Abed, Sir Fazle H., 5, 114 Adnan, Shapan, 173, 175 Afghans, 43–4 Aga Khan, 55 Agrarian Economy, 21, 50, 144 Agrarian Structura

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-71377-1 - Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society David Lewis Index More information

Index

Abed, Sir Fazle H., 5, 114 Ayub.SeeKhan, Ayub Adnan, Shapan, 173, 175 Azam, Golam, 92 Afghans, 43–4 Azam, Shaﬁul, 85 Aga Khan, 55 agrarian economy, 21, 50, 144 Babar, Emperor, 45 agrarian structuralism, 116 Babri Mosque, 92 agricultural production, 15, 21, 80, 89, BAKSAL (Bangladesh Peasants and 146, 159, 175, 198, 201 Workers Awami League), 81 Ahmadiyya, 29, 95 Banerjea, Surendranath, 53, 55 Ahmed, Dr. Fakhruddin, 76 Bangladesh army, 14, 19, 73, 76, 80–2, aid industry.Seeforeign aid 85, 91, 93–4, 96, 98, 184 ajlaf, 26, 99 Bangladesh Liberation War, 5, 14, 27, Akbar, Emperor, 45 35, 45, 70, 90, 145–8 AL.SeeAwami League Bangladesh Medical Association, 118 Alavi, Hamza, 98 Bangladesh Nationalist Party, 16, 19, Ali, Chaudhury Muhammad, 65 29, 103, 132, 134, 146–7, 157, Ali, Karamat, 52 200 Animist religions, 28 Bangladesh Riﬂes (BDR), 99 Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC), Bangladesh Rural Development Board 96 (BRDB), 121 Arab traders, 28, 43 Bangladesh University of Engineering Arakan, 28 and Technology, 173 army.SeeBangladesh army banking, 63, 79, 115, 117, 146, 148 arsenic, 124, 138, 173 Bara Buiyan group (the twelve ashraf, 26, 99, 111, 204 landlords), 45 Assam, 42, 185 basic democracies, 66–7 Association of Development Agencies Bay of Bengal, 13, 17, 154, 171–2, 195 in Bangladesh (ADAB), 118 BBC News, 4 Association for Social Advancement bediya,28 (ASA), 117, 119 Beel Dakatia, 175 Aurangzeb, Emperor, 46 Bengal famine (1943–4), 57 Awami League, 14, 77–81, 93, 97, 103, Bengali language (Bangla).See 112 language movement

225

226 Index

Bengali Muslim identity, 5 Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), 28, 30, Bengali renaissance, 51 33, 160, 183–4 Bengal Legislative Council (1909), 56 Chittagong Port, 96 Bengal Sultanate, 44 Chowdhury, Dr. Zafrullah, 118 bhadralok, 16, 51 Christian missionaries, 111 bhasha andolon. See language Christians, 13, 25 movement CHT.SeeChittagong Hill Tracts Bhashani, Maulana Abdul Hamid CHT Land (Disputes Settlement) Khan, 52, 64–5 Commission Act (2001), 184 Bhutto, Zulﬁqur Ali, 69 CHT Peace Accords (1997), 33, 94, 184 Bihar, 27–8, 34, 42–3, 48, 52, 54–5, citizenship.Seestate 183 Civil Service of Bangladesh, 102, 107, biodiversity, 171 132 Blair, Harry, 16, 34, 38, 80, 126, 129 Civil Service of Pakistan, 62, 70 blocked development, concept of civil society, 109–35 (Brett), 102 citizenship and, 126–7 BNP.SeeBangladesh Nationalist Party as contested idea, 11, 110, 126, Bogra, Mohammad Ali, 64 130–1 Bombay presidency, 34 corruption and, 124–5 Bonnerjee, Woomesh Chandra, 53 donors and, 126 Bose, Sarmila, 71 emergency relief and, 114 BRAC, 5, 24, 109, 114, 117 globalisation and, 129 Brahmaputra, 13, 42, 168–9 language movement and, 112 Brammer, Hugh, 170 market and, 88, 124 British colonial rule, 52–8 military and, 126 British East India Company, 45–51, nationalism and, 113 107 NGO identity and, 127 Buddhism, 6, 28, 42–3 “old” and “new” civil-society idea, bureaucracy, 16, 38, 59, 72, 76–7, 80, 125, 127 84, 98, 101 philanthropy and, 111–12, 117, 125 Burma, 28, 45 professional associations and, 93 Bush, George W., 5 religion and, 111, 131–3 Buxar, battle of (1764), 48 self-help and, 111–12, 114, 125 state and, 11, 102 Canadian University Service Overseas, “strong” vs. “weak” civil-society 116 debates, 128 capital ﬂight, 39, 166 student politics and, 114 caretaker government system, 19, 90, uncivil society and, 9, 134 93–4, 134 class relations, 9, 14–15, 26, 49, 57, 67, cash-based transfer programmes, 188 100 Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD), 25 climate change, 6, 40, 176–9, 198 Chakmas, 28, 30 Clinton, Hillary R., 5 child mortality, 5, 21, 165, 181, 190 Clive, Colonel Robert, 47–8 China, 30–1, 35, 48, 98, 142, 150, 157, coal, 142, 148, 154–5 168, 171, 201 Coalition for the Urban Poor (CUP), Chittagong, 70, 142, 147–8, 157, 160, 164 162, 171, 184 Cold War, 30

