The Secret of Black Sportsmen's Olympic Achievements*

By Felix Lebed, Ofer Muchtar, and Yair Galily

In 1936, won 100 m gold in unforgettable fashion at the Berlin Olympics to herald the rise of the African American at the highest level of international sport. In the half century since 1960, all but three gold medals over this blue riband distance have been won by athletes of African American or Afro Caribbean origin. All attempts to explai n this phenomenon by cultural and social factors (e.g. black society's desire to breach "a glass ceiling" and struggle upwards) have been countered by sports scientists who believe that black athletes have a physiological advantage. Other scholars have refuted a genet c or racial explanation of black sportsmen's superiority.

Background: The Doctrines of Race versus Social Powers

African-American participation in sport has a special place in the story of slavery and its consequences. David Wiggins in 1989 and Jay Coakley in 2012 both examined this issue from an historical point of view, beginning with William Montagu a Cobb's anthropologic laboratory where the proportions of Jesse Owens's body were measured in 1936 (Cobo, 1936). There are two general approaches to the problem. They are the biological approach (race doctrine) and the sociological approach (social powers doctrine), both of which seek to explain the causes of the impressive success of black sportsmen despite unequal social conditions for the black population in America. Apologists for the biological explanation of black sportsmen's superiority emphasize a number of advantages among them anthropological parameters. David Hunter drew his own general conclusions in 1998 from research which had been conducted in the years from the thirties to the eighties. African-Americans as a group have longer limbs, shortertrunks, and narrower anaerobic abilities (Ama, Lagasses & Simoneau, 1990). What is 's pelvic girdles'; they nave shorter sitting height and The heel bones in their feet are longer and the fat pads secret? At the Olympic other anthropological characteristics (lean body mass are thicker (Cobb, 1936). According to Malina (1988), Games of 2008 and that differs etc.). Together these give them a certain black children and adolescents are able to demonstrate 2012 the six-times advantage when moving (Saltin, 1996). better performance in running, jumping, and Olympic champion Other sources relate that African-Americans have coordination connected to game playing. from beat more fast-twitch muscle fibers (Kane, 1971, Abe, Brown Accordingto Kane (1971; quoted by Harpalany, 1998) all all comers by some & Brechue, 1999), more intensive phosphor genetic explanations of such objective conditions concentrate distance. activity in the muscles (Ama, et al., 1986), and higher on two main hypotheses: selection and breeding. Photo: pictute-alliance The socially grounded theory the advantage enjoyed by black sportsmen - is supported by Cobb's (1936) suggestion, and later, Edwards' claim that there are "more differences between individual members of any one racial group than between any two groups as a whole" (Edwards, 1971 ,p.35) . Sociological doctrine concentrates mainly around a classical distinction, which been to regard race zs a biological category and ethnicity as a cultural one (James, 1963). In recent decades scholars of racial relations have suggested that race must be problematized and not accepted as a natural identity. The range of class-based theories could explain for example why the differences between the Caribbean nations is vast, but the most prevalent approaches are materialist analyses formed by a classical Marxist, class conflict approach (Carrington, 1986). These approaches view racial conflicts and diversities as a consequence of capitalist relations of production, John Baxter Taylor Wilson and Grim (1991) demonstrate the most salient and the oppressive acts of power and control of the (second from left) the example of the selection approach (which, however, is different colonial dominant force(Birdsall,i999). first Afro-American rejected by Hoberman, 1997). They use three well-known These cultural theories would explain racial to become Olympic facts: differences as the result of c l Itural imperialism enforced champion in the relay. • The statistically- proven higher blood pressure rates through military and cultural conquest: for example, He graduated from in the African- American population than in the the colonialism and neocolonialism of the Caribbean by the University of Caucasian population; white Europeans disrupted the Caribbean’s culture and Pennsylvania, but • The “fact” (whether it is true or not) that genetically - led to the colonization of the indigenous population shortly afterwards caused high blood pressure correlates with a large within their own nation. he died from typhoid number offast-twitch musclefibers; With the conquest came the devaluation and pneumonia on • The fact that high blood pressure blocks the "salting- destruction of traditional cuItural forms, as well as the J'"’ December 1908. out" of body liquids. emergence of new traditions and practices introduced by the colonizing nation; this process is known as Photo: Pennsylvania Univeruty Archives Salting-out is the main cause of death of people who "Hierarchy Diffusion". Cultural domination is therefore suffer from thirst. According to the Wilson and Grim's the key dynamic in the production and maintenance of hypothesis, this was what actually mattered in the slave differences between nations in a region (Dyreson, 2005). ships. Hundreds of slaves were deprived of sufficient Additionally, "Globalization" scholars state that the water. Some died from salting-out. Those who survived development of sports in a region was an important the voyage across the Atlantic did so because they had part of the colonial policy, in which the “super genetically - caused high blood pressure. powers" of the time tried to impose their culture on the A generalized summary of the race doctrine, however, "underdeveloped" countries (Birdsall, 1999). questions what constitutes the black race from a genetic The issue of discrimination stands in an independent point of view. Reed (1969) believed that the American position in sociological studies. There are many facets of black population carried from 2 % to 5 0 % of Caucasian discrimination in sport that are emphasized in historical genes. This question has taken on more of a social and sociological research. nuance, because it is connected to purely historical- For Coakley (2012), discrimination was a dominant sociological problems of sex, violence, mixing African factor in shaping the mass factor in participation of and European religious traditions, slave-master black sportsmen in certain sports. They were looking for relationships, and soon. viable routes to socio-economic success. This influenced

