A Study of Diet in Mesopotamia

A STUDY OF DIET IN MESOPOTAMIA

(o.3000 — 600 BC) AND ASSOCIATED

AGRICULTURAL TECHNIQUES AND METHODS OF FOOD PREPARATION

Elizabeth Rosemary Ellison

Institute of Archaeology

Volume Two

Thesis submitted to the University of London in the Faculty of Arts for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

May 1978

LOOHY VAit TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume 2 page

Appendix I: Capacity Measures 1 References 9

Appendix II: Estimates of population trends 12 References 23

Appendix Selected vocabulary 25

Figures 31

References: Chapter 1 61 Chapter 2 67 Chapter 3: 3.1 89 3.2 . 101 3.3 115 3.4 118 3.5 122 3.6 125 3.7 130 3.8 135 Chapter 4 138 Chapter 5 156

Bibliography 157

List of Figures (Volume Two) 1 3 Fig.l • Nutrition Chart for Mesopotamia. Daily intakes. 31

Fig.2. Excerpts from the FAO Recommended Tables of Intakes, 32 Handbook on Human Nutritional Requirements, No. 28 Table 1.

Fig.3. Nutritional value of Barley from Food Compositions 33 Tables for use in the Middle East (P.L. Pellet & S.Shadarevian), Section I, Composition of Foods, 100 grams, edible portion.

Pig. 4 . Comparison of selected proll,fessions. 34

Fig.5. Ancient courses of the Euphrates and Tigris. 35 Base map adapted from Gibson M. The City and Area of Kish, Fig. 69 'Reconstruction of watercourses in Mesopotamia to about 1000 BC'. The ancient courses are taken from the text of chapter 1.

Fig.6. Soil map of Iraq. Adapted from Flora If Fi g. 4. 36

Fig.7. Reliefs The royal banquet of AAburbanipal, from 37 Barnett R.D. Assyrian Palace Reliefs, Plate 105.

Fig.8. Cylinder seals Shaduf, from Parrot Sumer No. 231. 37

Fig.9. Cylinder seals Plain plough. Parrot Sumer No. 234. 38

Fig.10. Cylinder seals Seeder ploughs. Cylinder Seals, Plate 38 XIX Nos. E & F.

Fig.11. Grain threshing near Malayar, Hamadan, Iran, in 1970. 39

Fig.12. Winnowing grain near Yalayar, Hamadan, Iran, in 1970. 39

Fig.13. Cylinder seals man driving a seeder-plough drawn by 40 oneox. Porada I, Plate XCV No. 651.

Fig.14. Reliefs Mixed herd of sheep and grats. Barnett R.D. 40 & Faulkner Y. Sculpture' of Aturnapirpal... Plate V.

Fig.15. Vases Hairy short-tailed sheep (Type 1) from the 41 Warka Vase. Parrot Sumer No. 89.

Fig.16. Relief: Humped cattle being herded along a river. 41 Gadd Stones No. 14.

Fig.17. Relief: 711amita prisoners placing bread on a fire. 42 By the courVesy of the British Museum. (Published in Barnett R.D. Sculptures from the Northern Palace Plate LXVI e.

Fig.18. A modern tannour near Baghdad, 1975. 43

Fig.19. Dough being placed in the tannour, 1975. 43

Fig.20. A bakery in Mosul, 1975. 44 Pa Fig.21. Reliefs Grinding and kneading in an Assyrian Camp. From King L.W. Bronze reliefs from the Gates of Sbalmaneserj King of Assyria Plate VI upper register.

Fig.22. Reliefs Preparing bread. From King U. Bronze 45 Reliefs Plate LI Fig.23. statues Base of Ur—Bingirsu statues men holding 46 baskets of bread. Parrot Sumer No. 269.

Fig.24. Cylinder Seals Presentation scene with a sheep's 47 head set on bread on an altar. Boehmer No. 387.

Fig.25. Reliefs A tannour in a oamp. Gadd No. 29a. 47 riga& Cylinder seals Brewer heating the mash. BoehmerNo.557 48

Fig.27. Cylinder Seals Brewer 'draining' the wort. 48 Boehmer Yo. 547. Fig.28. Cylinder seals Men drinking tear through tubes. 49 Porada / 9 Plate XVIII No. 112. Fig.29. Cylinder seals Banquet scene with men drinking from 49 cups. Pored& I Plate XXXIX, No.250E

Fig.30. Inlays ram being slaughtered. Parrot Sumer No.171B 50 Fig.31. Reliefs Skinning the carcase of a sheep. Gadd 50 Stones No. 29a. Fig.32. Sounding box of a harp: Joints of meats Parrot Sumer 50 No.179.

Fig.33. Reliefs Hunting scene from Salonen A. Vegel... 51 Plate LXXVIII

Fig.34. Reliefs Provisions being carried for the king's 51 feast. From Layard II Plate 9a.

Fig.35. Reliefs 'Fishing' Barnett R.D. & Faulkner M. 52 Sculptures of ANgurnasirpal Plate CXX

1ig.36. Cylinder seals Bird set on a table. VR No.654 52 Fig.37. Cylinder seals goat being milked. Parrot Sumer No.107. 53 rig.38. Inlays Sheep being milked. Moortgat Art No. 40. 54

Fig.39. Cylinder seals 'Story of Etana l Dairy scene. 54 Parrot Sumer No. 226.

Fig.40. Reliefs Provisions being carried for feast. From 55 Layard II, Plate 9b. Fig.41. Reliefs Fruit being carried for feast. From Layard 55 II Plate 8b. Fig.42. Cylinder seals Banquet. Parrot Sumer Ho. 197 56 LIM Cylinder seal: Banquet scene — men seated at 56 table with servants. Porada I Plee /XXIX No. 252.

Fig.44. Relief: Woman with fish and bread. Du Ry C.J. 57 Art of the ancient Near and fiddle East., 123.

Fig. 45 . Cylinder seals Table laid with bread, and dishes. 57 Porada I Plate XCIX No. 673 E.

Fig.46. Reliefs Officer eating in camp. Barnett P.D. & 58 Faulkner M. Sculptures of Oturnagirpal Plate LX

Fig.47. Ivory panel: Yen seated at separate tables. 58 Mallowan M.E.L. & Davies L.G. Ivories in Assyrian Style Plate V No. 7.

Fig.48. Relief: Elamite prisoners eating. By the courtesy 59 of the British Yuseum. (Published in Barnett R.D, Sculptures from the Northern Palace Plate LXVI Slab A.)

Fig.49 . Reliefs Elamite prisoners eating. By the courtesy 59 of the British Museum. (Published in Barnett R.D. Sculptures from the Northern Palace... Plate LXVI Slab A.)

