Differences Between Pair and Bulk Hydrophobic Interactions

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Differences Between Pair and Bulk Hydrophobic Interactions Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 87, pp. 946-949, February 1990 Biochemistry Differences between pair and bulk hydrophobic interactions ROBERT H. WOODt AND PETER T. THOMPSONt tDepartment of Chemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716; and tDepartment of Chemistry, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA 19081 Communicated by Robert L. Baldwin, September 28, 1989 ABSTRACT It is now well known that the pair interaction bic groups between water and hydrophobic medium is illus- between two hydrocarbon molecules in water has distinctly trated by the following thermodynamic cycle. different properties from the bulk hydrophobic interaction familiar to the biochemist, which is modeled by the transfer of nR(g, c@) AG,(g, Ce) IR (g co) a hydrocarbon from aqueous solutions to pure liquid hydro- carbon. We consider experimental data for pair interactions, which have been fitted by a simple empirical potential function, and point out some of their properties. (i) Surface free energy I I AGs and cosphere overlap models, ofthe type considered until now, cannot reproduce correctly both the pair and bulk hydrophobic interactions. (ii) Pair interactions though still attractive are strikingly weaker in aqueous solution than in the gas phase, in c contrast to the usual view ofhydrophobic interactions. (iii) For nR(aq, c@) - R,(aq, co) pair interactions in water, the solvent-separated configuration is less important than the contact configuration if the hydro- Here R is a hydrophobic molecule and co is the chosen carbon has more than two carbon atoms. standard state concentration (co = 1 mol/dm3). For n = 2, AG2(g) = -RT In K2(g) is a measure of the association of a Hydrophobic "bonding" involves the association of nonpo- pair ofgas-phase molecules, while the corresponding AG2(aq) lar groups in an aqueous environment. Kozak et al. (1) have and equilibrium constant, K2(aq), is a measure of the asso- drawn the distinction between bulk hydrophobic interac- ciation of a pair of hydrophobic molecules in water. tions-that is, "interactions involving large clusters of non- For the bulk interaction, the four-sided cycle collapses to polar groups as may, for instance, be found in the interior of a triangular one because the thermodynamic properties of a protein molecule"-and interactions between small num- R,(g) become equal to those of R,(aq) in the limit of large n; bers of nonpolar groups as may, for instance, be found at the a large enough n-mer is a liquid drop of R. The bulk surface of a protein molecule. These qualitatively different interaction familiar to the biochemist is characterized by interactions are generally lumped together in the analysis of (1/n)AG"(aq, c@), which is the Gibbs energy change for biochemical systems. For macromolecules, models of bulk transfer of a hydrocarbon from aqueous solution to pure hydrophobic interactions are appropriate for the buried mo- liquid hydrocarbon when n is large. As proposed originally by lecular interior, while models for pair hydrophobic interac- Kauzmann (2), this process can be used to model the transfer tions are probably more appropriate at the molecular surface of a hydrocarbon side chain, exposed to aqueous solution in where there are many neighboring water molecules present. the unfolded protein, to the interior of the protein as folding The distinction between these two kinds of interactions is occurs. [Note that there is a different bulk interaction in the important because they can be quite different in magnitude. gas phase, characterized by (1/n)AG"(g, c@).] This free en- As described below, the relative effect of water, in general, ergy of transfer from an aqueous phase to a hydrocarbon is to increase the bulk interaction and decrease the pair phase is a measure of bulk hydrophobic interactions. The interaction for saturated hydrocarbons, although both are corresponding reaction for n = 2 is a measure of the pairwise decreased for benzene. The macroscopic features of both hydrophobic interaction, and both of these reactions can be bulk and pair hydrophobic interactions have been extensively compared with the corresponding reactions in the gas phase studied and much is known about them (2-23). At the [at the same concentration to avoid standard-state problems molecular scale a knowledge of aqueous hydrophobic inter- (24, 25)]. This comparison allows the effect of the aqueous actions implies a knowledge ofthe potentials ofaverage force environment on pair and bulk interactions to be measured. A between the hydrophobic species, and many questions about more fundamental comparison is ofthe osmotic second virial these potentials remain unanswered. For a complete under- coefficients, B2(aq) (26), with the corresponding gas-phase standing of these interactions in biochemical processes, we virial coefficients, B2(g), since