Felix Lebed Ph.D., graduate of the Sport University o( Ofer M uchtar Ph D., graduated the Hebrew University Ukraine, 1977. Until 1990, senior lecturer at the same University of Jerusalem, Institute of Criminology, in 2010 a lecturer at and coordinator of the scientific group supervising the Soviet Department of Criminobgy in Ashkeion College. Since 2013 he national handball team's Olympic preparations.Since 1990 lives is also the Educational hograms manager of Hapoel Beer and works in Israel. Present focus is on interdisciplinary studies Sheva F.C. of human play and competitive games. young black men as they made decisions about their Methodology Silvio Catortooo- sport specialization. For example, it is cheaper to play 1953) from Haiti, who basketball in the backyard than buy all the equipment Most studies on this issue concentrate on black was honoured on a necessary for golf. At the same time, the cultural sportsmen in America and . (Wiggins, 1989; stamp in hi. home­ environment was also an influence. Examples of Sailes, 1998; Entine, 2003). In such studies the cultural land, won the long successful sport heroes, established in community lore factor is constant and consist of two components: jump silver medal in and reinforced by daily television broadcasts, conspired (1) the traditional British - American attitudes to sport 1928 in Amsterdam. to convince the aspiring young black sportsman that as a great value; (2) open racism in the past and latent A year later he estab­ baseball, basketball, football, boxing, and athletics discrimination in the present, in all their facets. But this lished a world record were the "assured" routes to success in sports. constant "North America 1" factor can vary in other geo­ with 7.93 m. There is, however, another side to discrimination in political regions, where black sportsmen take part in sport research. Hoberman, writing in 1997, described any high-level competitions and win. In our view, intrinsic Left: n 192:1 the discussion of the physical advantages of black athletes (North American) cultural anaylsis not the only way to American longjumper as “a great racist myth." Simons (2003), suggested study the main question about cultural causes of the William De Hart that the natural expression of sport emotions by black sporting superiority of black athletes. Hubbard (1903-1976) athletes during sporting events (which often involved When two doctrines are oppose a nd arguments became the first black aggressive and crude sexual gestures) was characterized for both are mutually damaging to other side, there is individual Olympic as "indecent behavior" by the white community. alone methodologically correctsolution. Ascholar has champion. This was done because the "whites" had lost their to find such conditions for an experiment or a method Photos: Volkcr Kluge Archives superiority of performance and wanted to retain of theoretical analysis that excludes the influence control of the situation "around" the event by imposing of factors leading to a rguments feeding one of the penalties and institutionalizing their cultural behavior opposed doctrines. restrictions. Employing such a premise, it is possible to advance Discussions on the why black athletes have an three approaches to the question: (1) Assume the advantage become particularly potent. The are often existence of different groups of black populationsthat discussed in terms of differences between the races are identified by common biocogical parameters anc which can become a racism issue. But a "social powers" physical abilities (due to a common teg on of domicile doctrine does not need "politically correct" arguments. in Africa or a common region of origin in Africa in during It needs more study and scholarly proof. 300 years of slave trade); (2) Assume tiat these groups developed underdifferent cultiral-historical conditions bearing on modern sport d u r ing the last 150 years; (3) Ta ir G a iily Ph.D is an applied sociologist, mass media and management researcher and Senior lecturer at the Assume that a comparison of sport achievements of Interdisciplinary Centre, Herzliyya and former Dean of Zinman these groups in the present demontrates a sizable College, Wingate Institute. He is the founder and head of the distinction correlating w ith socio-cultural differences. research unit at the Israeli Football Association and a member of UFFA club licensing committee. There is a positive way to perform as such a study tiat is not just hypothetical but based in reaity. The answer The Atlantic Slave Trade in the Caribbean Region and Sports Development