Fig.50. Reliefs Elamite prisoners eating. Gadd Stones No.40. 60

Fig.51. Relief: Elamite prisoners eating. Gadd Stones No.291).60

1 APP7NDIX I

Capacity Measures

In ancient Mesopotamia foodstuffs, grain yields etc., were expressed in capacity measu-t. es and some understanding of these measures is essential before the nutritional value of the food eaten and the efficiency of the agricultural techniques used can be considered. The basic measure which was used from the • , third to the first millennium is the S ILA/gag numbers of which form larger measures that vary from place to place and period to period. Thus, in Assyria, the imFru (homer) is made up of 100 aa; in Babylonia, the GURAurru equals 300 ALA/ (180 S1LA in the Neo-Babylonian period); in Mari (at the beginning of the second millennium)• the GUR equals 120 itl,A; in the Sargonic period the GUR.SAG.GAI is made up of 240 SILA and in the pre-Sargonic period the GUR.SAG.dIL equals 144 SILA. These larger measures (imeru, GURAcurru, GM.SAG.G).L etc.,) are also subdivided into units such as the PI/nanu and the BAN/siltu, which again contain 1 varying numbers of SILAS. This list of measures is a simplification as, especially in the earlier periods, there were other ORS (for example the GUR.SA.DZTG with 140 SILA and the GLIB.A-7a-de.KI• with 300 SILA) consisting of different numbers of SILAS. The satu too could be made up of different numbers of SILAS (for example the situ of Carcemish and the bronze satu and the -satu of 9 or 8 SILA ia the No Assyrian period. 2 ) However the measures listed are those used most frequently in connection with foodstuffs and agriculture and are the main ones used in this study. These measures apply mainly to solids and liquids were sometimes recorded in other terms. Although it is possible to draw up lists of, say, the yields in SILAS of fields in different areas and differentieriods, no proper comparison can be made until the size of the S1LA used can be established and preferably in terms of a modern equivalent. In other words 1) has the SI:A the same capacity throughout the third to the first millennium, and 2) how does that capacity relate to the modern litre? There are two possible ways of approaching these questions. It has been suggested that the ubiquitous bevel-rim bowls of the Uruk period may have been used to measure out the rations issued to employees in households.- If this was so there should be a standard size or sizes among these bowls, aud, given the 2

continuation of the ration-system, it is possible that there were similar standard sizes in pottery from later periods. Second, a few pottery vessels are inscribed with a capacity measure so that if the cubic capacity of the vessel is related to the inscription some idea can be gained of the size of the SILA at that time. In addition there are some mathematical texts which have made it possible for calculations to be carried out on the size of the SILA. Cubic capacity of pottery In order to calculate the cubic-capacity of pottery the published drawings from a number of sites have been studied. Of necessity this has been rather a rough and ready method as the drawings tend to be of pottery types rather than of specific pots so that slight variations of size from one vessel to another may have been ironed out. When the cubic-capacity is worked out, the pots have been divided into size-groups and the average for each group was taken. This has been done for all typos of pottery examined, and again for open-bowls. 4 The average sizes of the pottery suggested that if they were based on a standard measure, that measure stayed more or less the same throughout the period. Most variations, for example .6 litre open-bowl at Nippur in the Old Babylonian period, are generally caused by the smaller number of vessels falling into that range, and because of this cannot be taken as indicating a change in the standard measure. (see Table 19, pp.3-5). Inscribed vessels & mathematical calculations A vase of Entemena, dating to the Early Dynastic period, held a NIGIN according to an inscription. The entire capacity of the vase was calculated to be 4.71 litres, including the neck. The capacity without the neck was 4.15 litres. As a NIGIN. 10 SILA, the capacity of the SILA equals .471 litre, including the neck, and 6 .415 without the neck. A broken vessel from Nippur (dating to the Ur III period) SI contained 175 and 5/6 SILAS, according to an inscription on it. The partial outline of this vessel is published and if the complete outline is reconstructed the cubic capacity (excluding the neck) is 178.7 litres. Thus the ALA' would appear to equal 1.016 litres.7 An inscription on a, pot fragment from Rimah (Old Babylonian 8 period) suggests that the SILA there may have been about .8 litres. •

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An inscription on a vessel from Nimrud (Neo-Assyrian period) , suggests the vessel contained 137 SILA (1 LAE 3 BA 7 SILA). When the cubic capity (excluding the neck) of this vessel is 9 calculated the SILA appears to be 1.88 litres. 6 An alabaster vase from the Neo-Babylonian period, in the reign of Amel-Marduk (561-560) had an inscription suggesting it held one third of a 1E . When reconstructed (including neck) its capacity was .27 litres suggesting that the Neo-Babylonian equalled .81 litres. 10 Calculations based on a mathematical text suggest that the SILA in the Old Babylonian period equalled .97 litres, and Thureau-Dangin calculated from a Seleuoid text that the late first 6 millennium a equals .84 litre. From averages taken from all these inscriptions and calculations it might seem that the SILA in the Early Dynastic period was about .44 litres; in the Ur III period and the Old Babylonian period around 1 litre (with a possible smaller variation at Rimah); in the Neo-AsEvrian period about 1.88 (or about double the Old Babylonian SILA); and in the Neo-Babylonian period about .83 (or about double the Early Dynastic SILA). However the situation is not quite as simple as this. If the rations in the Early Dynastic period were based on a SILA of around a litre then the amounts issued were so low as to be on starvation level. This point was made by Thureau-Dangin in 6 his earlier discussion on the capacity measures. He suggested at that time that Entemena's vase was a votive object and that it S. only represented half the real capacity of the SILA. In this the Early Dynastic SILA would be .88 litres - and if only the body capacity (excluding the neck) of the vase is considered, the SILA would be exactly .83 (the same as the average for the two Neo- Babylonian figures). Discussion These calculations suggest that there was an increase in the size of the SILA after the Early Dynastic period. This is also suggested by the ration lists. In the Early Dynastic III period at Lagag the most common quantities of barley rations were 72, 48, 36 and 24 SILA a month. 11 At Kish, Nippur, Nuzi and Asmar in the Agade period, and at Lagat itself in the Ur III period, the most common amounts of rations were 90, 60, 40, 30 and 20 SILAS. These later amounts of rations continue into the second millennium. 7 If these amounts are compared with each other it can be seen that 60 is 5/6 of 72 9 40 5/6 of 48 9 30 5/6 of 36 and 20 5/6 of 24. And at first sight this would appear to mean that the rations had been reduced by one sixth - perhaps because of a fall in yields. But this explanation is not completely satisfactory, as it does not tie-in with the capaoities of the SILA as calculated frcm the inscriptions on pottery. However, if the size of the SILA was increased when the numbers given dropped the actual rations could have stayed the same. Thus: 72 ILA at .83 litres a SILA = 59.76 litres I/ 48 . 39.84 36 . 29.88 " 24 " /I It " . 19.92 20) and 60 SILA at 1.0 litres a SILA = 60 litres This increase represents a rise of one sixth in the size of the SILA and is the difference between the doubled capacity of the Entemena vase (.415 x 2 . .83) and the average of the Ur III/Old • Babylonian SILAS (1.07). It is here suggested that at the end of the Early Dynastic III period, at least as known from Lagai, there was a change in 1 accountancy procedures which caused the numbers of SILAS in the GUR.SAG.GAL to be raised and an increase in the size of the SILA. It is possible that this latter system was already in use in Akkad and was brought into Sumer by the Sargon dynasty. The Ur III kings standardized the system which seems to have continued, with perhaps some local variations, into the second millennium. The Assyrians apparently based their measure on double the 'Babylonian' SILA/32_3. but the late Neo-Babylonian kings may have , returned to the old Lags.% or Sumerian size of SILA/la. These variations in the size of the SILA are probably simplified and there may have been local differences in much the same way as there are local differences in weights and measures in Iraq today - for example those local weights in use in Baghdad vary from those used 12 at Basra. When calculating yields, rations etc., in this study, the

