services to the people is still unclear though people enjoy different services from the National Park such as recreational, educational, cultural heritage and sense of place as mention by key informants. These observations are not far from
Destefano, 2011) observation that local people have low knowledge about ecosystem goods and services.
49 Table 8: Respondents’ Ranks of the Ecosystem Services Service offered Rank Frequency Percent Recreation - - 0% Water service 1 58 60 Education - - - Preservation of cultural heritage - - - Regulation of climate 2 39 40 Total 97 100 Source Field Study, 2016
During the interviews with different officials, it was realized that climate regulation and water services and regulation were directly enjoyed by the people living adjacent to the national park. For example, the rivers which originated and crossed the
Saadani National Park provided water for domestic use and irrigation activities. For example, in Matipwili village various people cultivate vegetable, fruits and cereal crops by irrigating them with the water from the rivers while, at the same time, the water is used for domestic purposes see plate 1 where people are fetching water from the river which originated from the national park.
50
Plate 1: Photo of Villagers Fetching Water
Source: Field Data, 2016
Therefore, from these findings, it can be concluded that the HWC in Saadani
National Park is intensified by the people‟s lack of awareness of the benefits that come from the National Park. It has been observed that people enjoyed direct benefits from the Park, including water services and good climate, yet they did not appreciate that they enjoy them because of the presence of the National Park.
Probably these people think that the goods are just there from nature and not the conservation that is done by the authorities.
51 This also informs that the Park officials, village leaders and the government at large do not educate people about the importance of the National Park. That the animals cause more destructions to the people‟s property, as expressed in the quote above, is another issue that may be causing the villagers to argue that they are not benefiting from the National Park when they compare the destructions and the benefits they get.
On the other hand, we cannot ignore the argument by the household heads that they do not benefit from the ecosystem goods of the National Park. Their argument may be so for a reason that what they get from the National Park is less than it was expected or than the profit that is generated in the National Park. This observation is consistent with the tenets of the Livelihood Theory by Chambers (1980) that livelihood support is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from the stress and shocks maintain and enhance its capacities and asserts and provide sustainable opportunities for the next generation. Therefore, it can be argued that the communities around the SANAPA do not get sustainable benefits from the ecosystem goods of the National Park.
4.3 Type and Nature of Human-Wildlife Conflict in the Study Area
To come up with important findings of this particular objective, the respondents of the study were, first, asked to say if they are aware of the HWC in their area. The results of the study indicated that all the respondent 100% were aware of the HWC
The high awareness could probably be due to the frequent occurrence of the WHC in their villages. Furthermore, the respondents were probed to mention the common
HWC on their areas. The common problems mentioned included livestock depredation (28%), crop damages (60%), human killings and injuries (10%) and destruction of the properties (12%).
52 In addition, the officials from SANAPA added that there is the frequent bush fire caused by villagers in the park, retaliation killings of animals and park encroachment by poachers seeking for bush meat, firewood and timber and livestock grazing in the park are the common HWC in the study area.
During the focus group discussion, one of the discussants had this to say on the human-wildlife conflicts:
One day I went to fetch water at Java River and a crocodile attacked me and I was injured on my left leg. Another person had this to say:
My son was attacked and killed by a lion during the night when he was returning back home from a job.
These incidences are an implication that the conflict between human and wild animals in Saadani National Park will continue to exist if appropriate measures are not taken. It has been evidenced that the people depend on that resources from the
National Park but they can‟t enjoy them confidently because of the attacks they get from the animals. For example, they are still unsecured when they go to fetch water from the rivers crossing the villages because of the crocodiles. They are also not safe when they walk in the streets in the fear of the same problems. Destruction of property, like crops in the fields, which was reported by the respondents in this study, is another problem that intensifies the problem. These then cause people‟s hatred against the wild animals and, thus, kill them when they find them in their streets.
When further respondents were probed to identify the causes of HWC in their villages they were able to identify causes of HWC as indicated in Table 9
53 Table 9: Causes of HWC Causes of HWC Respondents Frequencies Total Average Mkange Saadani Matipwili N % N % N % N % Human population 10 31.25 12 36.36 13 40.63 35 36.08 increase Habitat loss 7 21.86 9 27.27 6 18.75 22 22.63 Degradation and fragmentation Weather change 6 18.75 6 18.18 5 15.63 17 17.52 Increasing wildlife 5 15.63 4 12.12 6 18.75 15 15.50 population 4 12.05 2 6.06 2 06.25 Poaching 08 -8.12 Total 32 100 33 100 32 100 97 100 Source: Field Data (2016)
The findings of the study, as presented in the table above, revealed that the root causes of the conflicts are the increase of human population followed by the loss, degradation and fragmentation of animals‟ habitats and the change of weather. Other factors like poaching and the increase of the wildlife population are seen to have very little contribution to the occurrence of the conflicts. This observation is not far from
Nyahongo, 2007 that population increase is the major cause of HWC.
The questionnaire responses from the household heads are similar to the interview responses from the officials who were involved in this study, i.e. the WEO, VEO and wildlife stakeholders such park rangers and ecologists who identified that human population increase is the main driving forces for the increase of human-wildlife conflict in the surveyed villages. The researcher was interested to know from the respondents how the increase of human population influences HWC.