The historical picture o fthe Atlantic slave trade has been studied extensively in recent times. Thomas (1998) suggests that about 62 % of the slaves came from western Africa to the American continent, 3 0 % from west-central Africa, and only 8 % from southern Africa (Mozambique, Zimbabwe. Zambia). During the last 10 to 15 years, historical studies in this field have been assisted by genetic research (Salas et a I., 200A). The Atlantic slave trade experienced flows of differing intensities and priorities. During the 18th century alone, six million slaves from West Africa were transported to the American continent (Cu tin, 1969). Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, and the Dutch empire were the main culprits, because they held a large number of colonies in the Caribbean region. Atthe beginning ofthei7,h century Spain had control of Florida, Central America, and the majority ofthe bigger Caribbean Islands such as , Haiti (Hispaniola), , Jamaica, and . Almost all South American territories became Spanish colonies (the exception was Brazil, which became Portuguese). In 1932 the dominance lies in tie "Caribbean". The islands in the region are a The British Empire, for its part, began to annex some of Afro-American and mixture of races and cultures, but all the countries have Spanish territories through naval campaigns in the it"1 Caribbean sprinters populations dominated by those of black and mixed century. The Bahamas, Jamaica, and became began with Eddie heritage. It makes this region a perfect model for a study British colonies during this period. Later, during the Tolan's victory in the focusing on historical and cross-cultural causes of the 100 m, followed home black athletes advantage in certain sports. It is clear by . thatthe cultural diversity of Caribbean countries is the The sequence has only result of colonialist politics and wars between a limited been interrupted on number of European cultures and countries. Because five occasions since our purpose in this article is to emphasize the attitude then (1952-1960,1972 and role of several European countries (especially Great and 1980). Britain) in this historical process, the development of the colonialist stages in this region has to be analyzed in Right: Philip Edwards detail. The visible advantage of such a methodological (1907-1971) was the approach is that it is as pure an observation as is first world class possible ofthe black population's athletic abilities Caribbean middle- against a backdrop of cultural influences created by distance runner. Born different European colonialist countries. in British Guiana, he The study consists of the two parts: (i) an historical went to the USA in and geographical analysis of the cultural aspects of 1926, but when he was the Caribbean region and the role of the British in this; not selected there for (2) an analysis of Olympic achievements by different the Olympic team for colonialist and colonial countries (medals won in the Amsterdam, he was Summer between 1948 and 2008*). invited to Canada, for The study of national Olympic achievements of whom he took part in different nations can be a useful tool *or comparison. the Games on three This is possible if one analyses not only the total number occasions and won of Olympic medals but the relation between medals bronze five times. won and population size. The use of the "one million index" (1- Ml), in other words, the number of medals Photc-s: Volker Kluge Archives per million citizens was a useful tool here. 18th century, the entire east coast of North America, After the Second World Trinidad and Tobago, and many of the little islands and WartheCaribbeans archipelagos, were incorporated into the British Empire began to excel in the under the name "West Indies". Three island regions, sprints. The Jamaican Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and the Bahamas, require Herbert McKenley special attention in our study because of their extremely (1922-20074 ight) was high sporting achievements in recentyears. second in 1952 over One of the most prevalent symbols of British cultural 100 m and 900 mas colonization of the region was the game of cricket, which well as Olympic became a mode of "fidelity to the crown". Cricket in the champion in the Caribbean is unique as a sport because in international 9x900 m relay. competition it has a team styled "West Indies". This is Emmanuel McDonald made up of the island teams which are represented as Bailey (i920-20i}/left), nations in their own right in other sports (Forde, 1985). won 100 m bronze In an effort to explain the acceptance of cricket in representing Great colonial societies, some have pointed to the pivotal role Britain but trained of elite groups and the nature of their relationship with athletes in his native client groups (Birdsall,1999). Certainly in the West Indies, Trinidad & Tobago for cricketwas popularized by colonial administrators and the 1969 Games. the locals who became fascinated by the game (Gupta, 2004). Others, however, have advanced the notion that the adoption of cricket came about as a result of the absence of a traditional cultural activity that could be transformed into a mass spectator sport. Scholars state thatthis is especially relevant in the West Indies because, whilst the British-North Americans had for the most unlike India and some African countries where the