Early Dynastic SILA will be taken to equal .83 litres and the.s Agade, Ur III, Isin/Larsa, Old Babylonian and Kassite/Nuzi SILA to 1 be 1.0 litres. The Neo-Assyrian SILA will be taken as 1.88 litres. (The period covered by the Neo-Babylonian a does not fall within this study.) References and Notes for Appendix I 1. Thureau-Dangin F. 'Numeration et Metrologie Sumeriennes' RA 18 9 121 9 135-137; ARMT VII, 3499 para. 5 9 Postgate J.N. Neo-Assyrian Legal Documents, 67-68, paza.6.3.2.; Maekawa K. Zinban 13, 19749 459 GUR.SAG.GAL; Gelb I.J. personal cozmunication September 1975 (Sargonic GUR.SAG.AL 240 SILA); see also Salonen Hausgerffte II, 270-303; Meissner BuA

2. Postgate J.N.Neo-Assyrian Legal Documents, 67-68.

3. Nissen H. 'Grabung in den Quadratent K/L XII in Uruk/ Warka' Bagb.Mitt. V 9 137.

4. Some of the more elaborate styles, and jugs, have been excluded.

5. NIPPUR: McCown D & Haines R. Nippur 1 9 Temple of Enlil... Plate 80 (nos. 1, 2 9 5-9 9 12 9 14 18); Plate 82 (nos. 10, 12-15 9 18-20 and 23); Plate 83 (Nos. 7, 9-10, 13, 14, 16-18 9 and 21) Plate 84(Nos. 1-6, 9-11 9 16)3 Plate 85 (Nos. 1-4 9 7-8 9 11-12 9 14 & 16) Plate 87 (Nos. 1-4 9_8-14); Plate 88 (Nos. 3, 5-6, 19, 20-23); Plate 90 (Nos. 1-5, 12-17); Plate 94 (Nos. 1-6, 8-11, 14, 15, 18) Plate 97 (Nos. 1, 7-8, 10-12); No. 98 (Nos. 1-8, 11-12, 15-16) Plate 10C (Nos. 2, 6-7 9 11, 13-14 9 19-23); Plate 1o3 (Nos. 1, 4, 10-13, 18-25).

NUZI: Starr Nuzi: Vol. II Plates 50 (Nos. A 9 B 9 Q) Plate 62 (Nos. F1J, L 9 Q, S 9 T, U); Plate 63 (N080159 Q9 S) Plate 64 (Nos. B 9 E); Plate 65 (Nos. A t C9 D); Plate 66 ( os. A, B 9 C 9 D, F 9 G 9 H) Plate 67 (Nos. C 9 D t E 9 F, G, 7, I) Plate 68 (Nos. A, C t D 9 E t F, K, M) Plate 69 (Nos. C, D) Plate 71 (Nos. A), Plate 72 (Nos. B,E, F) Plate 73 (Nos. A 9 D, E, F 9 G, H, I, J, K) Plate 74 (Nos. A, B 9 C 9 F 9 I 9 J) Plate 75 (Nos. A, B, C, G 9 H, J 9 K 9 L, M 9 R 9 S 9 0 9 Y) Plate 76 Nos. C 9 D, F, G, 7, I, J, K 9 M 9 N, 0 9 P 9 Q 9 R, S, U9 V 9 W 9 X, Y, Z 9 AA, BB, DD) Plate 77 (Nos. A-D, F-L, N, P, S) Plate 78 (Nos. A-G, L.,0 9 Q) Plate 87 (Nos. (A-7 9 3 9 L 9 0 9 Q) Plate 88 (Nos. A-D, I9 L9 My N) Plate 89 (N OS. A, C 9 G I I 9 3 9 LnIi 9 Z 9 AA, BB.) KAAFAJE7, ASMAR & ISC7ALI: Delougaz P. Pottery from the Dt5 iyaltiti:ot Plate 142 (Nos. A.505.450 9 515.270, 515-37 .11 6, 0, 524-260 9 514.270, 515.660, 525 . 2739 516.21u9 527.462) Plate 144 (Nos. A.645.720, 604.560, 652.5009 624.520, 654.920 9 624.563 9 654.520 9 655.120) Plate 146 (all plate except B.001.200b and 001.310) Plate 148 (Nos. b.052.200a-c, 062.210 a-b, 076.700, 063.200b, 077.700 a-b, 064.210, 072.200, 061.210, 072.210b) Plate 149 (all pl pi-p except B084.210a, Q83.210a, 085.210 and 084.210c) Plate 150 (Nos. 11174.740, 1 7 5.220a & b, 174.220a-c, 175.224) 9

Plate 151 (all plate except B.175.760, 183.210, 184.220 a & b) Plate 152 (Nos. B225.540, 226. 720 a-c) Plate 153 (Nos. B236.200 a & bt 237.100, 247.200, 247.700, 246.200a-b, 255.200) Plate 154 (B.414.270, 416.371, 475.250a, 454.270, 275.250b. 416.373) Plate 155 (B.495.220, 505.250, 506.270c, 505.270a-b, 506.370, 506.270a, 514.270) Plate 156 (B.516.271, 527.340, 516.371a, 525.220) Plate 157 (all plate except B.533.252 and 533. 262) Plate 158 (all pl , te except B.544-570, 545 . 222a & b, 545.240b) Plate 159 (No. B.545.540, 546.220, 546.260, 545.640b, 546.223 1 546.240, 546.640a9 547.320) Plate 160 (555 . 224, 556.422, 555 . 540a, 566.560, 556.540) Plate 161 (Nos. 575. 224, 575 . 240, 574 . 240 , 576.220) Plate 162 (Nov. 644.220, 644.520, 644.540) Plate 163 (Nos.645.220, 645.224, 645.540a, 655.520, 655.540a, 656.720) Plate 164 (Nos. 665.520, 663.54 na-b, 664.540a-b, 666.540a) Plate 165 (Nos. 666.620, 666.640, 65.220a-b, 706.360) Plate 166 (Nos. 754.540, 755.540, 756.220, 757.320, 786.520) Plate 168 (Nos. 0.001.200 a & bp 001.210, 002.210, 002.500, 013.210, 026.410) Plate 171 (ffos. C213.210, 215.210, 225.310b, 216.210, 246.310) Plate 175 (Nos. C406. 340 , 406.370) Plate 176 (Nos. 0446.470, 466.450, 436.320) Plate 177 (Nos. 0493.360, 505.370a & b, 503.470, 506.470c, 507.570, 506 .470d) Plate 178 (Nos. C514.370a, 515.37 01), 515.371, 515.373) Plate 179 (nos. C525.262 b & c, 5 16. 373, 516.471, 525.352) Plate 180 (Nos. C525.362b, 525.550, 526.362b) Plate 181 (Nos. C526.371a & b, 526.373 a & b) Plate 183 (Nos. )545 . 3 10 , 545 .3 20 , 545.340a, 545 .440 9 545-520 9 545 . 640 ) Plate 184 (Nos.C555.420, 555 .423, 555 .440 9 555 . 320 , 555.510) Plate 185 (All plate emept 557 . 640 , 556.320 , 576.242 and 585. 320 and 587.862) Plate 187 (all plate except 655.370a & b, 655.222) Plate 188 (Nos. 656.340, 656.540, 665.621) Plate 192 (Nos. D.514.370a, 514.370b, 515.362) Plate 194 (Nos. D555.340, 545. 640. 555.510a, 546.540 a & b) Plate 195 (Nos.D555. 540 , 565.310, 556.540b, 596.540) Plate 196 (Nos. D654.310, 656.540.)

