T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H The

How did location influence the history of Kush?

Introduction

The African kingdom of Kush was located on the River, to the south of . The civilization of Kush thrived from about 2000 B.C.E. to 350 C.E.

Kush and Egypt maintained a close relationship throughout much of Kush's long history. The two civilizations struggled for power and conquest.

Signs of the two kingdoms' contact can be found in pictures on the walls of some Egyptian tombs and temples. A good example is the tomb of Hatshepsut, Egypt's first female pharaoh. Many painted scenes of Egyptian life decorate the walls. However, upon closer examination, some of those shown in the paintings are not Egyptian. This other group of people are Kushites (KUH-shites).

In some scenes, the Kushites appear to be bearing gifts, while in others, they seem to be armed with bows and arrows. As these images suggest, Egypt and Kush had a complicated relationship. Occasionally it was peaceful, but it was often chaotic and violent. Sometimes these civilizations would even capture and enslave one another.

In this lesson, you will investigate the relationship between Egypt and Kush, as well as the influence of each culture on the other. The city of Meroë became an important center for trade and Kushite culture. You will also discover how the location of Kush influenced its history and how Kush created its own unique civilization.

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H

Social Studies Vocabulary

dynasty

Meroë

1. Kush's Early Interactions with Egypt

Aside from Egypt, Kush was the greatest ancient civilization in Africa. Similar to its neighbor to the north, Kush grew up around the fertile banks of the Nile River. Kush was known for its rich gold mines. In fact, another name for Kush is , which comes from nub, the Egyptian

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H word for gold.

Kush's location and natural resources made it a significant trading hub, or center, that linked central and southern Africa to Egypt. Pharaohs sent expeditions on ships south along the Nile to buy, or sometimes steal, goods. traded grain and linen for Kush's gold, ivory, leather, and timber. Egyptians also bought slaves.

At times, Egypt raided Kush or took control of some of its lands. During the New Kingdom (about 1600–1100 B.C.E.), at the height of Egypt's power, Egypt conquered Kush and forced its people to pay tribute in the form of gifts. The pharaoh appointed a governor to ensure the annual tribute was paid. The Kushites presented the governor with gold, cattle, ivory, ebony, ostrich feathers, and slaves.

While under Egyptian rule, Kushite society became more like . For example, Kushites spoke and wrote in Egyptian. Additionally, they worshipped Egyptian gods and wore Egyptian-style clothes. Kush’s archers fought in Egypt’s army, and its royal princes were sent to Egypt for education. Kushite rulers also built pyramids, although they were smaller and had steeper sides than those of Egypt.

Around 1100 B.C.E., Egypt's New Kingdom collapsed, and Kush regained its independence. However, Egyptian culture persisted. In about 900 B.C.E., a new line of Kushite kings was established, but even these kings continued to follow Egyptian traditions.

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H

2. Kush Conquers Egypt

After the collapse of the New Kingdom, Egypt fell into political chaos. At least ten Egyptian kingdoms competed for power, making Egypt weak and unstable from the constant fighting.

In the mid-700s B.C.E., Kush took advantage of Egypt's vulnerability when Kushite armies invaded Egypt. In about 730 B.C.E., the kings in northern Egypt surrendered to , king of Kush.

After his conquest of Egypt, Piye declared himself pharaoh. One of his titles was “Uniter of the Two Lands.” The kingdom of Kush now extended 1,500 miles. It reached from the Kushite city of Meroë (MER- oh-ee), located on the southern Nile River, to the .

In Egypt, Piye and his family became the 25th dynasty, or line of rulers. Kushite pharaohs, traditionally referred to as “black pharaohs” by historians, reigned over Egypt for nearly a century.

Instead of destroying Egypt, the Kushite pharaohs wanted to revive its past glory. They built magnificent new temples and pyramids in both

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H Egypt and Kush. One of the most beautiful was the temple at , which was modeled after the temple built by Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II at Abu Simbel.

By the 670s B.C.E., the Assyrians, who had created a powerful empire in , started attacking Egypt. In 671 B.C.E., an Assyrian king invaded Egypt. For many years, the Kushites tried to defend themselves, but the Assyrians' advanced iron weaponry drove the Kushites out of Egypt. By the mid-650s B.C.E., the last of the Kushite pharaohs had fled to Kush.