game part a Protestant-Anglican culture. Catholic Frarce anc is played, there was no indigenous sporting culture P'otestant Netherlands were more modest "players' amongst the population at large (Aviston, 2005). in this “game”. But each culture influenced the It is important to state that because of the racial and indigenous population according to its understanding the ethnic diversity of many West Indian islands, it is of the Christian mission, native cultural attitudes, and difficult to identify a monolithic culture that is typical of governmental colonial politics. These approaches the region. Scholars prefer, instead, to speak of cultural have a clear Protestant work ethic, accordingtc which pluralism. any "empty" play and amusement were seen as As mentioned Caribbean cricket is rooted in the colonial inappropriate behavior which went against what they past, and cricket matches in the modern era between saw as man's God-planned nature (Meier, 1980:25-27: England and the West Indies have often taken overt Guttmann, 1988:26-34). They touch on various aspects and covert themes of ethnic and national redemption. of play, all united in their search for a sense of benefit It is said thfor the only time inter-island conflicts are put t hat human beings obtain by playing during their aside and their people show solidarity, is when the West phylogenetic or ontogenetic development. Indiansare playing, particularly against England. Arbena With this Protestant background, one can sense a (2001) locates West Indies cricket in the context of "street snarp change in traditional British views of “empty" culture", the carnival traditions, and African-American physical activities when they became gentlemen's culture in general. He argues that West Indies cricket is a “sports" in the second half of the i9lh century. From rite which, like Afro-Christian forms of worship, involves t his time onward the British Empire added sport to its the indispensable and crucial interplay between the exports to the world. players and the spectators. The suggestion about the mainly British cultural roots cf black athletes' superiority in the Caribbean region is The British Empire's Influence on supported by a separate analysis which even had an Sport Culture in the Caribbean Region i mpact on Spanish speaking cultures when they were influenced by British roots or American sports cu ture. Before the relevant period for sport history studies, American baseball came to the Caribbean on trade that is, since the end of the 19th century, there were two ships that picked upsugar fromthe island of Cuba in the global cultural forces in the Caribbean region: The Latin- n id -i 8oos. Cuban teams played their first organised American perspective had a mostly Catholic worldview, games in 1874. The country's civil war sent refugees and At the 1969 Games in Latin America. Recent statistics claim that of every six Tokyo, all three medals major league players in the States, at least one comes in the 100 m were won from those regions (Carter, 2005). by black athletes. Gold Cuba is a Spanish speaking country that became a US went to cultural protectorate at the end of the 19th century, and (USA/1992-2002), silver formally received independence in 1901. The first Cuban to competitor took part in the Olympics in 1900 and won (CUB/*i938), bronze to medals in Olympic competition before the outbreak of (CAN/ Second World War. 1990-1982). This was Since the 1960s, Cuban sport was dominated by the first time it had the Socialist System. Close ties with the Soviet Union happened since 1998. extended to sport, and the sporting achievements of the regime were used in propaganda (Lebed, 2003: Photo: Official Report Tokyo 1964 Riordan, 1977,1996). We suggest that this new ideological wave of Olympic medal "hysteria" strengthened the existing sport culture powered by the USA since the beginning of the 20th century. Thus, both sporting superpowers influenced Cuba’s sporting culture during the 20th century. As a result Cuba has achieved great Olympic success in the last 50 years. Its ratio of medals to population is only slighter smaller than that of Jamaica, the most successful of Britain'sformer colonies. Puerto Rico has a less prominent sport history, but the the game to the (Alexander, 1991). dual influence of British roots and American culture can Baseball was played in the Dominican Republic for years be seen in its Olympic achievements (1-MI = 1.59). The and became more and more popular after the American place of sport is clea rto see in tourist information on the occupation in 1916 (Eastman, 2005). nation's history: The strong trading connections between the USA and 1898, on December 10, the Treaty of Paris is signed, her nearest neighbours, and the lack of British presence concluding the Spanish-American War. ... Spain in that part of the Caribbean, led to a process known renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto as "infectious diffusion*, in which «wea ker» nations Rico and its dependent islets to the United States... embraced the sport of the «strong» neighbor (Araujo, 1899, on January 75, the first boxing match is held in 1995). Puerto Rico. In the present day, Baseball has reached enormous Currency is exchanged, Puerto Rican peso to the dollar. levels of popularity in the Caribbean and throughout (www.welcometopuertorico.org.historyA.shtml)