Ur: UE II Plate 251 (Nos. 5 a, b, c, 7 a, b, c, 10, 12, 141 Plate 252 roe. 18a, b, 21, 23, 26, 32a, 33b, 38b Plate 253 Noa.39, 4 0 , 42, 43. 44a, b. 0, 459 46 , 48, 49h, 51a) Plate 254 ( / 08. 57, 58, 59, 60, 61-63) Plate 255 (Nos. 77-79, 81) Plate 256 (Nos. 83 a-d, 84) Plate 257 (98, 99, 100 a & b; 108 a-0 Plate 258 (Nos. 109b, 112, 114 9 119 a & b, 120 a & b) Plate 259 (Nos. 128, 129, 131, 132 a & b, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139-141) Plate 260 (Nos. 142- 145, 147, 149, 150 a & b, 151) Plate 261 (Nos.155, 157-160, 162-164) Plate 262 (Nos. 167-170, 171, 17 1 , 174, 179 a & b, 180, 181) Plate 263 (all plate but No. 185) Plate 264 (all plate except Nos. 204- 206) Plate 276 (Nos. 211-213, 217, 220, 222-224, 226) Plate 266 (Nos. 227-228). 10 UE VIII Plate 38 (Nos. 104, 6-8, 10-12, 14-18) Plate 39 (Nos. 19-24, 27-31) Plate 40 (Nos.32- 34 9 383 Plate 41 (Nos. 40 9 42-43) Plate 42 (Nos. 47, 49-50, 52, 54) Plate 43 (Nos. 55-56, 60) Plate 44 (Nos. 57-68, 71, 74) Plate 45 (Nos 80, 87) Plate 46 (Nos. 89 9 92-94).

Milos de Genouillac H. Fouilles de Telloh I Plate II (Nos. 3737 9 5736, 5613, 5501 9,5454) Plate III (No.5293), Plate IV (No. 5430), Plate V (Nos. 4418, 4327, 4 86 5, 4513, 4707, 35 65, 4512, 5496) Plate . VI (all but 5272, 4076, 4303 and 4657) Plate VII (Nos. 4605, 4603) Plate VIII (all but 4308) Plate 17 (Nos. 4357, 4744, 4385, 4516) Plate X (Nos. 52979 5298, 5356, 4858) Plate XI (Yos. 4557, 4561, 4560, and unnumbered pot) Plate XII (Nos. 590, 915 2 10439 559) Plate XIII (Nos. 587, 1925, 887) Vol.II; Plate XXX (all plate) Plato XXXI (all except 3348 & 3613) Plate XXXII (all except 2543) Plate XX7III Call except 905, 810, 803) Plate XXXIV (all on plate) Plate XXXV (Nos. 3011, 3146, 748 ) Plate XXVIII (all on plate) Plate XIX (Nos. 614, 1022, 1228)

Nimruds Oates J. 'Late Assyrian Pottery from Fort Shalmaneser' Iraq XXI, 1959, Plates XXXV (all exoept Nos. 12, 14-16) Plate XXXVI (Nos. 27-28, 30-31, 33-34, 37-38, 4011 44, 46-47) Plate XXXVII (Nos. 60-61, 64, 7 -60) Plate XXXVIII (Nos. 84 9 92-949 96-99) Bevelled-rim bowlst(Jemdet Nasr) Mackey E. Report on the excavation of the 'A I cemetery at Kish' Plate LXVII (Nos. 22-23); de Genouillac R. Fouilles de Telloh Plate VIII (No. 4241) (Tello); UVB IV, Plate 19 At' (Warka); Starr Nuzi II Plate 50 a (Nuzi); Delaugaz P. Pottery from the Diyala Plate 108 (No. C002.210) (Khafajeh); Mallowan M.E.L. 'Excavations at Brak and Chagar Bazar' Iraq IX, 1947, Plate LXVI, 4.(Tell Brak);

Many bevelled-rim pots have been excavated but only a handful have actually been published. Although the plates listed for the above sites include vessels smaller than .11 litre and larger than 1.12 litres only those falling between these measurements have been included in the tables.

It should be noted that the pottery from Tello is not securely dated and that the divisions into periods is therefore suspect. The divisions made by the excavators have been followed. 11

6. Thureau-Dangin F. RA 18, 1927, 127 ff.

7. McCown D & Haines R. Kip pur I, Temple of Enlil Plate 87, No. 14 and photos. Professor Gelb kindly confirmed this calculation. With the neck included the capacity is 188.5 - 1.07 a ilLA. But see Postgate J.K. 'An inscribed jar from Tell al Rimah , to be published in 'rm. Note 7: Mr. Christoph3r Watkins made the capacity maximulD 183.1 and minimum 180.3. This would give a maximum 61LA of 1.04 litre, and a minimum ot 1.025 litre, and does not ch .ings the suggested SILA of approximately 1 litre in the Ur III period.

8. Dailey et al. No. 274, and Postgate J.N. 'An inscribed jar from Tell al Rimah' to be published in am.

9. The method used here is the one used in examining the pottery drawings. It is based on measurements taken of the pot ND 6673 on display in the British Museum. This inscription is published by Postgate J.N. in Fifty Neo-Assyrian legal documents, Note that he calculated the SILA to be 1.84 litres. (see also vallowan Nimrud, 168.) J.N. Postgate's calculations of the capacity of the reconstructed inscribed vessel at Tell al Rimah give aussful comparison between two methods of calculating capacities. He filled the reconstructed vessel with dried rice, which gave a capacity of 121.3 (allowing a 2% margin of errors the maximum value was 123.5 and the minimum was 119.0 litres). From his details of the dimensions of the vessel it has been possible to calculate the capacity using the same methods as used for t'ac pottery-drawings and the Ur III pot from Elppur. This gave a value of 123.495 litres and a Snk of .82 litre - very close to the maximum value given for the dried rice filling method.

