POLITICAL COMMUNICATION Rhetoric, Government, and Citizens DAN F. HAHN New York University ^

STRATA PUBLISHING, INC. State College, Pennsylvania Contents

PREFACE XI

CHAPTEB OWE Entering the Ongoing Argument 1 Bases of Political Communication 1 Major Contemporary Arguments 6

CHAPTEB TWO Ideological Argumentation 13 Ideology and Communication 14 The American Ideology 17 Liberalism and Conservatism 18

CHAPTEB THBEE Ideology and Media 29 Conservative Perceptions of Bias 29 Liberal Perceptions of Bias 31 Perceiving Bias Where None Exists 34 Not Perceiving Bias 35 The Real Media Biases 36

CHAPTEB FOUB The Power of Definition 51 On Defining "Definition" 51 Functions of Definitions 53 Government Defining via Naming 55 Defining and Naming the Issues 59 Defining and Naming People 63 Redefining and Renaming 65 vii viii CONTENTS

CHAPTEB FIVE The Power of Form 69 Perspective and Form 70 Identification 73 Action 75 Emotional Involvement 76 Logical/Rational 78 Strength 79 Honesty 80 Grandeur 81 Ideological Correctness 82

CHAPTEB SIX From Euphemisms to Lies 89 Lies 89 Euphemism 92 Simplifications 96 Generalizations 99 The Art of Saying Nothing 102 The Language Mechanisms in Combination 107

CHAPTEB SEVEN Myths and Metaphors 113 A Burkeian Approach to Language: Water Metaphors 113 Metaphor and "Terministic Compulsion" 116 Edelman and American Mythology 118 A Parentian Approach 121 Common Political Metaphors 126 Myths and American Ideology 127

CHAPTEB EIGHT Sexual Language and Politics 133 The Binary Discourse System 135 Sexual Metaphors 138 Effects on Women: The Mask of Beauty 141 Effects on Men: Invitation to War 149 Explanatory Hypotheses 155 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTEB HIBIE The Marriage Metaphor in Politics 165 False Intimacy in the White House 165 The Presidential Inaugural as a Marriage Ceremony 171 The Passionless Honeymoon of President George Bush 174 Richard Nixon and the Presidential Divorce 181

CHAPTEB TEH Secrecy, Surveillance and Lies: Government Impediments to the Societal Dialogue 191 Scope 193 Are They Ever Legitimate? 194 Relationship to Political Communication 198 Relationship between Government and Citizens 200 The "Chilling" Effect on Active Citizenship 202 Destroying Our Trust in Government 203

CHAPTEB ELEVEN Media and Political Campaigns 209 Effects of Media on Campaigns 209 Eliminating Potential Candidates 211 Effects on Primary Elections 212 Effects on Nominating Conventions 213 New Campaign Devices 215 The Continuation of Barnstorming 218 Issues and Images 220 Distrust of Government and Politicians 221

CHAPTEB TWELVE Effects of Mediated Campaigns on Voters 227 The Mediated Campaign 228 Media Coverage of Campaigns 234

CHAPTEB THIRTEEN Effects of the Media on Politicians 245 The "Lowering" of Politicians 245 Effect on Issues 246 Effect on Rhetoric 247 CONTENTS

CHAPTEB FOURTEEN Avoiding Media Influence 251 Personality Orientation 252 Leadership Ideal 256 Ideology 258 Epistemology 262 Axiology 267

SELECTED READINGS 273

INDEX 283

ABOUT THE AUTHOR 290