Table 1 Countries Population Olympic medals 1-MI Olympic Achievements (m illions) 1 9 9 8 -2 0 0 8 (N2 of m edals of a number of former 2008 per million citizens)

Colonialist Countries The colonialist countries High i-M I (>9.8) in comparison with Britain 61.0 398 5.70 the entire Caribbean France 69.5 353 5-97 region.’ Netherlands 16.9 173 10.50

Lo w i-M I

Sp ain 95-2 108 2.38 P o rtu ga l 10.6 18 1.70

The former and present colonial countries Very low i-M I

latn-Am erican countries 911.9 159 0.37 neighboringon the Caribbean region

(Central America, , Surinam, Colombia,

Brazil, , French Guyana)

High i-M I

Caribbean Islands only 39-8 276 6.93 Table 2 Country Population % of population Leading religions6 j Olympic Protected (thousands) of African j medals by Britain Olympic Achievements 2008 descent i 1948-; 008 or US since and Demographic Data

of English Speaking Anguilla — 1<*.0 97 Protestant 8 5 % - 1650 Caribbean Countries Antigua/ Barbuda — 70.0 90 Protestant >9 0 % - 1632 Dependent on Britain Baham as - 307.0 85 Protestant 76 % 10 1650 (i6c6?) and the US. Barbados -2 8 2 .0 90 Protestant 6 7% 1 1625 Bermuda - 6 8 . 0 63 Protestant >6 0% 1 1609 British Virgin Islands — 21*.0 90 Protestant 8 6 % 1 1 6 6 6 (1572?) Cayman -< * 8.0 60 No data - 1870 Grenada - 9 0.0 95 R. Catholicism 5 3 % ; - 1762 Protestant 33% Dominica - 73.0 95 R. Catholicism 7 7 % ; 1761 Jam aica — 2,80(*.0 98 Protestant 61 % 53 1655 Montserat - 6 .0 No data Protestant > 9 5 % - 1632 St. Kitts/N evis -<*0.0 97 No data - 1783 St. Lucia - 173-0 96 R. Catholicism 9 0 % : - I 8 l<* St. Vincent & - 119-0 85 Anglican <*7 % - 1783 Grenadines Methodism 28 % Trinidad & Tobago —1,0<*7.0 57 R. Catholicism 2 9 % ; 1<* 1762 Hinduism 2<*% 1797 Turks & Caicos - 22.0 95 Protestant 8 6 % - 1750 US Virgin Islands - 108.0 78 Protestant <*2 % - 1917 R. Catholicism 3<*%; British West India 2 (1960, united team) Total: Average: Total: i-M I: 5.322.0 86.1 82 15-A

Comparative Analysis of Caribbean Achievements: is higher than that of the Latin-American world, anc Results and Discussion of a Statistical Study even surpasses some of the leading sports-oriented European countries (excluding the Netherlan ds). Ar The first results of the statistical study encompass a interpretation of these finding is an 'important part of comparison of the present-day sport achievements tie following discussion. of those countries which were once colonies and their Sporting achievement is limited t o relatively few former masters. In this way it is possible to see the extent countries. Of the 23 Caribbean nations only 11 have won to which competitive sport constitutes a national value Olympic medals, and of these, on y five have taken more (Table 1). tian two medals (Tables 2,3). In cur opinion, the degree Two groups of former colonialist couriries are evident to which they succeed is closely tied tc tf e spetia I social from the demonstrated data: (1) courtries w th high conditions in the various Caribbean countries unde­ Olympic achievements and high1i-M I (more than 4*.8 !) study. But it is difficult to understand thisi tendency from such as the Netherlands, Britain, and France; (2) and such general all-Caribbean regionaf data, because it countries with low 1-MI such as Spain and Portugal, encompasses at least five different cultural entities. But whose Olympic success is not as high. It is possibl e to even the initial separation of the analysed parameter; suggest that the attitude of the former colonialist powers shows a certain tendency indicatr g the correct direction to sports development and the local sport culture that for investigation. developed during colonial times influenced the attitude Certainly a lesser development of a sports culture of the dependent colonial population