10. Thureau-Dangin F. 'La mesure du maan RA 34, 1937, 81

11. It is not suggested that only these sizes of rations were issued, merely that these were the most frequently used.

12. Iraq Handbook 640-642. 12

APPMDIX II

Estimates of population trends

Before any attempt can be made to discuss whether a food supply is sufficient for a local population, the size of the population must be established. The most accurate way of assessing population figures is to conduct a census but this process does not appear to have been carried out in ancient Mesopotamia. A number of rulers, for example Zimri-Lim of Mari, seem in have carried out a local census (one of his years carries the name 'Year when Zimri-Lim counted the landOlwhile others, in particular of Laga g , mention large numbers of people in their inscriptions but it is not clear whether they are referring to certain sections of the:population, or to certain areas or to their states as a whole. Thus the figures they give (Entemena: 3600; Urukagina: 1 6,000; and Gudea: 216,000) cannot be assumed to be the population of the state of Lagag or 2 of the city of Girsu. Professor Frankfort attempted to calculate the population of Mesopotamia by taking the average number of houses found per acre in the excavated sites of Ur, Tell Asmar and Khafajeh and reckoning six to ten people per house. This gave a density from 120-300 people per acre, which compared well with the density of 160 per acre which he found at modern Aleppo and Damascus. A number of settlement surveys have been carried out recently in Iraq: the regions covered include the Diyala,- the area around Warka, 4 and central Mesopotamia north of Nippur.5 The periods during which the settlements were occupied were worked out on the basis of the types of pottery and other artefacts (such as clay sickles, 'nails', mud-bricks etc.) found on their surfaces. The greatest danger in this is that the pottery sequences are not always equally well known for each period and many types overlap, so that it is not always possible to say that, for example, a particular site in the Warka area, was occupied in the Isin/Larsa period but not in the Old Babylonian. However, allowing for this, distribution maps of sites can give an idea of variations in settlement patterns. In the Diyala area there appears to have been a gradual increase in settlement through the third millennium, with a slight falling-off in the Old Babylonian 13

period. This fall continued through the second millennium and the area would seem to have been almost deserted by the beginning of the first. In the Warka region, the eai.ly third millennium (Jemdet Nasr to Early Dynastic I) was the period with most settlement. In the late Early D ynastic III there was a fall in the number of sites although the sizes of the remaining settlements had increased. There was a continued drop in sites in the Akkadian with possibly a slight increase in the Ur III—Isin/Larsa period. The second millennium saw a gradual drop in the numbers and size of settlements, probably falling to the lowest amount in the early first millennium. The number of sites increased slightly in the Neo—Babylonian period. In central Mesopotamia the largest number of settlements date to the Ubaid/ Jemdet Nasr periods, but although there may have been a slight decrease in the number of sites in the Early Dynastic period the size of such towns as Kutha, Kish and Nippur increased. There wao a slight drop in the number of sites towards the end of the third millennium but the Kassite period shows an increase. The end of the second millennium saw a drastic fall in numbers of settlements but there seems to have been an improvement during the Neo—Babylonian period, with Babylon dominating the area. Adams made a provisional estimate of the sedentary population 6 in the Diyala area. Taking a population density of 200 per hectare he calculated that the 384 hectares of recorded settlement for the Early Dynastic period would have carried some 77,000 people. But although population estimates could be made in this manner for other periods and other areas it is not really satisfactory to use a density based mainly on modern village settlements in Khuzistan and on modern cities like Baghdad — and indeed a density which is much lower than the one computed by Frankfort from the sites of Ur, Tell Asmar and Khafejeb. The follow-Ing is an attempt to estimate a population density contemporary with the periods of the settlements, based on Frankfort's method of estimating the average number of houses on a site. This has been done by finding the average size of house, dividing this into the size of the residential area of the town to find the number of housr. s and multiplying this number by the average number 14

of people in a family. The residential area of a site is calculated from the total area of the site less an arbitary 40% to cover temples, administrative buildings, unoccupied areas etc. A figure of 5 for the number of people ia a family has been calculated from a text from Nippur giving members of families receiving rations, two from Nuzi recording some men with their wives and immediate family and the 'Doomsday' texts from Harran which give the numbers in families plus details about their property. 7 8 Khafajeh Mound A. Area of sites 275,000 sq.m. Residential area: 165,000 sq.m. Early Dynastic Houses 10: Average for 5 dwellings: 75.4 sq•m• No. of houses in residential area: 2188 Population estimate: (10,941.6) 10,942. Houses 9: Average for 8 dwellings: 71.875 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 2295.65 Population estimate: 11,478 Houses 81 Average for 7 dwellings: 89 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 1854 Population estimate: 9270 Houses 7: Average for 6 dwellings: 89 sq.m. No. of houses in residential areas 1854. Population estimates 9470. Houses 6: Average for 3 dwellings: 202 sq.m. No. of houses in residential areas 817 Population estimates 4085. Houses 51 Average for 3 dwellings: 200.66 No. of houses in residential areas 822. Population estimate: 4110 Houses 41 Average for 11 dwellings: 124.8 sq.m. No. of houses in residential areas 1322 Population estimates 6610 Houses 3: Average for 5 dwellings: 232 sq. m. No. of houses-in residential areas 711 Population estimates 3555 Houses 1 & 2: Average for 10 dwellings: 161.7 sq. m. No. of houses in residential area: 1020. Population estimates 5100 Average population for whole period: 7180 Density over whole sites 261 per hectare. 15

Tell Asmar9 Size of Early Dynastic and Akkadian town: 35, 000 sq.m. Residential area: 21,000 sq. m. Early Dynastic III Stratum Vet Average size of 4 houses: 126.5 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 116 Population estimate: 830. Stratum Vb: Average size of 6 houses: 133.8 No. of houses in residential area: 157 Population estimate: 785. Stratum Va: Average size of 25 houses: 105.48 No. of houses in residential area: 199 Population estimate: 995. Average population: 870 Density over whole site: 248.5 per hectare. Akkadian Stratum IVbs Average size of 7 houses: 123.57 No. of houses in residential area: 170 Population estimate: 850 Stratum IVa: Average size of 9 houses: 192.55 No.of houses in residential areal 109. Population estimate: 545. Average population: 698 Density over whole sites 199 per hectare. Ur III/ Isin-Larsa Size of town: 250,000 sq. m. Residential area: 150,000 sq.m. Stratum III: Average size of 4 houses: 147.5 No. of houses in residential areal 1017. Population estimate: 5085. Density over whole site: 203 per hectare. 10 Tell Harmal. Size of site: 17,600 sq.m. Residential area: 10,560 sq. m. Isin/LArsa-Old Babylonian Average size of 16 houses: 72.5 No. of houses in residential area: 146. Population estimates 730. Density over whole site: 415 per hectare. 16 purll Nip Size of site: 1 9 057,500 sq.m. Residential area: 634,500 sq.m4 Ur III TB Level IV: Average size of 3 houses: 158.66 sq. m. No. of houses in residential area: 3,999 Population estimates 19,995. Density over whole site: 189 per hectare. Isin-Larsa

TB Level II: Average size of 3 houses: 172.66 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 3,675. Population estimate: 189375• TB Level I : Average size of 4 houses, 1 131.5 sq.m. No. of houses in residential areas 4825. Population estimates 24,125. TA level XII: Average size of 3 houses: 99.33 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 6,388 Population estimates 311940. Average population: 23,436. Density over whole site: 221.6 per hectare. Old Babylonian TB Levels E & Dz Average size of 4 houses: 122.5 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 5180 Population estimates 25,9000. TA Levels Average size of 5 houses: 65.4 Kim. X3-2/ No. of houses in residential area: 9702. Population estimates 48,510. Average population: 37,205 Density over whole site: 352 per hectare. Kassite TA Level VI: Average size of I house: 44 sq. m. No. of houses: 14,420 Population estimates 72,100. Density over whole site: 682 per hectare. As

TA Level V: 1 houses 90 sq.m. IV: 1 house: 182 + sq. m. 1 house: 177 sq. m. Average size: 150 sq.m. No. of houses in residential areas 4230. Population estimate: 21,150 Density over whole site: 200 per hectare. 17 12 Chagar Bazar Size of sites 120,000 sq.m. Residential areas 72,000 sq.m. Old Babylonian Average size of 5 houses: 7 8 .5 Keno No. of houses: 917 Population estimate: 4585. Density over whole site: 382 per hectare. 13 Nuzi

Size of site: 45,000 sq.m. Residential area: 27, 000 sq.m. Average size of 20 houses: 153.7 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 176 Population estimate: 880 Density over whole site: 196 per hectare.