the virial coefficients are need a detailed knowledge of the forces involved. This paper integrals of the direct or vacuum potential U [for B2(g)] and presents some conclusions about the effects of water on bulk of the potential of mean force U* [for B2(aq)]. Thus, and pair interactions of hydrophobic molecules and suggests some tests of molecular scale models of these interactions. B2(g) = -2 {exp(U/kT) - 1} 4irr2dr, [1] Pair Versus Bulk Interactions and B2(aq) is the same integral with U* substituted for U. The relationships between pair interactions, bulk interac- Returning to the diagram AG', is the free energy of solva- tions, hydrophobic solvation, and the transfer of hydropho- tion from the gas phase into water of an n-mer. The thermo- dynamic cycle gives the relationship between hydrophobic The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge interactions and the free energies of solvation of the n-mer payment. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" and the monomer. A knowledge of any three of the above in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact. processes allows one to calculate the fourth process. 946 Downloaded by guest on September 29, 2021 Biochemistry: Wood and Thompson Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87 (1990) 947 A variety of methods for estimating bulk hydrophobic Table 1. Comparison of gas phase [BAB(g)] and osmotic interactions exist, most of which involve the partitioning of [BAB(aq)] second virial coefficients for cyclohexane, nonpolar compounds between water and either the gas phase cyclohexanol, and benzene or nonpolar solvents or the partitioning of hydrophobic BAB(aq),*BAB(g), groups between the surface and interior of proteins (2-14, A B cm3 mol' cm3 mol1 27-30). It is well known that the bulk hydrophobic interaction C6H,10H C6H,10H -209* for saturated hydrocarbons is much more attractive in water C6H1jOH C6H12 -368t than in the gas phase (3), and this is easily demonstrated from C6H12 C6H12 -527,t -487§ -17341 the thermodynamic cycle described above. If the AGs is -410,11 -402** positive, as it is for saturated hydrocarbons,§ then for large -596tt n, AGn(aq)/n must be more negative than AGl(g)/n, since C6H6 C6H6 -388t -14801 AG1/n, being primarily a surface effect, must approach zero *From ref. 34. as n becomes large. (The free energy of immersing a large tFrom ref. 35. aggregate in water, AGs, is proportional to n2/3 for a reason- tEstimated by a linear extrapolation of the data in this table versus ably shaped aggregate and the limit,. AGl/n = 0.) This number of OH groups. analysis of bulk interactions for hydrophobic solutes leads to §Estimated from BAB(aq) for C6H11OH - C6H12 corrected for the Stryer's (32) statement that "water accentuates the interac- CH2-OH interactions using the group additivity principle (21, 22). tion of nonpolar molecules." From ref. 36. Estimates of pairwise interactions of two nonpolar solutes 11 Estimated from BAB(aq) for C6HjjOH - C6HjjOH corrected for the are obtained from osmotic second virial coefficients in aque- CH2-OH and OH-OH interactions using the group additivity prin- ous solutions, BAB(aq), which are a measure of the tendency ciple (21, 22). two to associate above and the associ- **Estimated from the group additivity principle (21, 22). of molecules beyond ttEstimated from a site-interaction model that fits BAB(aq) for eight ation that would be present in a random solution of A and B alcohols (26). in water (1, 15-22). For strongly associating species BAA(aq) becomes equal to minus the ordinary thermodynamic asso- virial coefficient [BAB(g)] of cyclohexane with itself. From ciation constant [-K2(aq)].¶ Franks has reviewed early ev- the aqueous solution data we can estimate the BAB(aq) for idence for the differences between pair and bulk interactions cyclohexane with itselfin a variety ofways (26) (see Table 1). (23). Recently, Watanabe and Andersen (33) have shown that These estimates involve (i) the extrapolation ofBAB(aq) as a hydrophobic solvation does not necessarily imply the exis- function of the number of hydroxyl groups on the molecules, tence of hydrophobic association. In their simulation of a (ii) the correction of BAB(aq) for the effect of the OH group model for krypton dissolved in water, they found that the interactions, using a group additivity principle (21, 22), and krypton molecules exhibited typical hydrophobic solvation (iii) the direct group additivity prediction ofBAB(aq) (21, 22). (AG' positive) but had net repulsive interactions between agreement and each other in water [positive BAB(aq)] and, thus, no tendency All of these estimates are in reasonable show to associate in an aqueous solution. Thus, neither hydropho- clearly that the osmotic second virial coefficient in water, bic hydration nor attractive bulk interactions have to be BAB(aq), is less than one-third of the gas-phase osmotic associated with attractive pairwise hydrophobic interactions. second virial coefficient, BAB(g), and, thus, that the tendency Clark et al.