However, this is obvious in the Latin-America nations which had correlation does not emerge so clearly, because (as will teen colonized by Spain and Portugal. They have a be shown below) former and present French and Dutch relatively low rate of Olympic success based on 1-MI (an colonies do not exce in elite competitive sports in average of 2.0 Olympic medals per million citizen s). This general and certainly not in the Olympic Games. parameter, indicating an Olympic achievement duringa The Caribbean countries (as can be seen from the data half century, designates, in our view, tie relationship in Table 1) as a unit have won 276 medals. Their 1-MI is of given societies to elite international sports as a approximately 7 medals per million citizens. This level governmentally-supported social value. "The black gazelle": Football in Latin America was the only modern sport the Afro-American to develop without organised sport politics and large Wilma Rudolph was governmental support. In 3razil, for instance, it is "... a triple Olympic more than a sport. Closertocarnival.it has demonstrated champion in i960 in an identity that has served as a sort of unofficial . Three-tenths citizenship in the country" (Shirts, 1988, p.109). of a second behind Thus, the next step of this study was to examine her, the Briton the suggestion about Britain’s exceptional role in the Dorothy Hyman won sportization of the Caribbean region and to classify the the silver medal in Caribbean countries according to the colonial cultures the 100 m. influencing them over the centuries. The first and most obvious indication of such an influence is official Photo: Votker Kluge Archive The idea that sports achievement can be explained on language. The second is the rich historical data about economic grounds does not hold water in this case. In colonial settlements and colonial wars. The countries the first case Portugal and Spain are, in comparison to that were culturally dependent on Britain and the US* the Caribbean, very prosperous. Even so their Olympic remain English speaking and encompass approximately performances have generally been poor. The Caribbean 5 million people (Table 2). Together they have won 82 islands are not well off in financial terms and are Olympic medals: The breakdown is as follows: Jamaica - vulnerable in climatic terms. Hurricanes and other 53: Trinidad and Tobago - 14; Bahamas -10; Barbados, natural disasters are all too common in the region. Bermuda, and the British Virgin Islands - 1 medal each. Yet, during the last half-century two of their number Two medals were won on the only occasion that a united have excelled. Cuba have won 183 medals and Jamaica British West Indies participated (Rome, i960). weighed in with 53. The explanation, we suggest, can The second group of Caribbean countries encompasses be found in political and cultural aspects, such as the more than 16 million people (excluding Cuba and Puerto place sport holds on the scale of social values of a given Rico). These nations were culturally dependent on other country, and how important it is for a country to draw colonialists such as France, Spain, and the Netherlands, attention to itself through sporting achievements. but they have won only 5 Olympic medals (Table 3). Perhaps the high level of football development in Latin American culture can further explain this phenomenon. Conclusion For much of the 20”’ century, military regimes held sway in South America and in the mother countries of Spain We arrive at the main question of the black sportsmen's and Portugal until the 1970s. As such they were in a state superiority. All the above mentioned results of the ofalmostpermanentpoliticalandeconomiccrisis. study point to cultural influence as the main and most