—Ur Size of site: 593,750 sq. m. Residential areas 356,250 sq.m. 14 Isin-Larsa Average size of 33 houses: 131.9-sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 2701 Population estimate: 139505. Density over whole site: 229 per hectare. 15 Kassite Average size of 4 houses: 159 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 2241 Population estimates 11,205 Density over whole site: 190 per hectare. 16 Neo-Babrlonian Average size of 6 houses: 763.4 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 467 Population estimate: 2335. Density over whole site: 40 per hectare.

Nimrudl7 Size of site: 3,600,000 sq.m. Residential areas 2,160,000 sq.m. Neo-Assyrian Average size of 4 houses: 137.5 sq.m. No, of houses in residential area: 159709. Population estimate: 789545. Density over whole site: 218 per hectare. 18 Uruk Size of site: 5,060,000 sq.m. Residential area: 3,036,000 sq.m. 800-600BC Average size of 6 houses: 213.4 sq.m. No. of houses in residential area: 149227. Population estimates 719135. Density over whole site: 141 per hectare. 18

If the densities calculated above are put to the areas of settlement surveyed in the Diyala, Warka region and central Mesopotamia, it may be possible to gain an idea of the comparative size of the population. The settlement areas have been taken from the sizes of sites given in the regional surveys. 19 For the Diyala Adams gave these sizes himself but for the Narka and central Mesopotamia regions the areas hal to be 20 calculated from the measurements published in the catalogues. The sites have ben grouped into the main dating periods for which evidence was found on the surface. Problems here include the above mentioned difficulty of dating material and the fact that no variations in size could be made according to the extent of occupation. In other words a site of 50 hectares with dating material from the Early Dynastic to Kassite periods has had to be counted as 50 hectares for all these intervening periods, although it may only have been 10 hectares during Ur III and 2 hectares in the Kassite. Where possible the population density is taken from a town (or average of towns) in the particular area. If this is not possible, then the density from the nearest town has been taken. In addition an avarage density per period has been worked out. Diyala area (The densities have been taken from an average of the figuras for Tell Asmar and Khafajeh in the Early Dynastic period, from Tell /Lamar in the Akkadian period, from an average of Tell Asmar and Tell Hamel in tue Ur III‘Isin-Larsa and Old Babylonian periods, from Nippur and Nuzi in the Kassite period and from Nippur in the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods) Period Settlement area Est.Population Density Early Dynastic 384 hectares 97,920 255 Akkadian 403 " 80,197 199 Ur III/Isin- Larsa 462 " 142,758 309 Old Babylonian 380 " 117,420 309 Kassite 230 100,970 439 Neo-Assyriani Neo-Babylonian 75 " 15,000 200 19

Warka area (The densities for the Waska region have been taken from an average of Khafajeb and Asmar for the Early Dynastic period, from Asmar for the Akkadian period and Ur III period, from Ur for the Isin/Lassa and Old Babylonian periods and Kassite period, and from Waska itself for the Neo-Assyrian/Neo-Babylonian period. Estimated areas for Warka, Larsa and Shuruppak have been added to the settlement areas listed in the survey catalogue.) Period Settlement area Est.Population Density Early Dynastic III 1536.4 hectare L191,782 255 Akkadian 1420.5 “ 282,680 199 Ur III 2042 " 414,526 203 Isin/Larsa 1831 " 419,299 229 Old Babylonian 1440.6 " 329,870 229 Kassite 1073 " 203,870 190 Neo- Assyrian/ Neo-Babylonian 1004 141,564 141

Central Mesopotamia (The densities , have been taken from an average of Kbafajeh and Asmar for the Early Dynastic III, from Asmar for the Akkadian period and from Nippur for all the others. An estimated area for Babylon has been added to Gibson's survey around Kish and Adams' survey in ancient Akkad) Period Settlement area Est.Population Density Early Dynastic III 733.3 hectares 186,992 255 Akkadian 904 to 179,896 199 Ur III 902 170,478 189 Isin/Larsa 908 201,213 221.6 Old Babylonian 1102 " 387,904 352 Kassite 1804•5 " 1,230,669 682 Neo-Assyrian/ Neo-Baby1odian1267.6 " 253,520 200

Population estimates based on average densities (from appropriate sites) Period Cent .Mesopotamia Warka Diyala Density Early Dynastic 186,992 391,782 97,920 255 Akkadian 179,896 282,680 80,197 199 Ur III 177,968 400,232 90,552* 196 Isin/Larsa 242,436 488,877 123,354 * 267 Old Babylonian 422,066 551,750 145,540 383 Kassite 642,402 381,988 81,880 356 Neo-Assyrian/ Neo-Babylonian 190,140 150,600 11,250 150 (* The areas for the Ur III and Isi gLarsa in the D,iyala regions are the same as they were lumped to tber by Adams.) 20

Total population in survey areas (based on average densities) Early Akkadian Ur III Isin/Larsa Kassite Neo-Assyr. Dynastic Babyllonian Neo-Babyl. 676,694 542,773 668,752 854,667 1,119,356 1,106,270 351,990

These population figures do not cover the whole of Mesopotamia nor even the whole of the alluvial plain. The most noticeable gaps in the south are the area around Bismaya between the Central Mesopotamian and Warka surveys, the Ur and Eridu areas and the Girsu-Lagat region, nor has there been any allowance for any nomadic population. However if the average density for all periods in the southern areas (264) is compared with the average density for Chagar Bazar (Old Babylonian), Nuzi (m1d-second millennium) and Nimrud (Neo-Assyrian) (265) it can be seen that these are almost the same so that it is poseible that the populations were also about the same. Thus if the population is doubled to cover the northern areas, and then a third of the southern population is added to cover other unsurveyed areas plus the nomadic population some idea may be gained of the population for the whole of Mesopotamia. It must be stressed that this is only tentative as the doubling of the population implies that periods of expansion and adversity in the south were mirrored in the north.