Index 227

Comilla, 45, 112, 141, 147, 188 energy, foreign investment in, Comilla cooperative model, 36, 112, 154–5 116, 119, 121 exports, nontraditional, 148–52 community clinics, 191 governance of, 145–8 community development, 35, 111 industry, 142 Concert for Bangladesh (1971), 187 infrastructure, 140–1 Congress.SeeIndian National Congress poverty and economic change, Party 158–62 Constitution of Bangladesh, 30, 81, 84, remittances, 152–3 193 role of foreign aid, 143–5 Eighth Amendment of (1988), 32 urbanisation and, 162–5 Fifth Amendment of (1977), 83 education, 13, 24, 37, 108, 122, 182, Thirteenth Amendment of (1996), 193–5 93 Education Watch, 194 Cooper, Frederick, 10, 98, 202 Ekush Dapha (21 Points), 64 Copenhagen climate change summit elites, 25–6, 33, 37–9, 50, 53–7, 66, 87, (2009), 177 131, 133, 162 Cornwallis, Lord, 49 military, 14 corruption, 20, 24, 81, 86, 95, 100, 102, new business group, 16 104, 106, 137, 147, 154, 158 professional, 17 cotton, 49, 85, 179 rentier, 16 Cox’s Bazaar, 28, 178 Ershad, Hussain Muhammad, 19, 31, credit.Seemicrocredit 84–5, 88, 103 Curzon, Viceroy Lord, 54 European Union (EU), 152 cyclones, 6, 13, 68, 92, 113, 170–1, export-processing zone (EPZ), 147 176 exports, 1, 23, 37, 86, 136, 138, 148, 151–2, 155 Danone dairy company, 124 darga,26 fakir, 51, 111 decentralisation, 75, 87, 104, 192 famine of 1943/4, 57 Delhi Sultanate, 43, 45 Faraizi movement, 51–2 deltaic ecosystem, 13, 179 Farakka barrage, 174 Department for International Fazlul Haq, Abul Kasem, 56–7, 62, 64–5 Development (DFID), 9, 177 Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of developmentalism, 19, 36, 39, 110, Commerce and Industry (FBCCI), 176 93 diaspora, 126, 182, 188 financial services, 16, 146 digital Bangladesh, 97 Five Year Plans (Bangladesh), 78–9, Dutch traders, 46 148, 193 Five Year Plans (Pakistan), 35, 180 Eastern Frontier Rifles, 99 Flood Action Plan (FAP), 129, 175 East Pakistan, 2, 12, 14, 27, 35, 49, 51, flood control, 174–6 57, 82, 97–9, 101, 119, 137, flood-control master plan (1964), 183 175 economy, 136–66 floods, 13, 19, 86, 89, 96, 138, 161, agriculture, 137–40 168–70, 172, 175–7 energy sector, 142–3 food prices, 97