3. The Kush Capital of Meroë

A new dynasty in Kush followed the Kushite pharaohs who had ruled Egypt. About 590 B.C.E., Egypt invaded Kush again, destroying its capital city, (NAP-uh-tuh). The Kushites named Meroë their new capital because it was 300 miles south of Napata, safely out of Egypt's reach.

Meroë's location helped Kush remain a crucial center of trade. Traders

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H used the Nile, the , and overland routes to transport their goods. Because most of these routes led traders through Kush, Kushites traded with many lands. Some of these lands were nearby, such as other African kingdoms and Arabia. But Kush also traded with such distant lands as Rome (on the peninsula of Italy), India, and possibly even China.

The large, wealthy city of Meroë became the center of a Kushite civilization that lasted for nearly 1,000 years. At its height, the city thrived as a great center of industry as well as culture. It became especially well known for producing iron. Because of their superior knowledge of warfare, the Assyrians had triumphed over the Kushites in Egypt. The Kushites were now determined to equal the military might of the Assyrians.

Meroë had all the requirements to produce iron, including a rich supply of iron deposits. It also had plenty of forests that provided the wood needed to make charcoal. The charcoal was used to heat the iron deposits. Once the hot iron separated from the rock, it was cooled in the Nile's waters.

Ironworkers in Kush made a variety of objects. They crafted weapons such as spears, arrows, and swords. They also created tools to make farming faster and easier, including axes, for quickly clearing forests, and hoes, for loosening soil.

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H

4. Kush Returns to Its Traditional Roots

After its separation from Egypt, Kush returned to pre-Egyptian ways. Artwork, clothing, and buildings no longer imitated Egyptian styles. For example, Kushites worshipped an African lion-god rather than Egyptian gods. They also wrote and spoke a native language called Meroitic (mer-uh-wid-ik), after Meroë, which had its own alphabet.

Kushite art and architecture flourished. Artisans made beautiful pottery, cloth, and gold and silver jewelry. Rulers built grand palaces, temples, and pyramids.

Additionally, Kush revived the African practice of female leadership. Powerful , or queen mothers, ruled Meroë. Considered goddesses, they usually co-ruled alongside their sons or husbands.

One of the greatest kandakes was Queen Amanirenas, who defended Kush against the powerful Romans in 24 B.C.E. The Romans had conquered Egypt while expanding their vast empire and later demanded tribute from Kush. Queen Amanirenas and her son, Prince

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H Akinidad, led an attack that destroyed several Roman forts on Kush's borders and continued the war with Rome.

After three years of fierce fighting, Rome signed a with Kush. Kush no longer had to pay tribute to Rome. Under Amanirenas, Kush had defeated the most powerful empire in the world.

The kingdom of Kush survived for nearly 400 more years. In 350 C.E., Kush fell to invaders from the African country of .

Lesson Summary

In this lesson, you learned about the African kingdom of Kush. Kush had a complicated relationship with , its neighbor to the north.

Kush's Early Interactions with Egypt Kush's location on the Nile River and its natural resources made it a trade center. During the New Kingdom period, Egypt conquered Kush and Kushites adopted Egyptian ways.

Kush Conquers Egypt Under the rule of King Piye, Kush conquered Egypt. Kushite pharaohs ruled Egypt for nearly a century, building new temples and pyramids in both Egypt and Kush. Then the Assyrians

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H forced the Kushites to leave Egypt.

The Kush Capital of Meroë Meroë became the capital of Kush about 590 B.C.E. It was the center of Kushite industry, such as ironwork, and trade for nearly 1,000 years.

Kush Returns to Its Traditional Roots Kush returned to its pre- Egyptian culture and revived the African practice of powerful women leaders, called kandakes. Kandake Amanirenas stopped Rome's attempt to take control of Kush.

Exploring Kushite Trade

Do you ever think about how your actions affect people in different locations? When you talk to one of your friends, the conversation is between just you two. However, when your teacher tells the entire class to do something, even the students at the other end of the classroom are involved. The actions of individuals throughout history have also worked this way. Some actions affect people further away than others do.