Table 3 Country and Population % of population Leading religions Olympic Protected Olympic Achievements its cultural (thousands) of African m edals since: and Demographic dependence descent since 191*8 Data of Caribbean Countries Culturally French Dependent on Spain, Haiti - 8,92<*.0 95 R. C ath o lic ism 8 0 % - 1625 France and the M artinique - 1* 02.0 90 R. Catholicism 85 % 1635 G u a d a lu p e ~ <*1*1.0 90 - Netherlands (Excluding R. C ath o lic ism 9 5 % 1635 St. Martin - 29-0 90 R. Catholicism 9 5 % 1815 Cuba and Puerto Rico) St. Barthelemy - 7 . 0 R. C ath o lic ism 9 5 % 161*8

Spanish Dominican Rep.

(Hispaniola) - 9,507.0 8 t* R. C a th o lic ism 9 5 % <* 1<*93

Dutch

R. C ath o licism A ruba -1 0 1 .0 P ro te sta n t 1636 A n tille s - 1 8 3 .0 85 Jew ish 1 1631*

Total: Average: Total: i-M I:

19.521* 88 .8 5 0.26 1968: the first 100 m final comprised entirely of black athletes (I tor): Mel Pender (USA/6lh), Lennox Miller (JAM/r"), (CUBIC), (USAJV) and (USA/?”). Not in the picture: Roger Bambuck (FRA/5'"), Harry Jerome (CAN/7'") and Jean-Louis Ravelomanantsoa (MAD/8"').

Photo: Official Report Mexico 1968

powerful factor affecting the development of excellence 3 This is an US-derived index (ti.8t») that shows it is certainly a coun­ try with high sport achievements in competitive elite spcrt in the Caribbean region, where U From this point onward British and the American sport cultural all Olympic medals have been won by black athletes. politics will de analysed as one because of their similarities and It must be stressed that any discussion of black common Anglo-Saxon roots. 5 The data in this and following all tables are taken from the official athletes’ superiority can not be closed without web sites of the UN and the IOC. attempting to find a relationship between the 6 The religion of the populations and countries uncer study is used percentage of blacks and those of mixed heritage in as a general demographic parameter only. 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