They identified that the human population increase had a negative impact by reducing wildlife home range through habitat loss and land fragmentation, increase
54 demand for energy and natural resources such as firewood, fruits and vegetables and block wildlife migration corridors. This accelerates the direct physical contact between human population, livestock, crops and wild animals (Distefano, 2011). Due to the decrease of environmental carrying capacity which accelerates human population to perform their activities like agriculture and livestock keeping vicinity to the park which increases direct physical contact with wildlife that may accelerate predation and damage. The Plate 2 below is an example of the field crops that are established just close to the National Park and prone to damages by wild animals.
Plate 2: A Picture of Pumpkins Farm in Buffer Zone Source: Field Data (2016)
55 The effects of population increase in intensifying the conflicts were further confirmed during the focus group discussion with the participants of the study.
It was also realized that the human population growth is correlated proportionally with the number of encounters and serious incidents with the lion, spotted hyena and elephants because people are expanding their territories and farms adjacent to the national park which is very dangerous to the people especially children and elders.
For example, the following arguments were quoted from the respondents who participated in the FGD:
In the past few years, Saadani population was not like this, people are increasing daily due to migration and birth. The land is now becoming small for all these people (FGD with the villagers).
The authorities are taking more land for the wildlife but they forget that we are many; our children are also marrying and get children, where will they go (FGD with the villagers)
These findings are not far from the arguments made in the study by IUCN (2003) and
Siex et al., (2009) that demographic and social changes place more people in direct contact with wildlife; thus, as human population grows, settlements expand into and around the protected areas human population growth has lead to encroachment into wildlife habitats, constriction of species into marginal habitat patches and direct competition with local communities. These findings are also supported by the Theory of Carrying Capacity by Park and Burgess (1921 cited in Wang, 2010) that there should be a limit of the number of the individuals that can be supported at a given level. Exceeding the environment capacity implies impairing the environment‟s ability to sustain the desired quality of life. This, then, emphasizes that the conflicts are due to the increase of the population on land.
56 The questionnaire responses obtained from the heads of the households also revealed that the loss of animals‟ habitats and defragmentation is another reason for the occurrence of conflicts between human and the wild animals in Saadani. The claims by the villagers during focus group discussion with them that they get attacked by the animals in villages during the night hours may be evidence that the animals lost their habitats that is why they get into human residencies. This observation by the heads of households was accepted by the park officer who argued that the alteration of forest areas into agriculture and grazing land has restricted the ungulates and predators to home range to a few patches in the forest.
Similarly, the park ecologist, during the interview with him, said that the gradual loss of habitat has lead to increased conflict between human and wildlife. As wildlife range becomes more and more fragmented and wildlife is confined into smaller pockets of suitable habitat. This then informs that the humans and wildlife are increasingly coming into contact which causes conflicts with each other. The ecologist also added that species that migrate seasonally on a regular basis, such as elephants, are known to use the same traditional routes and because people have cultivated along these routes, they expose their crops to being raided. A similar argument was also made by one elder during the FGD as quoted below:
Recent recovery and protection programmes have contributed to the recolonization by warthog of their original home range, including village areas; and in the process have increased the potential for conflict, especially where domestic livestock is a major economic activity.
Another FDG participant added the following: There are many warthogs roaming around the villages, the government should kill these wild animals so as to reduce their number and direct contact with our farms and people because they become residents and sometimes give birth inside of our houses. This is dangerous to us, park rangers must kill them to avoid these disturbances.
57 The plate 3 below provides an example of how the wild animals get into human habitats and cause destruction; for example, destructions of crops in fields.
Plate 3: Warthogs Living Inside the Village with Communities
Source: Field Data (2016)
One can conclude from this finding that the people living close to the national park areas cannot avoid damage of properties because of seasonal migration of animals from one area to another in search of new habitats and food. The same problem also occurs in other areas. For example, it is argued that, in Mali and Togo, the most serious damages occurred in the villages located along the elephants‟ habitual paths
(Maïga, 1999; Okoumassou et al., 2004). The information is reiterated by Woodroffe and Ginsberg (1998) who argued that the border zones of protected areas may be considered population sinks; critical zones in which conflict is one of the major problems.
58 This then explains why conflicts are particularly common in reserve buffer zones where healthy wildlife populations stray from the protected area into adjacent cultivated fields or grazing areas.
4.3.5 Change of Weather
Field results show that 20.1% of the respondents identified that change of weather is an important cause of HWC. Also, in the interviews with the officials, it was identified that seasonal changes in rainfall are directly correlated with predation intensity in Saadani village between monthly rainfall and attacks. They further argued that lions and spotted hyena do attack livestock especial domestic dogs and goats during seasonal rains. During drought periods, ungulates spend most of their time near a limited number of water sources and thus they are easily found and killed; when rain fills seasonal pools, lions disperse into their habitat, change their diets, and prey on easier targets (Patterson et al., 2004). One elder from Matipwili village add by saying that:
During night times of a year characterized by dry seasons, elephants can also break into storage bins and eat grains. This threatens our food security in households and the village in general.
It was further revealed during the focus group discussion that issues of livestock predation and human kills are common during the night while crop damages are common in the wet season (March to July) and at any time of the day. While the destruction of the properties like water tanks, storage beans and water pipes are commonly destroyed during the night in a dry season (see Figure 5 below). A study done by Nyahongo and Roskaft (2011) supported by saying that the predators normally attack human at night.