Recommended publications
  • Understanding Variation in Partition Coefficient, Kd, Values: Volume II
    United States Office of Air and Radiation EPA 402-R-99-004B Environmental Protection August 1999 Agency UNDERSTANDING VARIATION IN PARTITION COEFFICIENT, Kd, VALUES Volume II: Review of Geochemistry and Available Kd Values for Cadmium, Cesium, Chromium, Lead, Plutonium, Radon, Strontium, Thorium, Tritium (3H), and Uranium UNDERSTANDING VARIATION IN PARTITION COEFFICIENT, Kd, VALUES Volume II: Review of Geochemistry and Available Kd Values for Cadmium, Cesium, Chromium, Lead, Plutonium, Radon, Strontium, Thorium, Tritium (3H), and Uranium August 1999 A Cooperative Effort By: Office of Radiation and Indoor Air Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC 20460 Office of Environmental Restoration U.S. Department of Energy Washington, DC 20585 NOTICE The following two-volume report is intended solely as guidance to EPA and other environmental professionals. This document does not constitute rulemaking by the Agency, and cannot be relied on to create a substantive or procedural right enforceable by any party in litigation with the United States. EPA may take action that is at variance with the information, policies, and procedures in this document and may change them at any time without public notice. Reference herein to any specific commercial products, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government. ii FOREWORD Understanding the long-term behavior of contaminants in the subsurface is becoming increasingly more important as the nation addresses groundwater contamination. Groundwater contamination is a national concern as about 50 percent of the United States population receives its drinking water from groundwater.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 4: Aqueous Solutions (Chs 4 and 5 in Jespersen, Ch4 in Chang)
    Chapter 4: Aqueous Solutions (Chs 4 and 5 in Jespersen, Ch4 in Chang) Solutions in which water is the dissolving medium are called aqueous solutions. There are three major types of chemical processes occurring in aqueous solutions: precipitation reactions (insoluble product) acid-base reactions (transfer of H+s) redox reactions (transfer of electrons) General Properties of Aqueous Solutions solution – a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. solvent – usually the component that is present in greater quantity. solute(s) – the other substance(s) in the solution (ionic or molecular); present in smaller quantities. saturated solution – at a given temperature, the solution that results when the maximum amount of a substance has dissolved in a solvent. AJR Ch4 Aqueous Solutions.docx Slide 1 Electrolytic Properties electrolyte – a substance whose aqueous solutions contains ions and hence conducts electricity. E.g. NaCl. nonelectrolyte – a substance that does not form ions when it dissolves in water, and so aqueous solutions of nonelectrolytes do not conduct electricity. E.g. Glucose, C6H12O6. CuSO4 and Water; Ions present; Sugar and Water; No Ions present; electricity is conducted – bulb on. electricity is not conducted – bulb off. AJR Ch4 Aqueous Solutions.docx Slide 2 Ionic Compounds in Water Ionic compounds dissociate into their component ions as they dissolve in water. The ions become hydrated. Each ion is surrounded by water molecules, with the negative pole of the water oriented towards the cation and the positive pole oriented towards the anion. Other examples of ionic compounds dissociating into their component ions: + 2– Na2CO3 → 2 Na (aq) + CO3 (aq) + 2– (NH4)2SO4 → 2 NH4 (aq) + SO4 (aq) AJR Ch4 Aqueous Solutions.docx Slide 3 Molecular Compounds in Water Most molecular compounds do not form ions when they dissolve in water; they are nonelectrolytes.