Early Akkadian Ur III Isinjtarsa Old Kassite Neo-Assyr. Dynastic Babylonian Neo-Babyl. 1 ,57 8 ,953 1,560,421 2,611,831 821,310 1,266,470 1,994,223 2,581,297

Some points of criticism should be noted, while historically the end of the third millennium and the beginning of the second were prosperous with flourishing trade from all parts of Mesopotamia and many vigorous kingdoms in existence (Mari, Babylon, Rimah, Atgur etc.) the following period is not usually considered to be so stable. The high population figures for the Kassite period may be biased by the high density figure found at Nippur for this period, which was based on the measurement of only one house and may therefore give a completely false impression. However the Kassite dynasty in the south was the longest reigning dynasty in the history of Mesopotamia and this alone should have provided some stablitiy. This period is paralleled in the north by the rise of the Assyrian state. The drastic drop in population, between the end of the Kassite period (c.1220) and the 9th century may only apply to the south i The figures certainly seem low for the Assyrian kingdom in the north. 21

A contemporary population estimate exists for the city of Nimrud dated to around 875-867 BC. AMMUrnasirpal gave a feast when the city of Nimrud was completed and set up a stele to 21 commemorate the event. In this he states that his feast was for 69,574 people made up of 16,000 'citizens' of Nimrud, 47,074 workmen and women from all the lands under the king, 5,000 officials Plso from the neighbouring states and 1,500 officials from the royal palaces. Although it is not clear whether the 16,000 were the original inhabitants of Nimrud before the king began to build it as his capital city or whether the 47,074 workmen and women and all the officials had become permanent residents in the city, the figure of 69,574 compares well with the total of 78,545 estimated from the house plans. This large population is reflected in the Neo-Assyrian inscriptions recording the numbers of towns and villages listed as being conquered by their armies. 22 Before completing this appendix on population estimates mention must be made of Professor Gelb's comments that the average 21 house size in Mesopotamia was 35.3 sq.m. or one ear, - and that the estimated averages of the archaeologists based on the excavated plans are incorrect possibly because these houses were owned by nobility and high officials and did not cover a sufficient range of size. The average size of house in the above calculations is 159.29 sq.m. and the size of house measured varied from under 30 sq.m. to over 700. For example at Ur in the Isin/Larsa period two houses of 36 sq.m. (Vi . and VIII) on Straight Street and one of 28 sq.m. (VI) existed on Store Street. At the other end of the scale a house of 330 sq.m. (IV) was found on Paternoster Row. his variation in size was found at other sites: at Kbafajeh (Houses 4, J42:2) a house of 35 sq.m. was measured while another was c.300 (XXXVIII) and in Houses I & 2 the sizes varied from 528 sq. m to 64 and 55 sq.m. A number of houses in the region of 12-48 sq.m. were found at Asmar, Stratum Va mixed with others of 248, 242, 154 etc., and this can be seen for all the sites where a number of houses could be measured. Thus it would seem that the houses excavated cover a wide range of size. It is 22 difficult to believe that there were enough houses under 35 sq.m. in size (a very small area indeed) to counteract the larger houses to bring the average down to one ear. Could it be that the documents of sale from which the average of one ear is taken refer not to whole houses but to rooms or groups of rooms? If Professor Gelb l s contention that the average size of house in Mesopotamia was 1 5.3 sq.m. is correct this would raise the population figures substantially. As examples, the population of Tell Asmar (Early Dynastic and Akkadian town) would be 1 000, Nippur 90,642, Ur 50,893, Warka 433,714 and Nimrud 308,571. (Densities of 857 per hectare). The last two in particular would seem to be a little high. At present the differenc:s between the archaeological and philological evidence cannot be resolved and for the purpose of this study the figures on page 20 will be used to consider the agricultural resources aid the ability of the land to supply the local population. 23

References and notes for Appendix II 1. Dossin G. Les noms d'anneep et eponymea dan lee 'Archive de Mari' 2. Frankfort H. Kingship and the Gods, 396, note 23.

Adams Diyala

4 . Gibson M. City and Area of Kish including Appendix V 'Settlement and irrigation patterns in ancient Akkad o by R. Adams, 182. 5• Uruk Countryside. 6. Adams Diyala 41

7. Nuzis HSS XVI No. 392 Average 4.5 HSS XVI No. 402 5 Nippur: BE rry No. 58 4.33 Assyria: Johns Doomsday Book: Nos. 1, 2 9 3 9 4, 6, 8, lls • Average 4.33 Averages: 4.54 - rounded up to 5.

8. Delougaz P, Hill H.D 9 Lloyd S. Private Houses and Graves in the Diyala, 276, Table II. Details of plans for Khafajeh and Tell Asmar sites takan from Plate 1 and Plate 23. 9. ibid., 196 and Plate 23 re the excavation of a pie- Larsa wall.

10. Baqir T. 'Tell Frarmal, a preliminary report' Sumer II 1946, Plate before p.31. 11. McCown D 9 and Haines R. Nippur I, Temple of Enlil Plates 5, 59, 61, 63, 64, 70B, 74 A & B 9 75 A & B.

12. Mallowan M.E.L. 'Excavations at Tall Chagar Bazar' Iraq IV, 1937 9 Figs 12 & 5.

13. Starr Nuzi II, Plans 2 & 13.

14. Woolley C.L. 'Excavations at Ur 1930-31' Antiquaries Journal Vol. XI, 1931, 359-368, Plate XIVII 15. U2 VIII Plate 63 A & 63 B. 16. UE IX Plate 71.

17. Yallowan Nimrud 19 Plan on p.185. 18. UVB 21 9 Plates 27 & 28.

19. Adams Diyala, Tables 11-16.

20. Gibson M. City & Area of Kish, 118-158, 182-208. Uruk Countryside

21. Iraq XIV, 44, lines 142-148. 24

22. Luckenbill D.D. Ancient R e cords of Assyria and Babylonia4 I, 57, para.164: Tukulti-Ninurta Year 1: 28,800 Pittite warriors captured. 146, para.445: Anurnarsirpal Year ls City of Kinabu, 600 warriors slain and 3000 captives burned. 149, para.448: Ag 5urnalirpa1 Year 31 1,460 warriors slain, 12,000 soldiers captured east of the Tigris. 153, para.455: Aurnapirpal Year 3: 6 forts and 150 'towns' listed for the state (?) of Ameka ir the campaign against Zamua. . 129 para. 257: Sennacherib's let campaign: 80,000 bowmen in the army of Merodach Balodan of Babylon.

23. Gelb I.J. 'Quantitative Evaluation of slavery and serfdom' Kramer Anniversary Volume, AOAT 25, 197-198. 25 APPtaiDIX III Selected. Vocabulary Page in Volume I abilt nlri/UBI.A.DA.KU 6 River-UBI -fish (type of barbel) 172 abut ttmti/UBI.A.A3.BA.KU6 Sea-water -UBI -fish - Polydactylus 172 tetradactylus

gargms0/AGARGARA, NUN.KU6 shad ilisha) 173 aj(j)alu/D1RA.BAR ?fallow deer 161 akalu, alaiNINDA,k NINDA.MEg, NINDA.HI.A. bread 124 alapplinu/KAg .U.SA ZCZ.A.AN special beer 144 elza/m4 ox 99

.1iTall type of ohiok pea 261

-apsasO/AB.ZA.ZA ?water buffalo 103

Irstrinu/GIggAggUR.KUR.RA 'apricot' 210 arnabu/A.GIR .E DIN . NA 9 KA.EDIN.NA hare 164 arsInu ?burgbul -like product 111 arsuppu/EgTUB.KU6 Barbel (Barbus (Puntius) sharpeyi 170 Gunther) azuiruid.FR.SAG ?saffron 222 banniru/BAPPIR beer bread 137 billatu/KAgh.SA (DIDA) common beer 141 buq1u/kUNEr green malt 136 4 buriNuiag.(Nrm).LI pine-nut 217 butuntu/GIg.LAM.GAL pistachio nut 217 DAR.RA dried 174 diNiptubhu/ktt.U.SA ?sweetened beer, made from emmer Z Z.A.AN wheat 143 dignuAlL honey, also date syrup 225