228 Index

food production, 138, 143, 180 hartal politics, 89, 92, 97, 126 foreign aid, 4, 17, 24, 35–9, 68–9, 80, Hartmann, Betsy, 14, 178, 181 83–4, 115, 124, 143–5, 147, 155 Hasina.SeeWazed, Sheikh Hasina changing composition of, 144 Hastings, Warren, 48 political role played by, 35, 37–8 health, 190–2 public attitudes to, 39 Health Education and Economic role in defining Bangladesh, 7, 36, 38 Development (HEED), 123 foreign investment, 37, 82, 91, 146, Health and Population Sector 153–4 Programme (HPSP), 191 formation of Bangladesh, 59–73 Hinduism freedom fighters, 14, 72, 77 caste, 43 Freire,Paolo,116 Hindu nationalism, 32, 57 Hindu tradition, 6 Gandhi, Indira, 30 influence in Bengal, 43, 64, 204 Gandhi, M. K., 56–8 social organisation, 26 Ganges, 13, 31, 42, 169, 173, 214 traditions of charity, 111 Ganges Water Treaty (1996), 174 HIV/AIDS epidemic, 190 garments, 23, 33, 82, 148–50, 200 human development index, 188 garment workers, 1, 24, 97, 150, 162 human rights, 24, 95–6, 110, 113, 131, Garos, 28 184 gas, 33, 112, 142, 154–7, 163, 201 Humayun, Emperor, 45 Gaur, 45 Hunter, W. W., 50 General Education Project (GEP), 193 Huntingdon, Samuel, 5, 132 genocide, 27 Ghaznavids, 43 identity Ghosh, Amitav, 170 construction among diaspora global capitalist economy, 1, 4, 10, 24, communities, 188 33, 41, 50, 129, 166 linguistic, 27 global financial crisis (2008), 166, 201 and religion, 27 globalisation, 33, 41, 129–30, 201 state and, 103 GO-NGO Consultative Council illiberal democracy idea, 76, 97, 107 (GNCC), 121 Ilyas Shahi dynasty, 44 gono andolon, 3, 89, 133 immunisation, 192 Gonoshasthya Kendra (GK), 87, 118 India, 5, 12, 17, 32, 35, 62, 72, 81, 83, good governance, donor model of, 7, 92, 94, 104, 123, 131, 139, 170, 201 11, 24, 105, 110, 131 Bangladesh comparisons with, 33–4 Government of India Act (1858), 52 Bangladeshi migration to, 186 Government of India Act (1909), Bangladesh relations with, 155–7 55 border issues with Bangladesh, 17, gram sarkar,83 156–7, 200 gross domestic product (GDP), 20–1, intervention in Bangladesh 83, 107, 110, 136–8, 151, 158, 165, Liberation War, 68 188 water sharing, 31, 33, 173–4 Gupta dynasty, 42 Indian Councils Act (1861), 52 Indian National Congress Party, 53, Haji Shariatullah, 51 56–7 harassment (hoirani), 24 indigo, 46

Index 229

Indo-Bangladesh Friendship Treaty jute, 23, 49, 51, 62, 68, 78, 83, 85, 101, (1972), 30, 33 137–8, 179 Indo-Soviet bloc, 30 industrial bourgeoisie, 16, 50 Kabeer, Naila, 82, 127, 142, 150, 199 informality, 104–5 kabiraj indigenous healers, 192 integrated rural development projects Kansat, 143, 154 (IRDPs), 36 Kaptai Dam, 183 interest groups, 40, 73, 91, 101, 104, Karnataka, 43 126–7, 129–30, 133, 156 Khaleda Zia.SeeZia, Begum Khaleda Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Khaliji dynasty, 43 Change (IPCC), Fourth Khan, Ayub, 65–7, 69–70, 82 Assessment Report of, 176 Khan, Dr. Akhtar Hameed, 36, 116 International Monetary Fund, 67, 155 Khan, General Agha Muhammad Iran, 42 Yahya, 67–9, 71 Islam, 180 Khan, General Tikka, 70–2 Bangladeshi nationalism and, 32 Khan,Isa,45 conversion to in Bengal, 43, 64 Khan, Liaquat Ali, 61 identity and, 31, 63, 85, 103 Khan, Mushtaq H., 100–3 Islamic tradition, 52, 111, 123, 132, Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad, 54–5 180, 187 Khasis, 28 nationalism and, 27, 52, 59, 75, 204 khas land, 87, 104, 122, 162 politics and, 29, 76, 157, 200 Kissinger, Henry, 36 traditions in Bangladesh, 25–6 Kochanek, Stanley, 23, 91–2, 99, 106, Islami Oikya Jote Party, 95 127, 165 Islamists, 27–8 Kolkata, 46–8, 55 Krishak Proja Party (KPP), 56 Ja’amatul Mujaheedin Bangladesh (JMB), 29 labour market, 15, 149–50, 163 Jafar, Mir, 47 Lalbagh fort, 45 Jahan, Rounaq, 3, 14, 19, 26, 213 land fragmentation, 101 Jainism, 42 landlessness, 14, 58, 114, 117, 122, 127, Jalal, Ayesha, 49, 66–7, 70, 72, 80–1, 160, 162 113 landownership, 14, 50, 116, 161, 189 jama’at,23 language movement, 63, 65, 74, 133 Jama’at-i-Islami (JI), 29, 90–2, 95, 97, Larma, Manabendranath, 30 133, 187, 200 liberalisation, 32, 37–8, 84, 86, 102, jamdani muslin, 46 106, 136, 143, 145–9, 200, 202 Jamuna Bridge project, 94 Liberation.SeeBangladesh Liberation Japan, 148–9, 170 War Jatiya Party, 88, 91, 94–5 livelihoods, 15, 23, 159, 179, 192 Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal (JSD), 82 local government, 22, 40, 53, 66, 86, 91, JI.SeeJama’at-i-Islami 113, 187, 198 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 56, 58 Lodhi dynasty, 43 Johnson, Ural Alexis, 36 jotedar,51 madrasa, 29, 112, 193, 195, 204 Jugunda party, 55 Mahalanobis, Professor Prasanta C., Jukto (United) Front, 64–5, 69 175