59 100 90.6 90
80
70 66.7
60 53 matipwili 50 saadani
40 mkange
30 21.9 21.9 20 18.2 6.1 9.1 10 6.2 3.1 3.1 0 0 evening night afternoon anytime
Figure 5: Time of the day where HWC is Common
Source: Field Data (2016)
4.4 Institutions Arrangement in Dealing with Human-Wildlife Conflicts
The researcher thought that it was important to understand if there are available institutions to help in solving the conflicts existing between human beings and the wildlife in SANAPA. This objective was influenced by the knowledge obtained from the Institutional Approach Theory of Natural Resource Management by Adihkari
(2001) which argues that strong institutions influence the sustainability of resources and improve the livelihoods while conflicts are reduced and resolved. In other NPs in Tanzania like Serengeti National Park there are many legal institutions dealing with HWC from village to the District level, some of those institutions includes,
60 villages committees in dealing with HWC, Villages group of youth in relation to
HWC, Ward committee in returning back elephants to the park and district natural resources department which deals with the compensations (Nyahongo and Roskaft,
2011), this is different with real situation in SANAPA where SANAPA outreach program department and local government are the only legal institutions dealing with
HWC in the study area, ( Beatrice 2012).
Finding of the study revealed that a majority of the respondents (77%, n=97) were not able to identify any legal institution arrangement dealing with HWC in the study area. At least nearly 20% of the respondents could mention the local government as an institution that deals with the conflicts. Perhaps this is because the local government, i.e. the village government and ward administrations are within the communities and so it is easy to report the problems to them to help in seeking for compensation for the loss. This argument is supported by Antony (2006) who argued that legal institutions to deal with people‟s problems suffer from understaffing and under funding and they are, therefore, weak actors with little capacity to solve local problem like compensations to the damage, but also actor that cannot be side stepped by local actors like communities and traditional authorities.
Table 10: Legal Institutions Which Deal with HWC in SANAPA Institution Identified Frequency Percent Local Government 19 19.59 SANAPA outreach program 3 3.80 Not Mentioned 75 77.32 Total 97 100 Source, Field Data (2016)
While (3%) identified the outreach programme of SANAPA and district wildlife office is important legal institutions arrangement.
61 On top of that, respondents identified that this legal institution is a non cooperative means since when destruction has been done by carnivore and large ungulates in the village what they do is only to return the animals like elephants to the park. They never thoughtfully think of compensation for the loss incurred by the villagers because of the damages caused by the animals.
This low number of the people who are aware of the institutions which work to address people‟s problems which are caused by wild animals is an indication that the responsible authorities do not care the losses that people incur. On the other hand, it might be that the villagers are not well informed of the places to claim for the losses they incur after they get damages.
Different from the questionnaire responses, the participants in the focus group discussion said that there are institutions which emerge after the conflicts to make reconciliation but they dissolve after the conflicts. It was argued that the emerging institutions favor the National Park rather than villagers when crop damages and destruction of properties and depredation occur. Compensation is very little compared to the damages and sometimes no compensation is made. Furthermore, they added that absence of legal institutional arrangement makes them bear all the cost of damage done by wild animals because they had no place to claim compensation for their loss. Such problems have been reported by people from the villages during the focus group discussion with them as can be seen in the quote below.
In Matipwili people are discouraged from claiming compensation because of the time and costs involved in the process. If you are lack to be compensated, the compensation is not enough to recover the cost of the damages (FGD with villagers).
62 The responses from the interview with the WEO also support the claims raised by the villagers. The WEO had this to say:
In 2008 when crop damage occurred, only half of the agro- pastoralists claiming compensation for losses from Elephant damage received monetary reimbursement. The compensation received for loss of human life or injury is not sufficient to cover funeral expenses or hospital bills. It also does not take into consideration the impact of such incidents on dependent children who are often taken out of school because of the lack of funds to pay their fees (interview with the WEO).
When respondents in the household survey were asked to identify reasons for not getting compensated for the loss, they were not able to tell the reasons. However discussions with the SANAPA officials revealed that people do get compensation but the community members are characterized by dissatisfaction. They added that many locals do not even report the damages to the institutions anymore because, in the past, there was such a poor response from the Park officials. This is why many locals were using snare and poisons to kill the animals. Therefore, it can be said that the inadequate responses time in the compensation of claimed damage caused by large carnivore and ungulates is causing negative attitudes by communities toward institutions. The authorities can also be blamed for not having established a rapport with the communities around and, as well, inform them about the procedures to follow when they have experienced damages of their properties by the wild animals, or when they find the wild animals from their residence areas.
In addition, the majority of the respondents, as it is presented in Table 11 below, said
No when asked to tell if they were involved in human wildlife conflict resolution.
Overall 98% identified that they were not involved. This is attributed to the fact that top down approach is used by park authorities when HWC occur in villages. Only
2% participated in resolution meeting.
63 Table 11: Households Responses about Participation in Reconciliation Meetings Response Frequency Percentage Yes 2 2% No 95 98% Source, Field Study (2016)
The meetings are commonly conducted when predators and ungulates (red listed animals like elephants) are killed due to poaching and crops damage. However, the autocratic leadership is not best for conservation struggling to implement change effectively. With only senior executives making decision, their conclusion may see as lacking creativity and being harmful to overall performances in conservation. In contrast to bottom up approaches demonstrate a lot of potentials in ecosystem conservation.
4.5 Impact of Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Households
The respondents in this study were asked to explain the impacts of the HWC conflicts in their area. This information was sought from the respondents in order to understand if they are aware of the problems which occur from the continued conflicts and, thus, think of ending them. As summarized in Table 12 below, the most effects of the conflicts are damages of crops in fields followed by human attacks and killings by the wild animals. Other effects like famine and decline of family income had very low responses from the heads of the households.