Most people in the kingdom of Kush only influenced their neighbors or local cities. However, long-distance trade connected them with countries much further away. Places including Egypt, Mesopotamia, , , Persia, and the eastern Mediterranean were connected to Kush and its people by merchants. These merchants traveled by water, as well as by land, and brought back goods from foreign lands. They also delivered their own local products to distant places.

Kushite Gold

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H One important item used for trade was the gold coin. The Kushites produced a lot of gold from their numerous gold mines. They used some of it to make coins. Because gold was valuable, these coins could be used to pay for goods or buy them.

Gold was also useful because it could keep its value. While animals could die and grain could spoil during a long trip, gold was difficult to harm. Gold was a more reliable good for merchants to carry a long way.

Center of Commerce

The Kushites did a lot of trading for their own consumption, but they also helped facilitate trade between civilizations on the Mediterranean and those in sub-Saharan Africa. Goods like incense, ivory, and ebony traveled north from Africa through Kush to Egypt and other places. Without the kingdom of Kush acting as a middle-man, it would have been much more difficult for such goods to exchange hands.

Kush was located within Northeast Africa along the Nile, making the kingdom's constant involvement in trade possible. Water served as the easiest way to transport goods, so much of the trade in the region went along the Nile. Kush held a place on the river further inland than the other nations near the Mediterranean region, making most trade go through its borders.

A lot of Kush's trading along the Nile took place with Egypt. Because both nations were located on the river, the trade routes were easy to navigate. Caravans with merchants from Egypt would come up the river to Kush. Boats would be sent down the river with goods from Kush

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H for Egypt.

The Red Sea also helped the Kushites trade. Merchants coming from Persia and India would often send their goods through Kush on their way to the Mediterranean region. Nations on the Arabian Peninsula also used the Red Sea as a primary way to access Kush. Coastal cities bordering the Indian Ocean littoral, or area close to the shore, would use the Red Sea to access the Arabian Peninsula and Mediterranean regions as well. In this way, the Red Sea connected the kingdom of Kush with many civilizations bordering the Indian Ocean.

The Kingdom of Axum

Throughout its history, the great kingdom of Kush experienced tensions with different groups in its proximity. Kushite leaders built up-and-down relations with Egypt and combated groups from and Rome. But overtime, the kingdom declined. In the 4th century C.E., Kush fell to the kingdom of Axum, located in northern Ethiopia. Like Kush, Axum was a powerful kingdom with a complex history.

A Great Trading Empire

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H

The kingdom of Axum began to flourish in the 1st century C.E. Its location near the Red Sea trade routes helped the kingdom establish itself as a trading empire in northeast Africa during the 2nd and 3rd centuries C.E. From its port, Axum's exports included ivory, gold, silver, and even slaves. Imports included glassware, tools, jewelry, and copper.

Axum's trade control of the Red Sea weakened Meroë, home of the Kush. In 350 C.E., under their ruler, the Axumite invaded and conquered the kingdom of Kush. Many historians believe that the attack was provoked by trade competition between the two kingdoms.

Axum's achievements went well beyond trade. For instance, the people used their own written and spoken language called Ge'ez. In the 3rd century, Axumites began producing their own coins. Evidence of Axum's greatness is also found in giant stone obelisks, or pillar-shaped monuments, made between the 3rd and 4th centuries. The carvings on these magnificent monuments help historians better understand this ancient civilization.

The Spread of Christianity

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H During the 4th century, the kingdom of Axum underwent a significant change when its people embraced Christianity. Prior to this time, Axumites practiced a polytheistic religion. King Ezana, an Axumite ruler, and his court were the first convert to Christianity. But it expanded in the kingdom during the 5th century, when monks spread the religion to the general population.

This religious shift became evident throughout the kingdom. For instance, King Ezana changed the emblem on Axum's coin from a polytheistic symbol to the Christian cross. Over the next centuries, churches were built throughout the kingdom.