    [Show full text]
  • Drugs and Acid Dissociation Constants Ionisation of Drug Molecules Most Drugs Ionise in Aqueous Solution.1 They Are Weak Acids Or Weak Bases
    Drugs and acid dissociation constants Ionisation of drug molecules Most drugs ionise in aqueous solution.1 They are weak acids or weak bases. Those that are weak acids ionise in water to give acidic solutions while those that are weak bases ionise to give basic solutions. Drug molecules that are weak acids Drug molecules that are weak bases where, HA = acid (the drug molecule) where, B = base (the drug molecule) H2O = base H2O = acid A− = conjugate base (the drug anion) OH− = conjugate base (the drug anion) + + H3O = conjugate acid BH = conjugate acid Acid dissociation constant, Ka For a drug molecule that is a weak acid The equilibrium constant for this ionisation is given by the equation + − where [H3O ], [A ], [HA] and [H2O] are the concentrations at equilibrium. In a dilute solution the concentration of water is to all intents and purposes constant. So the equation is simplified to: where Ka is the acid dissociation constant for the weak acid + + Also, H3O is often written simply as H and the equation for Ka is usually written as: Values for Ka are extremely small and, therefore, pKa values are given (similar to the reason pH is used rather than [H+]. The relationship between pKa and pH is given by the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation: or This relationship is important when determining pKa values from pH measurements. Base dissociation constant, Kb For a drug molecule that is a weak base: 1 Ionisation of drug molecules. 1 Following the same logic as for deriving Ka, base dissociation constant, Kb, is given by: and Ionisation of water Water ionises very slightly.
    [Show full text]
  • Aqueous Solution → Water Is the Solvent Water
    Chem 1A Name:_________________________ Chapter 4 Exercises Solution a homogeneous mixture = A solvent + solute(s) Aqueous solution water is the solvent Water – a polar solvent: dissolves most ionic compounds as well as many molecular compounds Aqueous solution: Strong electrolyte – contains lots of freely moving ions Weak electrolyte – contains a little amount of freely moving ions Nonelectrolyte – does not contain ions Solution concentrations: Mass of Solute Percent (by mass) = x 100% Mass of Solution For example, if 1.00 kg of seawater contains 35 g of sodium chloride, the percent of NaCl in seawater is 35 g x 100% = 3.5% 1000 g If a solution contains 25 g NaCl dissolved in 100. g of water, the mass percent of NaCl in the solution is 25 g x 100% = 20.% (100 + 25) g (A solution that contains 20.% (by mass) of NaCl means that for every 100 g of the solution, there will be 20 g of NaCl. Therefore, if seawater contains 3.5% NaCl, for every 100 g of seawater, there are 3.5 g of NaCl.) Volume of Solute Percent (by volume) = x 100% Volume of Solution For example, if 750 mL of white wine contains 80. mL of ethanol, the percent of ethanol by volume is 80. mL x 100% = 11% 750 mL (A solution that contains 11% ethanol (by volume) means that for every 100 mL of the solution, there will be 11 mL of ethanol in it. However, unlike mass, volume addition is not always additive – meaning that if you add 11 mL of ethanol and 89 mL of water, the total is not 100 mL.