64 Table 12: Effect of Human Wildlife Conflicts in Households Variable Villages Responses Total N Average % Mkange Saadani Matipwili N % N % N % Crop damage 2 6.1 11 33.3 10 30.8 23 23.37 Human kills and attack 4 13.6 6 17.8 7 23.1 17 18.17 Spread of diseases 7 21.2 1 4.4 4 12.8 12 12.80 Noise, nuisance and fear 4 13.6 3 8.9 5 15.4 12 12.63 Livestock depredation 6 19.7 4 11.1 2 5.1 12 11.97 Destruction of properties 5 15.2 2 6.7 4 12.8 11 11.57 Decline of household 3 9.1 5 15.5 0 0.0 8 1.20 income Famine 1 1.5 1 2.2 0 0.0 2 Total 32 100 33 100 32 100 97 100 *Multiple responses
Source; Field Data, (2016)
When the researcher probed further to mention the animals that damage crops from the fields, it was realized that elephant, warthog, wild pig and vevet monkey are the animals commonly found in field eating crops. In the focus group discussion, the following was said:
Elephants, wild pig and monkeys live in a variety of habitat and landscape. These include large contiguous areas surrounded by crop fields, or in highly degraded areas with other agricultural encroachment. They are also found in mosaic of crops fields and patches of Zaraninge forest where, during the dry seasons, elephants, zebra and warthog come in group and invade our dried crops in farm and storage bin and damage farms and huts.
This finding informs the relevant authorities to educate the villagers about the appropriate crops that animals do not eat, to be grown in the areas near the parks.
Elephant may prefer feeding on crops when compared to wild forage because of their palatability and so when different crops are grown in the areas there will be less or no conflicts between the animals and human beings.
65 The research results (Table 12) show that 18.2% of the respondents listed communities were affected by human kills and attack by lion, spotted hyena and crocodile. However, a problem is more significant in Mkange and Matipwili compared to Saadani village. This is attributed to presence of many wild animals staying vicinity to the village and inside the village. The problem of human attacks and killings by wild animals is also experienced in other parts of the world (Herrero,
1985; Løe and Røskaft, 2004; Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Packer et al., 2005;
Saberwal et al., 1994; Nyahongo and Røskaft, 2011). The research findings suggest that the wild animals that develop and change behavior should be protected so that they don‟t move out of the national park to minimize the conflicts with the villagers.
The study has also revealed that 12.8% of the respondents identified diseases transmission as a negative impact of WHC in the communities around the Park.
The respondents were asked to identify the diseases which are commonly transmitted by wildlife to livestock and vice versa. The diseases identified include anthrax, brucellosisi, rabies, canine distemper, foot and mouth diseases. Serious diseases are known to be transmitted by wildlife to domestic livestock and possibly also to humans (i.e. rabies). This observation if cemented by Hugh-Jones and de Vos (2002) who argued that scavengers and predators, such as spotted hyenas, jackals, lions and vultures, also play a role in disseminating pathogens by opening up, dismembering and dispersing parts of infected carcasses. On the other hand, large carnivores can cause bodily harm to humans, prey on livestock and can act as reservoirs of diseases, which affect humans and their domestic animals, particularly dogs (Happold 1995,
Cleavaland et al., 2001).
66 However, humans may also affect large carnivore populations through a disease exchange between domestic and wild carnivores (Brand and Nel, 1997; Hofer et al.,
1996; Kock, 2003; Treves and Naughton-Treves, 2005).
Key informants from national park ecology reported that Buffalos and lechwes have become true sylvatic maintenance hosts of this mycobacterial disease, and sporadic spill-over of the infection has been documented in greater kudus, common duikers, chacmas and olive baboons, lions, cheetah, leopards, warthogs, bush pigs, spotted hyenas and common genets. The long-term effects of this chronic progressive disease on African wildlife host populations at sustained high prevalence rates is unknown, but preliminary evidence suggests that it may negatively affect population dynamics or structure in buffalos and lions. Canine distemper virus is said to have been introduced into the African continent by domestic dogs. In the past decade, this disease has apparently crossed the species barrier in the Serengeti ecosystem, causing significant mortalities in lions Nyahongo, 2007.
It is estimated that 30 percent of lions in the Serengeti died in this outbreak. The major population decline of the wild dog in this ecosystem may also be attributed in part to canine distemper (Bengis, Kock and Fischer, 2002). As well, 12% of the respondents identified livestock predation is a great challenge in community living vicinity to the park. When requested to reveal where the spotted hyenas that attacked people came from, the responds claimed that they were coming from park hills surrounded the village and Zaraninge Forest. The following was quoted from the focus group discussion with the villagers:
The spotted hyena is the biggest predator of goats, domestic dogs and sheep. They can walk more than 60 kilometers during the night finding prey in our bomas but we try to use night dog guarding which have great risk to us. Sometimes hyena injured and kills the guards, dog and other livestock. 67 Goats appeared to be most vulnerable to the spotted hyenas‟ depredation compared to domestic dogs, sheep, cows and donkeys. This might be due to the fact that, goats were relatively in large numbers and hence, increased the chance of being attacked compared to domestic dogs and sheep. However, cattle had a relatively largest number with a low level of depredation; this might be due to the fact that spotted hyenas select relatively smaller prey that they are able to handle (Mrimi, 2014).
Spotted hyenas have an intrinsic behavior of attacking small prey in the wildlife
(Mrimi, 2014) that is why goats, domestic dogs and sheep were attacked.
These attack and killing of livestock further intensify the conflicts because they cause substantial costs to people, particularly when livestock production stands as their main livelihood. It is argued that while livestock losses might be negligible for wealthier households, those that own a few livestock may lose a considerable part of their herd in a single depredation event (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Hazzahet al.,
2009; Thirgood et al., 2005).