230 Index

Maharashtra, 34 Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA), Malaysia, 181, 185 149–50 malnutrition, 190 Murshidabad, 45 Marmas, 28 Muslim League, 55–7, 59–61, 64–5, 82 Marxist theory, 9 mustaan, 16, 23, 133, 199 matbars, 22, 100, 111 Mymensingh, 28–9, 45, 52, 139, 141, maternal health, 5 179 Mauryan Empire, 42 mazar,26 Nasim, Staff General Abu Saleh media, 4, 6, 16, 125, 135, 178, 186, 197, Mohammad, 93 205 Nasrin, Taslima, 92 Meghna, 13, 168–9 National Adaptation Plan of Action Mennonite Central Committee, 116 (NAPA), 177 microcredit, 114, 159–60 National Education Policy (2010), 195 achievements of, 119 national elite, 26, 56 criticisms of, 29, 120 nationalism, 59 donors and, 37 natural disasters, 13, 17, 57, 89, 112, government’s role in, 121 161, 165 original Grameen Bank approach to, natural resources and ecology, 168–71 115 Nazim-ud-Din, Khwaja, 61 poverty reduction and, 159, 161 Nepal, 4, 168 rejection of by some NGOs, 117 New Industrial Policy (NIP), 31, 82, middle classes, 16–17, 26, 33, 69, 101, 85 107, 114, 154, 195, 199 new universities, new private, 195 Middle East, 34, 152–3, 185 NGO.Seenongovernmental migration, 15, 17, 19, 33, 35, 156, 163, organisation (NGO) 178, 182–8 NGO Affairs Bureau, 121, 123 military-backed caretaker government, Nijera Kori, 117 96, 99, 133–4, 146, 153, 157 Nirmul Committee, 187 military coups, 3, 19, 48, 75, 81, 84–5, nongovernmental organisations 91, 94 (NGOs), 24, 36, 87, 104, 113–25, military ﬁscalism, 48 151, 162, 164, 190, 194, 198 Millennium Development Goals accountability and, 110 (MDGs), 5, 20, 160, 202 achievements of, 121–2 minorities, 2, 27–9, 62, 71, 76, 83, aid received by, 117 95 critical views of, 118, 127 Minto, Viceroy Lord, 55 numbers of, 109 Mir, Titu, 51 relations with government, 121–2 Mirza, General Iskandar, 65 Mohammad, Ghulam, 61 oil, 33, 185, 201 Mohila Parishad (Women’s Council), oil crisis (1973), 80 112 Operation Clean Heart, 95 Mughal period, 45–52 opium, 48 Mukherjee, Ramkrishna, 14 Organization of the Islamic Conference mukhti bahini. See freedom ﬁghters (OIC), 31 Multi-Donor Trust Fund (MDTF), Orissa, 28, 45, 48, 52, 54–5 177 Oxfam, 116