    [Show full text]
  • Dissociation Constants of Organic Acids and Bases
    DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS OF ORGANIC ACIDS AND BASES This table lists the dissociation (ionization) constants of over pKa + pKb = pKwater = 14.00 (at 25°C) 1070 organic acids, bases, and amphoteric compounds. All data apply to dilute aqueous solutions and are presented as values of Compounds are listed by molecular formula in Hill order. pKa, which is defined as the negative of the logarithm of the equi- librium constant K for the reaction a References HA H+ + A- 1. Perrin, D. D., Dissociation Constants of Organic Bases in Aqueous i.e., Solution, Butterworths, London, 1965; Supplement, 1972. 2. Serjeant, E. P., and Dempsey, B., Ionization Constants of Organic Acids + - Ka = [H ][A ]/[HA] in Aqueous Solution, Pergamon, Oxford, 1979. 3. Albert, A., “Ionization Constants of Heterocyclic Substances”, in where [H+], etc. represent the concentrations of the respective Katritzky, A. R., Ed., Physical Methods in Heterocyclic Chemistry, - species in mol/L. It follows that pKa = pH + log[HA] – log[A ], so Academic Press, New York, 1963. 4. Sober, H.A., Ed., CRC Handbook of Biochemistry, CRC Press, Boca that a solution with 50% dissociation has pH equal to the pKa of the acid. Raton, FL, 1968. 5. Perrin, D. D., Dempsey, B., and Serjeant, E. P., pK Prediction for Data for bases are presented as pK values for the conjugate acid, a a Organic Acids and Bases, Chapman and Hall, London, 1981. i.e., for the reaction 6. Albert, A., and Serjeant, E. P., The Determination of Ionization + + Constants, Third Edition, Chapman and Hall, London, 1984. BH H + B 7. Budavari, S., Ed., The Merck Index, Twelth Edition, Merck & Co., Whitehouse Station, NJ, 1996.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 7 Acids, Bases and Ions in Aqueous Solution
    Chapter 7 Acids, bases and ions in aqueous solution Water Molarity, molality Brønsted acids and bases Formation of coordination complexes Part of the structure of ordinary ice; it consists of a 3-dimensional network of hydrogen-bonded H2O molecules. Density of H2O(l) vs H2O(s) 1 Equilibrium constant review: Ka, Kb, and Kw. Ka is the acid dissociation constant •Kb is the base dissociation constant •Kw is the self-ionization constant of water + - 2H2O(l) ⇌ [H3O] (aq) + [OH] (aq) [H3O ][A ] HA(aq) + H O(l) [H O]+ + A-(aq) Ka 2 ⇌ 3 [HA] •pKa = -logKa pKb = -logKb -pKa -pKb •Ka = 10 Kb = 10 + - •Kw = [H3O ][OH ] pKw = -logKw = 14.00 •Kw= Ka×Kb + •pH = -log[H3O ] A Brønsted acid can act as a proton donor. A Brønsted base can function as a proton acceptor. - + HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ A (aq) + [H3O] (aq) acid 1 base 2 conjugate conjugate base 1 acid 2 conjugate acid-base pair conjugate acid-base pair Molarity - 1 M or 1 mol dm-3 contains 1 mol of solute dissolved in sufficient volume of water to give 1 L (1 dm3) of solution. Molality - 1 mol of solute dissolved in 1 kg of water it is one molal (1 mol kg-1). Standard State T = 298 K, 1 bar pressure (1 bar = 1.00 x105Pa) Activity When concentration greater than 0.1 M, interactions between solute are significant. 2 Organic Acids Each dissociation step has an associated equilibrium constant Inorganic Acids HCl, HBr, HI have negative pKa, whereas HF is a weak acid (pKa = 3.45) •Example of oxoacids include HOCl, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4.
    [Show full text]
  • Activities from Freezing-Point Depression Data1,2 Purpose
    Activities From Freezing-Point Depression Data1,2 Purpose: Determine the activity coefficients for a range of solutions of 2-propanol in water. Introduction The freezing point of a solution is lower than that of the pure solvent. Freezing-point depression data are of considerable value in the thermodynamic study of solutions. In particular, activity coefficients of both solvent and solute can be determined as a function of concentration to a high degree of accuracy. Freezing point depression studies are useful for non-electrolytes, where electrochemical methods are difficult. In this experiment, the activity coefficients of 2-propanol (isopropyl alcohol) in water will be determined over the range of 0.5-3.0 m. Molality is used as the concentration measure in most careful thermodynamic studies, because molality does not depend on temperature, as does molarity. The concentration of the solutions will be determined using density measurements. The density of 2-propanol solutions is almost linear over the concentration range in this experiment. Known standard solutions will be used to determine the dependence of the density on the concentration. Then a slurry of ice and an aqueous solution of 2-propanol will be made in an insulated flask. The freezing point temperature will be determined and a sample of the solution will be withdrawn. The density of the withdrawn sample will then be determined to calculate the concentration. The next sample will then be prepared by adding a small amount of water to the slurry and the process repeated. Theory The activity of a substance is its "chemically effective" concentration. When water is pure, its activity is unity.
