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1 Black America Bruised in Black & Blue: The 1 BLACK AMERICA BRUISED IN BLACK & BLUE: THE DIVERSIFICATION OF OFFICERS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND OFFICER- INVOLVED SHOOTING REDUCTION By Angelica Jordan, M.L.P.P., M.L.S. A doctoral thesis Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the Doctor of Law and Policy Program at Northeastern University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Law and Policy Under the supervision of Dr. Ali Raisi & Dr. Theodore R. Johnson III College of Professional Studies Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts [May 24th, 2021] 2 DEDICATION First, without God, nothing is possible, so all credit goes to the highest for bestowing the strength to get through this program while working as a Residence Director supporting thousands of students and faculty in the Northeastern Boston campus community before, during, and God willing after a national pandemic. I dedicate this work to the many influencers in my life, with the first being my parents – Theodore and Sharon Jordan – and the second to my namesake, my great grandmother who migrated from Antigua, Frances Agatha Warner. To my father who instilled ‘Living in 3D Principle – Dedication, Determination, & Discipline’: Being dedicated to your vision, being determined to see it through no matter how tough life gets and having the discipline to embrace the challenges for they strengthen your focus and your eventual success. To my mother, who taught passion, perseverance, unwavering sacrifice, and the significance of truthful advocacy. I also dedicate an abundance of love and gratitude to my 4- year-old Lhasa Apso Curi(osity), my biggest fan, who slept at my side through each all-nighter and barked with fiery cheer and effortless loyalty. The second influencers are all of my educators in The Bronx, N.Y.C. – C.E.S. 230, I.S. 229, University Heights High School, and Northeastern University. Lastly, this work is dedicated to the Black and Brown communities sharing complex intersectional identities as community members and law enforcement officers alike seeking transformative healing in repairing centuries of harm, searching for justice, accountability, and reprieve from discriminatory abuses of power, privilege, and positionality in government at the local, state, and federal level. Moreover, this work is dedicated to the countless hours of blood, sweat, and tears to those looking to make an active difference in their community through altruistic leadership and academic scholarship. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS An abundance of acknowledgment goes to Ms. Christine Oka as the Research Librarian for African American Studies and co-research Librarian for the Doctor of Law & Policy Program. Christine has supported my lengthy journey in academia since I was an Honor’s student defending my very first senior capstone on racial disparities in New York City policing ten years ago; my first Master’s degree in Law & Public Policy on police reform four years ago, and provided unconditional resources to support my pursuit as the first doctorate in my family to engage in future academic discourse on the significance of racial disparities and double- consciousness in policing the Black community from Black voices in power. I cannot fully express my gratitude in words. Still, please know that every single e-mail and every available resource influenced the continuation of my collegiate journey in insurmountable ways – Thank you! To my DLP committee members, Dr. Raisi, Dr. Ted Johnson, and Dr. Hakimdavar, & Cohort 13, thank you all for your dedication and commitment as educators, influencers, and critical thinkers to always force the researcher to answer the question – Why? A huge ‘Thank You’ to the Massachusetts Association for Minority Law Enforcement Officers (MAMLEO), Sergeant Farrell from the Northeastern University Police Department, Director of the African American Institute Dr. Richard O’Bryant, VP Diversity & Inclusion and Chief Diversity Officer for the University of New Haven Dr. Lorenzo Boyd, Boston Police Department’s Deputy Superintendent Marcus Eddings, my Mentor, Dr. Emmett G. Price III, and the Black law enforcement participants for their vulnerability, and more importantly, their trust to allow for the opportunity to advocate for systemic changes to improve police-community relations and support workforce diversity retention. 4 ABSTRACT Police-community relations between law enforcement and Black communities are and have been further damaged due to a series of controversial events involving recent use-of-force measures initiated by predominantly White police officers and applied to predominantly Black men, women, and children across a thirty-year span. Law enforcement agencies cite legal non- compliance as the source of escalated actions. Simultaneously, communities of color attribute racial discrimination as the primary factor towards police misconduct and have subsequently initiated calls to action, in the form of civil and uncivil protests, to local, state, and federal government sectors for immediate reform. In response to shared concerns raised by law enforcement and communities of color, in 2011, a task force created by the Obama Administration confirmed lack of diversity and lack of consistent cultural competency training as major influencers and recommended increasing Black police enrollment percentages – as a potential solution towards mitigating racial tensions and legitimizing policing efficacy. In conjunction with these findings, the 116th and 117th Congress proposed several bills addressing police accountability, training, independent review, and data transparency. However, there is an ongoing debate in academia regarding whether an association between the increase of Black police officers and officer-involved shooting reduction exists. Therefore, using a phenomenological approach to interview 10 Black Boston police officers, findings revealed an association between Black police officer’s involvement in police diversity initiatives and officer- involved shooting reduction exists. Keywords: Diversification of Officers in Law Enforcement (D.O.L.E.), Officer-Involved Shooting, Qualified Immunity, Critical Race Theory and Phenomenology. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 8 Background and Context........................................................................................................... 9 Problem Statement……………………………………………………………………….......10 Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………………………11 Research Question ………………………………………………………..………………....12 Theoretical Framework……………...…………………….…………………………………12 Definitions…………………………………………………………………………………....18 Assumptions………………………………………………………………………………….19 Scope and Delimitations……………………………………………………………………..20 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………...21 Significance………………………………………………………………………………….22 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………..23 Chapter 2: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 23 Literature Search Strategy....................................................................................................... 24 Literature Related to Key Concepts…………….……………………………………………25 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………..48 Chapter 3: Research Methodology ............................................................................................ 49 Research Design and Rationale .............................................................................................. 50 Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 51 Positionality Statement………………………………………………………………………52 Participants…………………………………………………..……………………………....54 Data Analysis Plan…………...……………….…………………………………………...…59 6 Trustworthiness………………………………………………………………….……....61 Ethical Procedures…………………………………………………………………….....63 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………65 Chapter 4: Results ...................................................................................................................... 65 Description of the Data .......................................................................................................... 65 Description of the Data Analysis Process .............................................................................. 66 Description of Findings……………………………………………………………………...68 Summary...………………………………………………..……………………………........80 Chapter 5: Recommendations and Conclusions ...................................................................... 82 Summary of the Research Results .......................................................................................... 82 Discussion of the Research Results ........................................................................................ 90 In relation to the theoretical framework / conceptual framework In relation to the literature Limitations of the Study and Impact on Results .................................................................... 94 Implications of the Reesarch Findings for Practice Implications of the Research Findings for Future Research Conclusion References (for APA) ............................................................................................................... 107 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 128 Appendix B ...............................................................................................................................
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