The killing of livestock seems to be a common problem even in other areas where communities live near national parks. A study of Holmen et al. (2000) indicated that
708 livestock belonging to 132 households from seven villages were killed by predators in 2003 in Western Serengeti whereby the spotted hyenas were responsible for 98% kill.
4.6 The Impact of HWC on Natural Resources Management
In this study, the majority of the respondents (98%, n=97) (Table 13) from the households surveyed could not identify the impact of HWC on natural resources management. Only 2% of the respondents argued that the conflicts cause the spread of diseases from wild animals to livestock.
68 The high percentage is probably attributed to the fact that majority of them participated on agriculture. Farmers see wildlife is the destructor and enemy of their survival and also because respondents were not getting involved in eco tourism activities which associated with conservation of natural resources.
Table 13: Impact of HWC on Natural Resources Responses Frequency Percentage Spread of diseases 2 2% Not responded 95 98% Source: Field Data (2016)
The same level of understanding was demonstrated during the FGD where people just thought that the destructions of crops and killing of livestock were the impact of the conflicts on the natural resources but the killing of the wild animals was not an impact for them. In their views, carnivores like hyena eat goats and domestic dogs must be killed because they will develop a tendency of predation switching. See the following quote from the focus group discussion:
During all nights, these animals hunt our livestock. Let them be killed by the park rangers or return them to the park. This is why some people poison them to die.
The respondents in the focus group discussion added that: National park authorities do not pay compensation for depredation and crop damages, so we need to kill destructive ungulates and predators because we are baring all cost of loss due to damage. This is the best solution because next time predator will come again...
These statements show that, adjacent to Saadani National Park, there is a great loss of biodiversity due to retaliatory killing done people and also clearing wildlife habitat. It was also observed that people clear bushes through fire when they chasing wildlife that hide on forest patches or long grasses.
69 This finding is cemented by the argument made in the study by various scholars in different countries had shown that attacks on humans and livestock predation are usually followed by indiscriminate retaliation by humans (Packer et al., 2005, Kissui,
2008, Goldman, 2010). The household heads in this study said that to the communal farmers, many of whom are poor, the loss of even a single animal and crop damage can be devastating. Ungulates and predators are looked upon by farmer not as valuable components of thriving ecosystem, but as a threat to their livelihood. In contrast, pastoralists are not a conservancy member has no reason to protect the destructive predators and ungulates that are an otherwise costly problem.
There is evidence that, that killing of livestock and wild animals are becoming common in Tanzania. For example, the impact of livestock depredation by hyenas was high enough to provoke pastoralists into retaliating against hyenas (Kissui,
2008). Also, hyenas were the most frequent predators on livestock, followed by lions and leopards and as a result 71 hyenas were reported to have been poisoned in three villages (Kissui, 2008).
Moreover, traditional human response to carnivores‟ attack has been to kill
“offending animals” as the way of managing the problem in this reaction has evolved over hundreds of years (Woodroffe and Frank, 2005). Contrary to the responses by the household heads, the village and the Park officials were able to identify the impact of WHC in NRM. Figure 6 summarizes their responses on the questions which required them to identify the effects of the conflicts on the natural resources.
The information presented in the figure is based on multiple responses.
70 Figure 6: The Impact of HWC on Natural Resources Management
90
80 90% 89% 70
60 69%
50 56% 45% 40 38%
30
20 15%
10
0 Loss of Reduction Retaliatory Predation Blockage Habitat loss Spread of diodiversity in wildlife killings switching and diseases range destruction of corridor
Source: Field Data, (2016)
*This information is based on multiple responses
The findings show that 90% of the officials involved in this study identified that
HWC had an impact on the loss of biodiversity; human impact on species and ecosystems. This means that the loss of biodiversity is becoming an apparent challenge to conservation community living adjacent to Saadani National Park. This is, however, not a problem limited to Saadani National Park, but elsewhere in Africa.
In Sub Saharan Africa, such retaliation have been linked to the decline of lions
(Pantheraleo), leopards (Pantherapardus), and cheetahs (Acinonyxjurbatus) and the disappearance of African wild dogs (Lycaonpictus) (Ogada et al., 2003, Patterson et al., 2004, Packer et al., 2005).
71 Carnivores are more likely to be killed than herbivores when they cause damage because of the perceived danger to humans and the general lack of compensation for livestock losses (Treves et al., 2006; Holmern et al., 2007; Ikanda and Packer, 2008).
It is also emphasized that such perceptions pose significant challenges for carnivore conservation (Kissui, 2008).
Furthermore, park rangers said that large carnivore like cheetah and hyena were killed and injured by pastoralists by using tradition ways like poisoned, pitfall, arrow, spear and snares. This tendency resulted in reduction of number of carnivore which has a great implication on ecosystem balance. They add by saying that, during wet season 3-5 hyena and other predators found dead in retaliation incidents vicinity to
Saadani villages. This results reflects a findings done by other scholars which shown that the lion kills livestock and, understandably, they are killed in retaliation. Cattle are hugely important to the people who feel that they do not benefit from the presence of lion and other large carnivore on their land they are financially damaging and frightening problem. However, the most common methods used are shooting, trapping and poisoning. These methods have a number of consequences for carnivores‟ species; firstly, leads to species extinction, for example, the Marsupial wolf in Tasmania in 1930 and Falkland island wolfs in 1876 (IUCN, 2004).