    [Show full text]
  • Suspension of Hydrophobic Particles in Aqueous Solution
    TECHNICAL INFORMATION SHEET MFG-WI-88-rev1 Issue Date: 04/23/2018 SUSPENSION OF HYDROPHOBIC PARTICLES IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION PURPOSE This document describes the process for preparing suspensions of hydrophobic particles in an aqueous solution by using a surfactant. INTRODUCTION Many materials are hydrophobic (water-fearing) in nature. Due to their non-polar chemical structure, hydrophobic particles want to minimize contact with polar (water) molecules and, as a result, tend to aggregate on the surface of the water and resist going into suspension. This presents a challenge to scientists and engineers who would like to be able to work with hydrophobic particles suspended in aqueous solution. Examples of the applications are using fluorescent polyethylene microspheres for flow visualization in aqueous systems, creating density gradients, filtration and contamination control studies. Fortunately, there is a simple way to overcome the hydrophobic effect. It is called a surfactant, a detergent, or simply “soap.” Surfactant is a magical molecule that has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties, which coats the particles and helps them mix into water. The same mechanism applies when we use soap to wash greasy dishes or stained clothes. Selection of the surfactant depends purely on your process and product requirements. Dishwashing liquid works great, so does Simple Green. For scientists working on biological applications we recommend the use of Tween surfactants. Tween is the commercial name for Polysorbate non-ionic surfactants, which are stable, nontoxic, and often used in pharmacological, cosmetic, and food applications. Non-ionic detergents are considered to be “mild” detergents because they are less likely than ionic detergents to denature proteins.
    [Show full text]
  • Contents Volume 186
    Desalination and Water Treatment 186 (2020) v–vii www.deswater.com May doi:10.5004/dwt.2020.26068 Contents Volume 186 Part 1 of the Special issue on the 14th Conference on Micropollutants in Human Environment, 4–6 September 2019, Czestochowa, Poland Editorial M. Włodarczyk-Makuła (Poland) .................................................................................................................................... viii Use of nutrients from wastewater for the fertilizer industry - approaches towards the implementation of the circular economy (CE) M. Smol, C. Adam (Poland), O. Krüger (Germany) ......................................................................................................... 1 Thermal sewage sludge utilization in Poland in the context of circular economy J.D. Bień, B. Bień (Poland) .................................................................................................................................................. 10 Modelling and visualization of failure rate of a water supply network using the regression method and GIS B. Kubat, M. Kwietniewski (Poland) ................................................................................................................................ 19 Studies on the cytotoxicity of filtrates obtained from sewage sludge from the municipal wastewater treatment plant A. Jabłońska-Trypuć, U. Wydro (Poland), L. Serra-Majem (Spain), A. Butarewicz, E. Wołejko (Poland) ............. 29 Toxicity evaluation of eluates from waste after thermal conversion of sewage sludge J.
