! ©2010 Nicole Bryan ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ! RECONCILIATION IN FORMER YUGOSLAVIA: UNDERLYING MOTIVATIONS AND REASONS FOR RESISTANCE By Nicole Bryan A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-Newark Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Global Affairs Written under the direction of Professor Richard Langhorne and approved by _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ Newark, New Jersey October, 2010 ! ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS Reconciliation in former Yugoslavia: Underlying Motivations and Reasons for Resistance By Nicole Bryan Thesis director: Richard Langhorne The aim of this dissertation is to gain insight into the role and meaning of reconciliation in the post-conflict communities of former Yugoslavia. The study is designed to create an understanding of reconciliation grounded on insights from ordinary people as well as those working on reconciliation-related activities. The approach is explicitly interdisciplinary; it builds upon thinking in the fields of philosophy, political science, sociology, anthropology, and peace and conflict studies. While much has been written on the meaning of reconciliation in post-conflict societies, how people in former Yugoslavia conceive of reconciliation, what it means to them, what are their motivations for reconciliation and reasons for resistance, as well as what benefits reconciliation can bring, are under-explored and thus represent a gap in the literature on reconciliation in former Yugoslavia. My study relies on insights gained through field research I conducted in the region from 2005 through 2009. My methodology includes: 1) 160 semi-structured interviews among ordinary people and members of civil society working on reconciliation-related activities; 2) participant observation in activities aimed at reconciliation, tolerance, dialogue, inter-ethnic exchange and dealing with the past; 3) ii! ! analysis of public discourse on reconciliation and dealing with the past. My findings reveal a number of challenges and opportunities. The results show: a) ordinary people have mixed views on what reconciliation entails and what benefits it can bring; b) motivations for reconciliation and reasons for resistance are complex and multifaceted; c) public discourse is deeply polarizing; d) civil society serves as the backbone of reconciliation efforts while government plays a muted role; e) reconciliation efforts are disconnected and uncoordinated; and f) results are difficult to measure. Just as reconciliation involves complex, multifaceted processes, the underlying factors that motivate people to support such processes are also complex and multifaceted. Those in favor of reconciliation reveal a range of motivations, just as those who resist it. My recommendation is for reconciliation programs in former Yugoslavia to be built upon these motivations, not in isolation of them, and for results to be measured using an incremental or scaled approach based on milestones, rather than all or nothing criteria. iii! ! PREFACE The dissertation topic and approach I selected has inspired feelings of joy and despair. There have been times when I experienced great optimism for the promise of reconciliation and what it may bring to people suffering in the aftermath of violent conflict. There have also been times when I felt great discouragement and alienation. Finding a balance would not have been possible without the continued support of my closest loved ones, committed advisors and supporters in former Yugoslavia. First and foremost, I am eternally grateful for the undying support of my husband and partner, Sa!a Pou"ki, who shared his life with me and assisted me with all aspects of my work, including contacting people, scheduling interviews, conducting interviews, transcribing and translating hundreds of hours of interview recordings, helping me organize my findings, translating reports, sharing his personal wartime experiences and providing thoughtful comments on all versions of this dissertation. His support is immeasurable. The advice and encouragement I received from Richard Langhorne provided a constant source of strength and determination. The insight and direction I gained from Aleksandra Sasha Mili#evi# and Alex Hinton yielded renewed vigor. Yale Ferguson and Kurt Schock shared thoughtful comments and genuine interest. The sheer kindness and hospitality I experienced from people in the countries of former Yugoslavia inspired humility and humanity during times of uncertainty. Gordon Bacon opened his home to me in Sarajevo and Tom Clarke introduced me to colleagues in the region. The encouragement and assistance I received from local activists, nongovernmental organizations, international organizations and various institutions throughout the region enriched my work tenfold. I am forever grateful to Sanja Bahun-Radunovi# for teaching iv! ! me the Serbo-Croatian language, without which I would not have been able to communicate with people and gain their trust. I am thankful for the Rutgers University Dissertation Research Fellowship, which enabled me to conduct my research overseas. The David L. Boren Fellowship provided me with generous financial support to study the language and culture and travel throughout the region to complete my research. I benefited greatly from participating in the International Summer School of Serbian Language, Culture and History at the University of Novi Sad in Serbia. My sister, Jennifer Bryan, provided moral support as did my best friend, Wendy Skop-Razzoli. My parents, John and Charlene Fiederowicz, and grandparents, Charles and Concetta Rhodes, shared an endless supply of love and support to carry me through. My in-laws, Vojislav and Mirjana Pou"ki opened their home to me in Kikinda and provided local assistance. Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to my husband and soon-to-be-born daughter, who accompanied me along this journey and provided a much-needed push to complete this. v! ! TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction: Perspective, Research Questions, Methodology, Outline & Approach 01 Chapter 1: Literature Review: Approaches to Reconciliation in the Post-Conflict Context 20 Conceptions of reconciliation and attempts at definition 20 The significance of reconciliation in the post-conflict context 40 Approaches to dealing with the past and reconciliation 50 The role of truth and justice and their relationship to reconciliation 57 Conflict transformation and peacebuilding 61 Chapter 2: Context, Discourse and Practice in former Yugoslavia 81 The dissolution of Yugoslavia 81 The post-conflict context 91 Discourse on dealing with the past in the region 120 Practices and activities aimed at reconciliation 154 Chapter 3: Perspectives, Conceptions, Motivations and Challenges: Motivations and Resistance to Reconciliation in former Yugoslavia 170 Perspectives on reconciliation in the region 170 What reconciliation means to people in the region 175 Motivations for reconciliation and reasons for resistance 193 Challenges and obstacles to reconciliation 219 Conclusion: Summary and Recommendations 234 Bibliography 242 Vita 278 vi! ! LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Sample of interviews conducted by location 07 Table 2: Spectrum of reconciliation with behavioral and attitudinal components 177 Table 3: Spectrum of reconciliation with motivational components 194 Table 4: For and against reconciliation with motivational components 196 ! vii! ! 1! Introduction: Perspective, Research Questions, Methodology, Outline & Approach I think very often about my sons. All my memories were wiped out. I have only one picture of one of my sons when he was in first grade. Sometimes I wonder ‘did I just dream about all this and my life?’ –Azra There is a reason people mourn when loved ones are lost. There is a reason they carry pictures in their hearts, wear memories on their faces and keep loved ones in their minds. Grief is a very human emotion. In the aftermath of trauma, especially trauma following violent conflict, grief is accompanied by other emotions as well. Denial, fear, hatred, disappointment, uncertainty, confusion and depression are common; for some, hope and relief also arise. A futile desire to change the past often consumes people in a tortuous game of “what if” as does a desire for understanding what happened, why it happened and who is responsible. Blame is common in these circumstances. So too is the quest for revenge and the quest for closure; some seek one or the other, some seek both. These quests can be found in the aftermath of the series of violent conflicts1 that plagued the people of former Yugoslavia in the nineteen nineties and thereafter. They are not unique to former Yugoslavia. They can be found in Cambodia and Rwanda just as surely as they can be found in South Africa, Argentina, East Timor and Sierra Leone. There is no shortage of trauma in the world today, just as there is no shortage of violent conflict. What to make of these emotions and how they intersect in the daily lives of people struggling in the present to face the past and carve out a future is a key question running through this inquiry. The particular people in focus in this inquiry are those of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Violent conflict emerged as part of the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) during the early nineteen nineties. There were a series of inter-related