4.7 Mitigation Measures of the HWC
Having realized that there is a serious HWC in Saadani that not only cause a threat to the survival of biodiversity but also a threat to the lives of the people and properties , it was thought important to seek for the best strategies that could be used to mitigate the conflict.
72 Also, it was thought that the best strategies to overcome the conflict can be made by the household holders because they have knowledge about the cause and the impacts of the conflicts and so they are in a good position to suggest the solutions for the conflicts. Table 14 provides a summary of the strategies that were suggested by the respondents where fencing of the Park area, granting of the land rights and developing of land boundaries as well as the provision of compensations for the losses deemed appropriate for mitigating the conflict.
Table 14: Mitigation Strategies Identified by the Respondents Suggested mitigations Village Responses Average% Saadani Mkange Matipwili N % N % N % Fencing 7 19.8 9 27.1 7 21.3 22.7 Land right and boundary 7 21.1 3 10.2 9 26.6 19.3 Compensation 5 16.0 2 6.8 9 26.6 16.5 Cooperation with outreach 2 7.4 7 22 3 10.6 13.3 programme Provision of education 7 21.0 3 10.2 2 7.4 12.9 Return confiscation gun to 1 1.2 5 16.9 1 1.1 06.4 community Removal of all wildlife living in 2 6.2 1 3.4 1 4.3 4.6 village to the national park Resettlement and translocation 1 3.7 1 3.4 0 0 2.7 To establish committee dealing 1 3.7 1 1.1 0 0 1.6 with HWC conflict Total 33 100 32 100 32 100 100 Source: Field Data (2016)
Fencing of the Park area had many responses (22.7%) compared to other strategies. It seems that the people believe that the fence will protect the animals from getting in their fields and from attacking and killing people. When asked about the type of fencing needed to reduce HWC, two types of fencing were identified that are traditional and modern fencing.
73 Traditional barriers have the advantage of being a low-cost solution, effective against both carnivores and ungulates. On the other hand, they are slow to establish, do not deter baboons and elephants, and are often made of exotic species which can spread uncontrollably. Although less permanent, fences made of dead thorny branches are erected as kraals for cattle but also against elephant‟s example; plant hedges of various spiny cacti (e.g. Caesalpiniadecapetala and species of Euphorbia, Opuntia and Agave). The same measures were used in Malian Gourma where they made 32 percent of protective measures used, as against 28 percent for moats (Maïga, 1999).
Also, trenches could be used to protect dangerous animals from getting into people‟s homes. Trenches, either covered or uncovered, have been widely used in Africa to keep elephants from cultivated areas with considerable success. Stone walls have been used to exclude buffalo from invading cultivated areas.
However, it should be known that the high maintenance cost of fencing is another limiting factor, which explains why fences are effective when managed by commercial farmers for high-value crops such as sugar cane or citrus. This option is beyond the means of emerging farmers or subsistence growers like communities living adjacent to Saadani national park. Moreover, for some species, such as baboons, standard wire fencing is ineffective. This is because baboons, lions and leopards can pass through the reserve fence and jump into the enclosures.
Through this study, it was also found that compensation can help to minimize the conflicts. Compensation is designed to increase damage tolerance levels among the affected communities and prevent them by taking direct actions, such as hunting down and killing the elephants, lions or other species involved (Muruthi, 2005).
However, in sub-Saharan Africa, some compensation schemes for losses caused by wildlife exist. 74 However, studies have shown that it is only in a few areas where this could be effective. Most African countries do not pay compensation for damage caused by wildlife, arguing that compensation schemes can do little to reduce the human- wildlife conflict and need to be modernized in order to become less bureaucratic, more reactive and transparent (Kenya Wildlife Service, 1996). The failure of most compensation schemes is attributed to bureaucratic inadequacies, corruption, cheating, fraudulent claims, time and costs involved, moral hazards and the practical barriers that less literate farmers must overcome to submit a compensation claim
(Muruthi, 2005).
Furthermore, compensation programmes increase the return to agriculture and can, therefore, be viewed as a subsidy towards crop and livestock production. Such subsidies can trigger agricultural expansion and habitat conversion, an inflow of agricultural producers from outside the affected areas, and ultimately, intensification of agricultural production. In contrast to other studies, this system is not sustainable as it depends heavily on the budget of the local governing bodies and/or non- governmental organization support. Finally, it does not encourage villagers to protect their holdings and to coexist with wild animals, because there are no penalties for actions that exacerbate human-wildlife conflict. The results of the study show that
4.6% of the respondents suggested that the wild animals should be removed from the villages and translocated to the National Parks and other reserved areas.
Translocation has been used to remove individual animals responsible for depredations and also, in some cases, to reduce populations in specific areas by removing relatively large numbers of animals.
Translocation can be an appealing method to the general public, especially those who are particularly concerned about animal welfare as they perceive that it gives the 75 affected animal a second chance at a new site. Unfortunately, the reality is often not so positive and translocation can be a controversial means of resolving human- wildlife conflicts, associated with a number of problems (for examples see Conover
2002). It is quite common for translocated animals to return to the site from where they were originally captured. For example, in Kilimanjaro Heartland, a leopard was trapped and moved several times into Amboseli National Park before finally being shot by the authorities after it became a habitual livestock killer in the nearby
Kimana area (personal observation).Following translocation, immigration of new animals may occur to take advantage of empty territories, so that the problem can persist.
Translocation is also a risky procedure and it is normal for a proportion of translocated animals to die either due to the stress of capture or soon after release; can also endanger a resident population through the introduction of disease or they may destabilize a population through increased competition for territory or food.