The Fall of Axum

Axum continued to expand its power and trade routes beyond Ethiopia. The leaders collected tribute and taxes that helped support the kingdom. However, eventually Axum's dominance declined.

Persian conquest in Yemen (northeast of Ethiopia), where the Axumites held some power, during the 6th century is one factor that weakened Axum. In the following century, Islam began to rise in Arabia, but Axum wanted to remain a Christian nation. As a result, Axum became isolated. Other factors, such as overuse of the land for crops, also led to the kingdom's eventual decline.

Overtime, the kingdom of Axum lost its control over trade as it faced isolation. Power eventually shifted to a new group, the Agaw, and a new chapter in history began. However, centuries of prosperity make Axum considered one of the greatest kingdoms of the ancient African world.

Something Borrowed: Kush Transforms Egyptian Ideas

For many years, experts who studied the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Kush believed that the Kushites merely copied artistic and architectural elements from Egyptian culture. There are indeed many similarities between how ancient Egyptians and ancient Kushites expressed themselves in art and architecture, but the Kushites did not make these choices simply because they wanted to imitate the Egyptians. Instead, these decisions were often made rather intentionally for specific reasons.

The Sphinx of Taharqo

Most people recognize Egypt’s Great Sphinx at Giza when they see a

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H picture of it, but did you know that a Kushite leader also had a sphinx built when he ruled over the combined kingdoms of Kush and Egypt in the late 700s and early 600s B.C.E? The ruler’s name was Taharqo, and he had his sphinx built between 684 and 680 B.C.E.

Taharqo was the fourth Kushite pharaoh to rule Kush and Egypt, and his sphinx was found in a temple at Kawa, which is north of Khartoum in present-day . The Sphinx of Taharqo now sits in the in London. It has several Egyptian features of a sphinx, like a muscular lion’s back, a mane of hair around Taharqo’s face, and outstretched paws that reach out from the figure. However, the shape of Taharqo’s face is round, which was typical for most Kushites. His facial features clearly show that he was a black African man and not an Egyptian. Two cobras are also featured on the Sphinx of Taharqo. While Egyptian pharaohs were commonly depicted wearing the royal symbol of a single cobra on their headgear, the Kushites preferred to show their royal leaders with two cobras. This use of the double cobra indicated that the pharaoh was ruler of both Egypt and Kush.

Experts have called the Sphinx of Taharqo an example of ancient political imagery. Kushite rulers, artists, and architects often purposely chose to borrow elements from Egyptian culture to help Kushites enhance their view of the world and increase the status of Kush’s rulers. Taharqo intentionally wanted to send the message that he was part of the long line of pharaohs who had ruled the region for centuries. The goal was to show that he was no different from the other rulers who have been pharaoh before him. Taharqo also had pyramids built using the Egyptian model and temples restored in the Egyptian style. These were also very specific and thoughtful decisions. Taharqo surrounded his subjects with many elements that were familiar to Egyptians because he wanted to maintain power and control over his kingdom.

Pyramids

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H

While Taharqo did use the Egyptian model when he had pyramids built, other Kushite rulers had them constructed in a slightly different way than those of the Egyptians. Kushite pyramids were built in stepped layers of stone blocks, just like the . However, Kushite structures had smaller bases and steeper slopes. Experts estimate that pyramids built by the Kush range from about 6 to 30 meters tall. (That’s roughly between 20 and 100 feet.)

Since Kushite builders used smaller bases, it was possible to build many pyramids in a small area. Sources state that over 200 pyramids still stand in the area that once was ancient Meroe, the third capital of Kush. This is thought to be about double the number of pyramids found in Egypt. Like the Egyptians, the Kush built pyramids as tombs for the dead. However, Kushite pyramids were placed above underground graves, which was different from Egyptian graves that were located inside a pyramid.

In the 1800s, an Italian explorer named Giuseppe Ferlini damaged many of the pyramids at Meroe and plundered them while he looked for treasure. Kush had more sources of gold than Egypt. Both kingdoms used gold to make jewelry and to decorate tombs. Ferlini tried to sell the treasure of a Kushite queen’s pyramid. This included gold amulets, rings, and necklaces, but collectors did not believe that such treasure

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H existed in what was then often called “Black Africa.” Therefore, they thought the items were fakes. Gold was such a valuable resource in ancient Kush that it influences how people refer to it today. Kush can also be called Nubia, which is the Egyptian word for “gold.”