    [Show full text]
  • 8.4 Solvents in Organic Chemistry 339
    08_BRCLoudon_pgs5-1.qxd 12/8/08 11:05 AM Page 339 8.4 SOLVENTS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 339 8.14 Label each of the following molecules as a hydrogen-bond acceptor, donor, or both. Indicate 1 the hydrogen that is donated1 or the atom that serves as the hydrogen-bond acceptor. (a) H Br (b) H F (c) O L 1 3 L 1 3 S3 3 H3C C CH3 L L 1 | (d) O 1 (e) (f) H3C CH2 NH3 S3 3 OH L L H3C C NH CH3 cL 1 L L L 8.4 SOLVENTS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY A solvent is a liquid used to dissolve a compound. Solvents have tremendous practical impor- tance. They affect the acidities and basicities of solutes. In some cases, the choice of a solvent can have dramatic effects on reaction rates and even on the outcome of a reaction. Understand- ing effects like these requires a classification of solvent types, to which Section 8.4A is devoted. The rational choice of a solvent requires an understanding of solubility—that is, how well a given compound dissolves in a particular solvent. Section 8.4B discusses the principles that will allow you to make general predictions about the solubilities of both covalent organic com- pounds and ions in different solvents. The effects of solvents on chemical reactions are closely tied to the principles of solubility. Solubility is also important in biology. For example, the solubilities of drugs determine the forms in which they are marketed and used, and such important characteristics as whether they are absorbed from the gut and whether they pass from the bloodstream into the brain.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 13: Physical Properties of Solutions
    Chapter 13: Physical Properties of Solutions Key topics: Molecular Picture (interactions, enthalpy, entropy) Concentration Units Colligative Properties terminology: • Solution: a homogeneous mixture • Solute: the component that is dissolved in solvent -- usually in smaller amount • Solvent: medium (often water) into which solutes are mixed -- usually in greater amount • concentration: describes how much solute there is -- dilute: small amount of solute -- concentrated: large amount of solute -- saturated: contains as much solute as can be dissolved -- unsaturated: can dissolve more solute -- supersaturated: more than saturated, unstable -- solubility: amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of a saturated solution a supersaturated solution can be prepared by forming a saturated solution at a high temperature, and then cooling it (many solutes are more soluble at higher temperature) Some of the solute will fall out of solution (as a solid) if the solution is disturbed (vibration, dust, etc) Addition of a crystal (nucleation site) causes precipitation from a supersaturated solution. Molecular view of a soluble ionic compound in water. Molecular view of the solution process: Ultimately, we can say that any process is governed by ΔG = ΔH - TΔS (Equation 14.10, ΔG < 0 for spontaneity) • ΔH < 0 helps (exothermic, H = enthalpy) • ΔS > 0 helps (increased disorder, S = entropy) • ΔH > 0 (endothermic) is possible if ΔS compensates First examine ΔH: Since ΔHsoln is a state function, we can think of it as: ΔH1 > 0; ΔH2 > 0; ΔH3 < 0 where, in terms of intermolecular forces, we have • ΔH1 = disruption of solute-solute interactions • ΔH2 = disruption of solvent-solvent interactions • ΔH3 = formation of solute-solvent interactions • ΔHsoln = ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3 = heat of solution For a gas dissolving in a liquid, ΔHsoln is usually exothermic because ΔH1 = 0 (gas molecules don’t interact) The saying “like dissolves like” is useful in predicting solubility.
    [Show full text]
  • Ozone Chemistry in Aqueous Solution Ozone Chemistry
    Ozone chemistry in aqueous solution ---Ozone-Ozone decomposition and stabilisation Margareta Eriksson Licentiate Thesis Department of Chemistry Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden, 2005 Ozone chemistry in aqueous solution –Ozone decomposition and stabilisation Margareta Eriksson Licentiate Thesis Department of Chemistry Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden, 2004 TRITA-OOK-1078 ISSN 0348-825X AKADEMISK AVHANDLING Som med tillstånd av Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan i Stockholm framlägges till offentlig granskning för avläggande av Teknologie Licentiatexamen i Kemi den 13 maj 2005, kl. 10:30 i H1, Teknikringen 33, Stockholm. Margareta Eriksson, April 2005 Universitetsservice US AB, Stockholm 2005 Hobbes: Do you have an idea for your story yet? Calvin: No, I'm waiting for inspiration. You can't just turn on creativity like a faucet. You have to be in the right mood. Hobbes: What mood is that? Calvin: Last-minute panic. Bill Watterson, The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book Abstract Ozone is used in many applications in the industry as an oxidising agent for example for bleaching and sterilisation. The decomposition of ozone in aqueous solutions is complex, and is affected by many properties such as, pH, temperature and substances present in the water. Additives can either accelerate the decomposition rate of ozone or have a stabilising effect of the ozone decay. By controlling the decomposition of ozone it is possible to increase the oxidative capacity of ozone. In this work the chemistry of acidic aqueous ozone is studied and ways to stabilise the decomposition of ozone in such solutions. The main work emphasizes the possibility to use surfactants in order to develop a new type of cleaning systems for the sterilisation of medical equipment.
    [Show full text]