Translocated animals have also been shown to have lower than usual reproductive and survival rates (Conover 2002). Wildlife translocation to resolve conflicts has been practiced in AWF Heartlands to varying extents but there is very little documentation of whether or not the conflict was reduced and conservation goals achieved, and the fate of translocated individuals is often unknown. Several elephants were moved from Sweet water Sanctuary in the Samburu Heartland to
Meru National Park following increased levels of conflict with neighboring farmers in the late 1990s. While the conflicts were presumably reduced, the translocated elephants did not do well at first and, unfortunately, monitoring was terminated after only one year for lack of resources and so the ultimate fate of the animals is unknown.
76 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECCOMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
The main objective of this chapter is to make conclusion and recommendations based on the key findings of research. The conclusion and recommendations of the study about the impact of HCW in natural resources management at SANAPA take into account of the research objectives. The first part of the chapter present summary of the key findings, followed by the conclusion. The next part present recommendation and further future research direction.
5.1 Summary of the Key Findings
This study assessed the Impact of Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC) in Natural
Resources Management in Tanzania. The study was conducted in Saadani National
Park at the selected three villages namely Matipwili, Mkange and Saadani both found vicinity to the SANAPA where HWC is common. The study was guided by four specific objectives which were; To identify ecosystem goods and services provided by Saadani ecosystem, to assess the type and nature of HWC, to analyze the important institutional arrangement in dealing with human-wildlife conflict and lastly to examine the impact of HWC to natural resources management to the study area.
The overall results indicate that the majority of the respondents in the study were not realized and aware to the concepts of ecosystem goods and services available, despite being available and used in their daily life include water services from the river, firewood, building materials, herbs, etc. This has been attributed to low education level to majority of the respondents in the study area.
77 The study revealed that 100% community were aware of HWC and were able to identify causes and effect like increased of the human population, habitat loss and increase of wildlife population. The effects mentioned include livestock depredation, destruction of properties, crop damage, human attack and kills. Although the study found that there were some challenges on legal institution dealing with HWC in a study area such as lack of man power/understaffing, corruption, lack of coordination and cooperation. In addition, the household respondents failed to identify those legal institutions. A set of impacts of HWC on natural resources management were identified which include blockage of migratory corridors, loss of biodiversity, retaliatory killing, destruction and clearing of habitat and predation switching.
In addition, a set of mitigations and preventive measures were identified by the household heads for sustainability and management of the HWC; these include relocation of dense human population vicinity to the park, regulatory harvest and participation of local communities in ecotourism which increase benefit sharing mechanism which resulted in an increasing tolerance of HWC.
5.2 Conclusion
The findings from this study revealed that 100% of the respondents were aware of the HWC. In addition, they were able to identify time of the day and season of the year at which HWC is common. The majority of respondents are able to identify conflicts and causes of HWC. The causes mentioned includes; the increase of human population, habitat loss, land fragmentation, increase of wildlife population in the national park and weather change. On top of that impact were identified; livestock predation, crop damage, human attack and kills, destruction of properties and others.
78 What may be surprising is that the majority of the household heads did not know the ecosystem benefits that they get from the National Park. They ranked only two services which are water services and regulation and climate regulation while educational, recreational and cultural heritage and sense of place identified that had no role to them and to some extent various campaigns should be made by outreach programme against the awareness of ecosystem goods and services so as to increase conservation habits among the communities living vicinity to the park.
The finding of the study further revealed that a majority of the respondents (97%, n=90) were not able to identify any legal institution arrangement dealing in HWC in the study area. HWC adversely affect the livelihood of people living vicinity to the park. It leads to social and economic impacts to people. Some the social impacts include increasing injuries and loss of life, nuisance and fear. The economic impacts are the loss of household income due to crops damage, livestock depredation, and families incur medical costs of treating injuries due to attacks, destruction of properties like storage bean, water installation pipes and farm.
The key informants used in the study (89%, n=13) identified that HWC had an impact to the natural resources conservation and management because they have stewardship on natural resources. In contrast, the household surveyed did not consider that HWC had an impact on the conservation of natural resources because the majority of agro-pastoral communities are considered predators and ungulates are the enemies by inflicted costs to them. Some of the impacts on the conservation of natural resources include retaliatory killing by snare, poisoning, pitfall and the use of local weapons like spears and arrows; blockage of wildlife migration corridors, clearing of habitat like forest which harbor predators and ungulates vicinity to village and predation switching. 79 Respondents identified some management strategies to reduce HWC. Local peoples‟ participation is widely advocated in development and conservation, fencing, compensation be paid according to time and should be equivalent to destruction, proper land use planning, relocation of dense human and wildlife population living inside the villages and vicinity to the park, and regulatory harvest.
5.3 Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, it is suggested that the WMA and CBNRM should be established by government and communities living adjacent to Saadani
National Park so as to reduce impact of HWC and increase participation on conservations through realization of profits obtained from ecotourism activities such as filming, photographic, bird watching and game driving. This will increase tolerance and also will help the communities to switch from agriculture to non agricultural activities like trade and tourism.
Avoiding making fruits and cereal plantation close to the park rather than planting the crops which are not prone to damages like chili. Chilies cause irritation and deter destructive animals like elephants and other destructive ungulates. This will reduce
HWC through fear, discourage and irritation.
