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Sungusungu Movement in Tanzania

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Sungusungu Movement in Tanzania Mhola – The Utopia of Peace ACTA UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS Uppsala Studies in Cultural Anthropology no 59 Per Brandström Mhola – The Utopia of Peace An Ethnographic Exploration of the Sungusungu Movement in Tanzania ISBN 978-91-513-1114-2 ISSN 0348-5099 http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-429533 Printed in Sweden by Danagårdh LiTHO AB, Ödeshög 2021 Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................... 7 Preamble − Serendipity ....................................................................... 11 1. What can we know and how to interpret? ....................................... 19 Emergence of a peasant movement ................................................ 19 Social movements ........................................................................... 22 Vigilantes and vigilantism .............................................................. 23 Resistance against or the quest for? ................................................ 27 From the actors’ point of view ....................................................... 29 Views from the outside ................................................................... 33 Other voices .................................................................................... 35 From here to where? ....................................................................... 36 2. Voices from the field ....................................................................... 39 Jemedari Paulo ................................................................................ 39 The life story of Mayunga and his involvement in the movement .... 47 Issa – Another story ........................................................................ 59 3. The beginnings and the people ........................................................ 67 When, where and who? .................................................................. 67 Meeting with early leaders ............................................................. 72 4. Broadening the perspective ............................................................. 81 Emergence and developments ........................................................ 81 Local renderings ............................................................................. 87 5. Who is a Sukuma and who is a Nyamwezi? ................................... 93 Ethnic classification and identity .................................................... 93 Outsiders’ classification ................................................................. 94 Insiders’ classification? .................................................................. 99 Multiple identity ........................................................................... 102 Domains of belonging .................................................................. 104 6. Do ethnicity and culture matter? ................................................... 107 Social interaction versus culture ................................................... 107 What then did matter? ................................................................... 111 7. Yearning for mhola ....................................................................... 125 The people of mhola ..................................................................... 126 Diversity and unity in ritual practices ........................................... 131 Labour for peace ........................................................................... 133 Destroyers and bringers of mhola ................................................. 136 Wholeness in everyday life ........................................................... 141 Past and present in the present ...................................................... 143 8. From social movement to state-sanctioned institution .................. 145 The early phase of the movement ................................................. 145 The process of taming a social movement .................................... 148 9. Sungusungu beyond its area of origin .......................................... 163 Sungusungu among the Kuria in Mara Region ............................. 167 Sungusungu in Southern Tanzania ............................................... 173 Sungusungu in an urban context ................................................... 187 10. The end of Sungusungu? ............................................................. 191 From Sungusungu to ulinzi shirikishi ........................................... 191 The ten-cell system and community security ............................... 198 Community policing versus privatized security ........................... 205 11. Forging political culture – colonial and postcolonial legacies .... 209 The colonial period ....................................................................... 209 Political liminality – the 1950s ..................................................... 218 The postcolonial era ...................................................................... 222 Political culture of negotiation ..................................................... 227 12 “We were just told” ...................................................................... 233 Migration of a name and vicissitudes of a concept ...................... 233 The fate of the subaltern ............................................................... 235 Mhola − The Utopia of Peace ....................................................... 237 References ......................................................................................... 239 Index .................................................................................................. 257 7 Acknowledgements Without the encouragement and friendship of many people and the sup- port of several institutions, the present work would never have material- ized. However, to mention everyone to whom I owe a debt of gratitude is not feasible in a preface, which is required to be brief. Yet, I would like to make it clear that everyone who deserves to be mentioned but who cannot be mentioned here is included in my thanks. If there is any merit in my work, this is due to the rich human environment in which I have had the privilege to dwell; for all the shortcomings in my work I am alone respon- sible. My first words of thanks and respect must be addressed to my interlocutors and friends in the field who meant the most to me – Nshimba Lubasha, James Mabula, Paulo Kiyabo, Mayunga Mahona, Issa Sebengo, Sombi Kang’wezi and Mungo Kang’wezi. What could I have done without their generosity and willingness to share with me their experience of life and their personal knowledge of the circumstances that led to the formation and development of the movement I took an interest in studying? My interest for and obsession with the topic treated in my work spans over a long period of time, that is, from 1984 until now. Most of the interlocutors and friends I collaborated with in the field were mature or middle-aged persons in the 1980s. Today all of them, but James Mabula, are batonga mbele, ‘those who have gone before’. My deepest appreciation and gratitude to all of you, and to you who are no longer, may you rest in peace. I got my first impetus to write a monograph on Sungusungu from Suzesette Heald, now more than ten years ago. I had sent her a rather ex- tensive draft paper that I had written. She had published articles with a focus on Sungusungu among the Kuria in Tanzania and Kenya and we had communicated about this movement before. She suggested that I develop my paper into a whole monograph. I pondered her suggestion, started to work on a draft, but things came in between. However, my interest in the topic did not disappear. During repeated field visits over time, some with other purposes than studying Sungusungu, I continued to cultivate my interest. After my last visit to Tanzania and after meeting my old ac- 8 quaintances there, in 2017, I was inspired to resume my drafting. Yet, my drafting would never have been brought to an end unless Sten Hagberg, a former student and colleague and now one of the professors at my depart- ment, like a shepherd with his stick had drawn me to set a full stop to my drafting and go for publishing. Therefore, special thanks to Suzette Heald for the early impetus to write and to Sten Hagberg for bringing my work to an end. I also owe special thanks to Sverker Finnström and Daniel Ndagala. Sverker was once both my undergraduate and graduate student. I am very grateful to him for his endurance with the shifting of historical roles (the former teacher becoming his student’s pupil), when I, during writing, repeatedly have bothered him with my ponderings. To Daniel I am grateful for enduring friendship since my early field visits, a friendship furthermore strengthened when he, several decades back in time, came here to Uppsala University to write up his PhD thesis in Cultural Anthropology and we both in fact, ultimately, defended our theses in the same week. Daniel’s deep knowledge of Tanzanian cultural and political life, his thorough field experience from various parts of the country and his fine Tanzanian sense of humour have meant a lot to me both for my ethnographic work and for my mental well-being. To the people whom I met and stayed with in the field I am very in- debted. It was their kindness, generosity and their attitude of sharing, not only food for the body but also food for the mind, which made my work in the field possible. But not only that – it was also a profound
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