Index 231

Pakistan, 58–69 Plassey.SeePolashi, battle of (1757) agrarian reform in, 60 Polashi, battle of (1757), 47–8 Bangladesh comparisons with, 5, 204 political economy, 9, 38, 161 Bangladesh relations with, 31 political parties, 17, 19, 23, 30, 66, break up of, 12, 26 81–2, 93, 95, 100, 106, 122, 127–8, covert support to Indian dissidents, 130, 133, 198 184 population, 2, 13, 20, 25, 59, 101, 162, creation of, 58–60 173, 179–82, 189, 191 disparities within, 67–8 population-control programmes, 181 elite families of, 14, 77 ports, 171, 195, 201 failure of governance in, 70 Portuguese traders, 45 failure of integration in, 97 poverty, 5, 15, 17, 19–20, 77–8, 106, family planning efforts in, 180 113, 115–16, 119, 123, 131, 136, ﬂood-control efforts, 175 144, 163–4, 178, 188 as foreign-aid recipient, 35 poverty and economic change, 158–62 government’s failure to understand Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Bengali nationalist movement, 70 (PRSP), 148, 152, 161 hydroelectric power policies, 184 Power and Participation Research idea of, 58 Centre (PPRC), 25 imposition of martial law (1958), 66 precolonial Bengal, 42–52 inequalities in, 69 primary education, 5, 19, 21, 165, 181, jute processing in, 23 193–4, 198 military-bureaucratic state, 84 privatisation, 32, 37, 86, 102, 104, 110, relative deprivation in, 62 145, 147, 194, 202 Pakistan army, 2, 14, 69–72, 98 Proshika, 116, 119, 122, 125, 127 Pakistan People’s Party, 67 Public Safety Act (2000), 94 Pala dynasty, 42 Punjabi bureaucracy, 14 Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation purdah,15 (PKSF), 121 Palli Mangal Samitis (Village Welfare Rahman, Hossain Zillur, 105 Societies), 112 Rahman, Sheikh Mujibur, 19–20, 38, Panipat, battle of (1526), 45 75, 77–81, 84, 94, 100, 103, 113, Parbatya Chattagram Janasaghati 116, 145, 193 Samity (PCJSS), 184 Rahman, Ziaur, 19, 31, 37, 70, 81–3, 85, parent-teacher associations (PTAs), 194 88, 103, 143, 145 Partition of 1905, 30, 54, 205 Rahmat Ali, Choudhury, 58 Partition of 1947, 12–13, 26, 50, 58–60, railways, 156 62, 73, 98, 183 rakkhi bahini (National Security Force), patronage, 17, 23, 33, 48, 51, 57, 67, 77, 81 85, 89, 92, 98, 101, 106, 112, 128, Rapid Action Battalion (RAB), 95 198 Rashid, Haroun er, 171 patron-client relationships, 22, 100 razakars,71 per capita income, 24 Rebellion of 1857, 52 Permanent Settlement Act of 1793, religion, 25–9 50–1 and social life, 25 Persia, 45 and state, 83 pharmaceutical industry, 16, 118 traditions of pluralism, 44