Art and Symbolism

Egyptians placed hieroglyphics on the walls of pyramids, but these markings were carved into or written onto the surface of materials like stone or . The Kushites used relief to decorate the walls of their palaces and pyramids. These shapes or figures stick up from the flat background of the material of wherever they have been carved. Kushites made their reliefs using deeper cuts than hieroglyphics, and reliefs mostly reflected an African perspective of daily life. Kushite rulers, animals, and battle scenes were also subjects for relief , although reliefs of battle scenes or rulers are somewhat less common.

One complex of ancient Kushite temples at Musawwarat es Sufra in Sudan features numerous relief sculptures and paintings of elephants.

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H One of the reliefs shows an elephant holding a robe that is attached to a line of bound prisoners. Historians wonder if this location might have been a place where the Kushites trained war elephants. Ramps have also been discovered that seem to suggest that elephants were moved from place to place, Another theory is that Kushites in the local area worshipped the elephant, and the complex was used to house elephants that would be part of the group’s cult ceremonies No evidence or records exist to confirm either hypothesis. Experts think the elephant is a distinctive Kushite symbol, not one that was borrowed from the Egyptians. It is believed that the elephant had disappeared from ancient Egypt by about 3100 B.C.E., but the animal could still be found in the northern part of Kush.

Using the Nile Ecosystem

Kush and Egypt have a long and complicated relationship. These two civilizations had a lot of contact between 1600 and 600s B.C.E. due to their proximity with each other on the Nile River. As contact between these two civilizations increased, so did conflict. Much of the conflict between Kush and Egypt was over agricultural goods and services.

Trading Goods and Services

The ancient Egyptians were able to use the Nile River to their advantage. The land along the banks of the upper Nile was very fertile and good for farming. Egyptian farmers were able to produce an abundance of grain and harvest papyrus plants. They built dams, which allowed them to control the flow of water to many different places. However, these agricultural advances did not happen in a short period of time. It took the Egyptians almost 3,500 years to control the landscape around them.

Located in Kush, along the lower Nile, were areas rich for gold and iron mining. Due to poor soil conditions, Kush did not have land that was as fertile as Egypt's. Despite this, Kush had goods that Egyptians highly valued.Kush was a land that was full of precious metals and wood. People from Kush would trade these goods for items such as grain and clothing.

Egypt and Kush traded several goods and services. The area where these two civilizations existed side-by-side became a very popular place for trade. Egyptians frequently traded with civilizations to the north, while Kush traded with civilizations to the south. In turn, they would also trade these goods with each other. Many of the goods and

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H services that originated in Kush and Egypt spread to other ancient civilizations as well.

Controlling Resources

Rulers from both Egypt and Kush greatly valued the goods and services that were traded in the regions. They were able to use these goods and services to keep and expand their power. In Egypt, rulers used the grain surplus as a means to control the Egyptian people. Pharaoh used the grain to trade for items that supported the civilization. These items would be weapons for their armies or building materials for new structures. In Kush, rulers were able to use their valuable resources to trade for basic needs such as grain and clothing. The rulers of Kush used their position on the Nile to control the flow of goods between the rest of the African continent and northern civilizations. If Egypt wanted to trade with southern Africa, they would need to go through Kush.

The quest for goods and services caused both civilizations to consume more and more resources. So, Egypt wanted to use Kush's resources for themselves. Egypt did not want to have to pay for the goods and services they received from Kush. Instead, they set out to conquer Kush and its people. Total control of the Nile would also allow the Egyptians to control the trade routes through Africa and the Mediterranean.

The Egyptians imposed laws that favored the Egyptian royalty and their access to these goods and services. After they conquered Kush, this favoritism remained the same. However, many of Kush's royal families were still treated well and received some access to these goods and services.