Regulatory harvest of over populated wildlife‟s; a policy of sustainable harvest needs to include some means of scientifically monitoring populations, using methods sensitive enough to detect significant declines. The programmes should have prescribed, enforceable limits on the number and type of animals that can be harvested, as well as on the timing, location and methods of hunting, and allow for the distribution of benefits, such as meat, to stakeholders.
80 Regulated hunting placed in the hands of local people can increase tolerance for potentially dangerous wild animals such as carnivores and ungulates.
Education should be provided on how the coexistences between wildlife and human population maintained. The education should focus on how to chase animals like use of night dog guarding, use of repellent spraying on crops to discourage destructive ungulates and carnivore. Education provided will increase chance of participation in
HWC resolution and tolerance through creation stewardship and wildlife existence value on conservation and ecosystem in general.
Unnecessary contact between wildlife and human population should be avoided and observed so as to reduce incidents of human attack and kills through the use of diversion. The use of diversionary tactics- providing alternative source of food and water, this will lessen competition with people for crops and water sources. This will reduce movement of wildlife from park to the village hence will reduce encounters between livestock, farm and wildlife
5.4.1 Further Research Direction
According to the findings of this study, knowledge gape has been identified as this study covers only a small part of HWC in Saadani National Park. The research suggests that other studies should be conducted to identify the factors and ecological impact of wildlife habitat destruction in relation to the increase of HWC.
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88 APPENDICES
Appendices I: Households Questionnaire
Dear respondents, this questionnaire aims at collecting information concerning the study. The impact of Human-Wildlife conflicts in natural resources management” A case study of Saadani National Park. The study is conducted as a partial fulfillment for the award of master‟s degree of science in Natural Resources Management at the
University of Dodoma. Information will be used for academic purposes only, the information contained herein will be kept confidential and the names of respondents will not be disclosed by any means.
Section A: Basic Information
Village Name…………………………………..
Ward……………………………Division…………..District……………………….
1. Date……………….
2. Sex
(a) Male (b) Female ( ) 3. Age…………Years
4. Ethnicity/Tribe…………………………………………..
5. Years of residence in the village……………………………
6. Marital status
(a) Single (b) Married (c) Divorced (d) Widowed (e) Separated ( )
89 7. Education level of respondent (a) No formal education ( b)Adult education
(c)Primary education (d) Secondary education (e) Above Secondary
education ( )
8. Household size/total number of household members………………
Ecosystem Goods and Services Provided By the Saadani Ecosystem
1. Mention the things that support your life that obtained from Saadani
Conservation Area
(a)………………………………………. (b)……………………………………… (c)………………………………………. (d)………………………………………. 2. Rank the ecosystem services that you obtain from Saadani conservation area
from 1 to 5 , where 5 means the service you get most and 1 the service you
get less
(a) Recreational ( ) (b) Climate regulation ( ) (c) Educational ( ) (d) Cultural heritage and sense of place ( ) (e) Water purification and regulation ( )
Section B: To Assess the Types and Nature of Human-Wildlife Conflicts Commonly in the Study Area 1. Are you aware about human wildlife conflict? YES( ) NO ( )
If YES, mention the common human wildlife conflict in your village.
a)………………………………………… b)…………………………………………. c)…………………………………………. d)…………………………………………. e)………………………………………….
90 2 What are the causes of these conflicts?
a)…………………………………………. b)…………………………………………. c)………………………………………….. d)………………………………………….. e)………………………………………….. 3. At what time of a day and seasonal of the years do you think the Human Wildlife
Conflicts are common in this area?
Section C: To analyze important institutions arrangement in dealing with
Human-Wildlife Conflicts in the study area
1. Are there any legal institutions dealing with HWC in this area? YESNO
if YES (i) Mention those legal institution
a) ………………………………………………………………. b)………………………………………………………………. c)………………………………………………………………. d)………………………………………………………………. 2. What do you think are the strengths and weakness of the institutions you have
just mentioned?
(i) Strengths (a)………………………………… (b)………………………………… (c)…………………………………. (d)…………………………………. (ii) Weaknesses
(a)…………………………………. (b)………………………………... (c)………………………………… (d)…………………………………
91 3. Are you participating in resolving those conflicts? (a)YES (b) NO ( ).
Explain how
………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… Section D: To examine impact of Human Wildlife Conflicts to natural resources in this area.
1. Do you consider being a negative impact of human-wildlife conflicts to your
household?
………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………… 2. How do you think the human-wildlife conflicts affecting natural resources
management in this area?
………………………………………………………………...... ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… 3. What can be done to resolve or minimize human wildlife conflicts in this area?
a)………………………………………………………………………. b)……………………………………………………………………….
92 Appendices II: Checklist for Key Informants Interviewer
1. Name of the organization…………………………………………………
2. What are ecosystem goods provided by Saadani National Park?
3. What are the ecosystem services provided by Saadani Ecosystem?
4. What are causes of Human Wildlife Conflicts in Saadani National Park?
5. What are common types of Human-Wildlife conflicts in Saadani National Parks?
6. How many Human-Wildlife conflicts occurred in past five years?
7. Are there Legal institutional arrangements dealing with Human-Wildlife Conflicts
in Saadani National Park? Mention those institutions.
8. What are strengths and weakness of those Institutions?
9. What strategies/ methods are used to solve Human Wildlife Conflicts?
10. Local people are involved in resolving human wildlife conflicts? how?
11. What are the major impacts of Human-Wildlife conflicts in Biodiversity
conservation in Saadani National Park?
12. What are the impacts of these conflicts in livelihood of the people?
13. What are the Challenges facing when dealing with Human-Wildlife Conflicts in
Saadani national Park?
93