232 Index

remittances, 4, 33, 144, 146, 152–3, 158, Southeast Asia, 17 166, 168, 182, 185, 188 South Korea, 1, 148–9, 181, 185 rentier, 50–1 Soviet Union, 30, 32, 41, 67, 83 Revised Industrial Policy (RIP), 31 SriLanka,4,87 rice crop, 21, 57, 137 state, 75–108 river systems, 13, 139, 162, 168–70, citizenship, 92, 105–6, 127, 134, 172 182–3, 199 Rohingyas (Arakani Muslims), colonial, 98, 107 184 the “everyday state,” 104–5 ruralsocialmovements,101 first government of Begum Khaleda ryotwari land tenure system, 34 Zia (1991–6), 90–3 first government of Sheikh Hasina salish, 22, 111 Wazed (1996–2001), 93–4 saltpetre, 46 governance and policy making, samaj, 22, 111 105–7 Samarkand, 45 government of General H. M. Ershad Samata, 117 (1982–90), 85–90 Santals, 28 government of General Ziaur Saudi Arabia, 31, 35, 39, 153, 186, 204 Rahman (1976–81), 81–5 Sayyid dynasty, 43 government of Sheikh Mujibur secularism, 5, 16, 28–30, 72, 83, 103, Rahman (1971–5), 77–81 112–13, 132, 156, 187, 193 and identities, 30, 102–3 Sena dynasty, 43 in the making, 40 Sen, Amartya, 57 military-backed caretaker Shah, Ala al-Din Husayn, 44 government (2007–8), 96 Shanti Bahini, 184 military-bureaucratic, 84, 98 Sheikh Hasina Wazed.SeeWazed, patronage politics, 99–102, 104–5 Sheikh Hasina policy making, 105 Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.SeeRahman, second government of Begum Sheikh Mujibur Khaleda Zia (2001–6), 94–6 shia,44 second government of Sheikh Hasina shrimp, 4, 13, 86, 140, 151–2, 166, 170, Wazed (2009–), 97 176, 200, 202 secular nationalism, 75, 83 shushil shamaj, 131 state formation, 97–9 Sida Reality Check Approach, 194 weak vs. strong state arguments, Singapore, 13, 57, 185 103–4, 110 Six Point Programme, 69 Sufism, 6, 26, 45, 204 Slave (or Mamluk) dynasty, 43 Suhrawardy, Huseyn Shaheed, 53, 56, Smith, Adam, 9 60, 64–6 smuggling, 17, 88, 99, 147, 156 sundarbans, 170, 179 Sobhan, Rehman, 7, 10, 37, 61, 69, 101, Sunga dynasty, 42 133, 161–2 sunni, 25, 44, 180 social protection, 188–9 Suraj-ud-Daula, Nawab, 47 society, 13–19, 100, 164 swaraj (self-rule), 55 Sonargaon, 45 Sylhet, 4, 59, 139, 154, 160, 168, 185, South Asian Association for Regional 188 Cooperation (SAARC), 32 Sylhetis, 185

Index 233

Tagore, Rabindranath, 55, 204 Van Schendel, Willem, 3, 6, 58–9, 77, Taiwan, 1, 185 183 Task Force on Primary and Mass vernacular elite, 14–15, 56, 78 Education, 193 Vikrampur, 43 taxation, 103–4, 147 Village Agricultural Industrial tea, 48–9, 59 Development (V-AID), 35 technology, 21, 140, 146–7, 154, 167, village-level institutions, 21–3, 35–6, 177 40, 83, 100, 111, 113 Teesta barrage, 174 voluntary action, 24, 111, 113 terrorism, 5, 19, 95, 153, 156, 186, 199, 203 Wahabi tradition, 51, 204 textiles, 16, 46, 49 war criminals issue, 40, 103, 187–8 Thailand, 181 war on terror, discourse of, 5, 30, 186, Tipaimukh hydroelectric dam project, 200 174 Wazed, Sheikh Hasina, 20, 29, 32–3, 89, trade unions, 113, 127, 199 94, 97, 157, 174 Transparency International, 7, 20, 95, West Bengal, 28, 30, 33, 42, 54, 59–60, 106 65, 70, 77, 103, 156, 179 Tripura (Indian State), 28, 45 West Pakistan, 12, 14, 35, 50, 61–2, 66, Tripuras, 28 68, 73, 78, 82, 98 Tughluq Sultanate, 44 Wikileaks, 96 Tukaroi, battle of (1576), 45 women’s empowerment, 29, 114, 150 two nation theory, 54, 58, 73, 107 women’s status, 37 Wood, Geoffrey D., 7, 38, 50, 104, 110, Union parishad, 22, 66, 122 132 United Nations, xiii, 20, 30, 32, 89, 162, World Bank, 9, 19–20, 37, 67, 79, 82, 165, 174 119, 131, 140, 145, 148, 155, 158, United States, 30, 32–4, 36, 39, 72, 91, 161, 165, 177 148–9, 153, 157, 166, 185 World Health Organization (WHO), 87 universities, new private, 124 universities, public, 16, 124, 195 Yahya.SeeKhan, General Agha UN peacekeeping role, 33, 99, 153 Muhammad Yahya upazila parishad, 86–7, 91 Yunus, Muhammad, 5, 115, 124, 140 urbanisation, 15, 23, 162–5 Urdu language, 12, 26–7, 45, 61, 62–4, zakat, 23, 111 71, 183, 193 zamindar, 50–1, 57, 59, 111 U.S. Agency for International Zia.SeeRahman, Ziaur Development (USAID), 37, 173, Zia, Begum Khaleda, 20, 29, 32–3, 176 89–90, 93–5, 97, 194