26 e 1 DUO.BIG.DUB.BUR fermenting vat with draining bole at bottom. 147

NVEit I-qaBi millet 43 1112/1.0A vegetable oil (see %amnu) 199

ISELOz she—goat, goat 98 2arma/ait.ApIN seeder plough 68

eqTdu, type of cheese , 186 erh2BUR175 locust 164 GA.gAR cheese 185 GA.UAR KASx (GAZI) ?spiced obeese 186

gaj(j)itu type of cereal 88

GA.§E.A ?cheese mixed with barley or barley & milk gruel 186

GA.SIG .A dairy product 186 .. 7 GIR.LAM ?cake 126 gakkallu/GUKKAL (IIDG.FL) fat—tailed sheep (Type 3) 97 GU4 madlate ?salted beef or stuffed beef rolls? 154 / GU.SAR ?dried or green pulse 258 babbu/GA. gEBBUR (KIB) GAL ?plum 215

hallsu. to press 201 . P ba1/Pa/M.0AL chick pea 192

p.mdt ?eel 173 Walm/GILAPIN.TUK.KIN, plough used to break up GILAPINA.U.KIN soil (see Elam) 68 Dmig/VI.IS.SAR lettuce 196 bantru/GILITAkTUR apple - 209 tg2/641AR4AR ?thyme 223

kEEITI onion, or garlio 190 lifiagtu/I.BUN ghee 185 27

bimri fermented drink made from barley and fruit at Mari. 291

VI+WHUX type of barbel. 172 f I.AB ?cream 198

S. I.GIS sirdi olive oil 204

.E.KU fish oil or a type of fish 198 6 isqlqu/LKUM semolina or burghul-type prodaut 113

kakkg/dr.TUR lentils 192

kakkullu/GAKKUL mash tub (see namenu) 147 kaminaru/GIg.gENRUR (KIB).KUR.RA pear 215 kamtinu/6.DIN.TIR, GA .MUM cumin 220

kar1nu/(0ft).GEgTIN grapes, wine, vine 227

karalu/G/LRAg(.SAR) leek 190

ia_e_VGAZI ?mustard 221

KAg.Gf0 dark beer 140

KAg.KAL strong beer 140

KAg.SI red-brown beer 140 4 KAg.SUR filtered beer 140

kibtu/GIG 'bread -wheat' 42

ki.KAxSAR.KU6 sea-fish (Pampri_altesaz) (Arab. subeidi 172

kisibirru/(4)46E.L6(.SAR) coriander 219

kuddimmu plant used to produce salt or alkali. 225

ku z f z emmer wheat 42 KU6.NE fresh fish (MOIL), masgoof (smoked fish)(KU6.IZI) 175

121Einta onion 190 kuppt/dEBI.KU6 ?eel 173

kurangu/U.SM.LI.A ?rice 43

28 kurAfkuR.0I.muEN goose 179 kustpu/AINDA.la bread 125 laptuAUJIB.SAR turnip 195 laptuAM.SA roasted barley 110 % 112I.UDIJ mutton fat 198 . / 1ittu/AB cow 99 lulImu/tULIM ?red deer 161 majiiru/GII.APIA.k.KIN plough used to break up soil GI .APIff.TUK.KIN (see abrbu) 68 mailku out of meat 150 munduAl90.2.RA semolina (see simdu) 110 muttqu/WINDA.1CU .1CU . ' sweet pastry' 127 7 7 nikamil.tAg pig fat 198 _neftlinii tGAKICUL mash tun (see kakkullu) 147 namAtu/GI.MA.AW .SIM reed sieve 118 . naetan learrim/NIG.W.LUGAL meal for the king 244 naspanu/GIt.6.N.RA barrow 71

nassabu.. ?artichoke 195 AMA emsu 'sour' bread 125

NINDA.KUM flat tannour —type bread 125 . / NINDA mersuATINDA.I.DE.A 'sweetened bread' 126 WINDA mutqa/NINMA.LIL.L1L 'sweet cake or bread' 127 BMA sammTdEtum bread from semolina 111 EIDA.KUR Bishop's Weed (Ammi Visnaga) 222 nurmft/GI g.NG.UR .MA pomegranate 209 paplasu coarsely crushed grain from which malted dishes or bread can be made. 113 paspasu/UZ.TUR.MUtEN duck 179

purIdVtutturt.M6 barbel (Barbum esooinus (aeokel)) 171 214/WAN.VUL.A.ritEff, sandgrouse (Pterooles URU.UUL.A.MUSEN &lobate) 180 lima/A flour 117 29 ra4qu/BAL.0I.KU6 turtle/tortoise (see 16elepp0) 173 sahlt/ZA0.F.LI.SAR cress 194 samidu to grind 111 alsiiidu/KA0A plant whose ashes are used as a salt replacement 224 sasqq/A.TIR (11§A) dish made from semolina, mixed with water, milk or oil. 112 simdu[NIG.AR.RA semolina (see mundu) 118 sUkanninu/TU.KIL(GUR 4 ) dove or pigeon 180 8u1umhO/aDU.d4.SUD wool-coated sheep (Type 2) 96 su1uppu/Z11.LUM date 205 zummatu/TU.MUtEA dove or pigeon 180

SU.SU smoked 175 !abltu/MAA gazelle 160 to press ts Nati- 201 zulRmu, sell-Motu/ DARALLIT.p.MegEN ?domestic ben 180 lellt/OIR.KU6 sea-fish (Carlota sexfasoiatus) 171

Albg/tAg , t4Y pig 154 takiku to harrow 71 galIaru/0IMENBUR (KIB) ?plum 215 lamaNkillum/SUM.SIKIL onion (or garlic) 190 "samattamtUAE.C6.1 ?linseed 199 iambaliltu/d.SULLIM.SAR fenugreek 222 stsamnu/i.0It vegetable oil (see ellu) 199 14ebgru to level 71 belep4l/BAL.0I.KU6 turtle/tortoise (see raqqu) 173 gE+Suttutt sea-fish (Polydactylus dactylus) 172

1212/tE barley 42 Iliktru/KAM beer 136 u_2j6sim u.U.A fennel 223 30

isizbui0A milk, sour milk 185

1112a/SUM garlio (or onion) 190 tarlugallu/MAR.LIMAL. MIEN male of domestio ben? 180

tarru/DAR.MARIT ?domestic ben 180 _ tinaru/IMATTJTIGIN.VA, IIIIUN.MUIIALDIM ovens 134

titipu/TITAB malted beer-bread 137 tittu/GA.PE(MA) fig 208

91.122/MUN salt 223 WM green dates 212 Mt cucumber 195

uluginnuing.Zifli / beer with emmer-wheat Kig .DIN .010 in it. 141 urip./MA goat 98

liANG.DIA.TIR.GE 6 black cumin (ligella sativa) 220

LUTU milk and flour gruel 185 _jzinuSIIM.ITT§.Aziti type of onion 190

ZI samedltum flour from semolina 111 ZIZ.0A kusbuk - wheat and milk porridge 185

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