Egyptian pharaohs needed to ensure that their control over the resources around Egypt was as strong as it could be. So, they decreed a 10% tax on many different items such as the fish caught by fishermen and grain harvested by farmers. They also passed laws that farmers could not build any new dams. To enforce these laws, they had priests and tax collectors keep records of the goods that were produced by different workers.

Damage to the Environment

Both Egypt and Kush used more goods than they were able to replace. The resources that had taken so long to cultivate began to disappear and the ecosystem of the Nile began to change. An ecosystem is the group of populations of living things and the non-living parts of their environment that support them. The change in how water is supplied to

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H an area, for example, can change how many fish live in that area. Changes like this began to happen along the Nile. Over time, this caused plant and wildlife to begin to disappear.

Even though the ruling classes had laws that told the people how the resources would be used, they did not have any laws to protect the resources. As a result, many items produced by these resources began to disappear as well.

In Egypt, the wild grass that was used to produce papyrus was depleted. Once other city-states saw the value in using papyrus as a writing tool, they began to request greater amounts in trade. This meant that the papyrus plant was harvested in greater numbers over time. However, the plant was not being restored or replanted by Egyptian farmers. The wild grass of the papyrus plant became extinct and Egyptians were no longer able to produce large amounts of paper made from papyrus.

Similarly, in Kush, trees were being harvested to create building structures. As the demand for the trees increased, the people of Kush cut more of the trees down. However, cutting down the trees meant that the land was no longer protected from the sun. The soil became very hard and difficult to harvest in the areas where the trees used to be. They were also unable to supply as much timber for buildings as they had in the past.

Although earlier generations of Egyptians and Kushites were able to create prosperous trade routes, their decisions had long term consequences. Many of these decisions that were made affected the area for many years after. For example, the placement of dams along the Nile River during ancient Egyptian times continues to affect the area. Scientists and agriculturalists are still trying to determine how the decisions made by these civilizations are affecting the landscape today.

Through the Eyes of a Historian: Writes About Kush

In this lesson, you learned about the kingdom of Kush. It is difficult to learn about Kush because historians have not yet translated its writing. We have to rely on other sources of information to learn about the kingdom and its people.

One source is from the historian Herodotus. He is called the “father of history” because he was the first Greek to write down facts and explanations of historical events. He traveled to many places

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H to ask questions and record their answers. Sometimes, though, Herodotus accepted answers that were exaggerated. Even so, his writings are important sources of information about the past.

In his book The (written in about 430 B.C.E.), he recorded data on the Persian Empire. Below are three excerpts from The Histories. They record the decision of the Persian king to send an expedition to Kush to learn about its people, whom he calls “Ethiopians.” Herodotus records the expedition's findings. While you read, think about what the Persians have learned about the people of Kush.

Excerpts from The Histories of Herodotus Translated by George Rawlinson

17 . . . Cambyses [the king of Persia] took counsel with himself, and planned three expeditions. One was against the Carthaginians, another against the Ammonians, and a third against the long-lived Ethiopians, who dwelt in that part of Libya which borders upon the southern sea. He judged it best to despatch his fleet against Carthage and to send some portion of his land army to act against the Ammonians, while his spies went into Ethiopia, under the pretence [deception] of carrying presents to the king, but in reality to take note of all they saw. . . .

20 . . . The Ethiopians to whom this embassy was sent, are said to be the tallest and handsomest men in the whole world. In their customs they differ greatly from the rest of mankind, and particularly in the way they choose their kings; for they find out the man who is the tallest of all the citizens, and of strength equal to his height, and appoint him to rule over them.

23 [The spies] . . . were told that most of them lived to be a hundred and twenty years old, while some even went beyond that age—they ate boiled flesh, and had for their drink nothing but milk. . . . Among these Ethiopians copper is of all metals the most scarce and valuable.

Historians have learned a great deal from the writings of Herodotus. With any source, a historian must be cautious in using it to learn about history.

2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A T H E K I N G D O M O F K U S H

______

• The History of Herodotus by George Rawlinson, Vol. II, New York: The Tandy-Thomas Company, 909, pp. 67–8; 69; 71–2.

Context/Entire Selection: https://books.google.com/books? id=nB5WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA67&lpg

Accessed April, 2017

Level: A 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute