A STUDY OF DIET IN MESOPOTAMIA (o.3000 — 600 BC) AND ASSOCIATED AGRICULTURAL TECHNIQUES AND METHODS OF FOOD PREPARATION by Elizabeth Rosemary Ellison Institute of Archaeology Volume Two Thesis submitted to the University of London in the Faculty of Arts for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 1978 LOOHY VAit TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume 2 page Appendix I: Capacity Measures 1 References 9 Appendix II: Estimates of population trends 12 References 23 Appendix Selected vocabulary 25 Figures 31 References: Chapter 1 61 Chapter 2 67 Chapter 3: 3.1 89 3.2 . 101 3.3 115 3.4 118 3.5 122 3.6 125 3.7 130 3.8 135 Chapter 4 138 Chapter 5 156 Bibliography 157 List of Figures (Volume Two) 1 3 Fig.l • Nutrition Chart for Mesopotamia. Daily intakes. 31 Fig.2. Excerpts from the FAO Recommended Tables of Intakes, 32 Handbook on Human Nutritional Requirements, No. 28 Table 1. Fig.3. Nutritional value of Barley from Food Compositions 33 Tables for use in the Middle East (P.L. Pellet & S.Shadarevian), Section I, Composition of Foods, 100 grams, edible portion. Pig. 4 . Comparison of selected proll,fessions. 34 Fig.5. Ancient courses of the Euphrates and Tigris. 35 Base map adapted from Gibson M. The City and Area of Kish, Fig. 69 'Reconstruction of watercourses in Mesopotamia to about 1000 BC'. The ancient courses are taken from the text of chapter 1. Fig.6. Soil map of Iraq. Adapted from Flora If Fi g. 4. 36 Fig.7. Reliefs The royal banquet of AAburbanipal, from 37 Barnett R.D. Assyrian Palace Reliefs, Plate 105. Fig.8. Cylinder seals Shaduf, from Parrot Sumer No. 231. 37 Fig.9. Cylinder seals Plain plough. Parrot Sumer No. 234. 38 Fig.10. Cylinder seals Seeder ploughs. Cylinder Seals, Plate 38 XIX Nos. E & F. Fig.11. Grain threshing near Malayar, Hamadan, Iran, in 1970. 39 Fig.12. Winnowing grain near Yalayar, Hamadan, Iran, in 1970. 39 Fig.13. Cylinder seals man driving a seeder-plough drawn by 40 oneox. Porada I, Plate XCV No. 651. Fig.14. Reliefs Mixed herd of sheep and grats. Barnett R.D. 40 & Faulkner Y. Sculpture' of Aturnapirpal... Plate V. Fig.15. Vases Hairy short-tailed sheep (Type 1) from the 41 Warka Vase. Parrot Sumer No. 89. Fig.16. Relief: Humped cattle being herded along a river. 41 Gadd Stones No. 14. Fig.17. Relief: 711amita prisoners placing bread on a fire. 42 By the courVesy of the British Museum. (Published in Barnett R.D. Sculptures from the Northern Palace Plate LXVI e. Fig.18. A modern tannour near Baghdad, 1975. 43 Fig.19. Dough being placed in the tannour, 1975. 43 Fig.20. A bakery in Mosul, 1975. 44 Pa Fig.21. Reliefs Grinding and kneading in an Assyrian Camp. From King L.W. Bronze reliefs from the Gates of Sbalmaneserj King of Assyria Plate VI upper register. Fig.22. Reliefs Preparing bread. From King U. Bronze 45 Reliefs Plate LI Fig.23. statues Base of Ur—Bingirsu statues men holding 46 baskets of bread. Parrot Sumer No. 269. Fig.24. Cylinder Seals Presentation scene with a sheep's 47 head set on bread on an altar. Boehmer No. 387. Fig.25. Reliefs A tannour in a oamp. Gadd No. 29a. 47 riga& Cylinder seals Brewer heating the mash. BoehmerNo.557 48 Fig.27. Cylinder Seals Brewer 'draining' the wort. 48 Boehmer Yo. 547. Fig.28. Cylinder seals Men drinking tear through tubes. 49 Porada / 9 Plate XVIII No. 112. Fig.29. Cylinder seals Banquet scene with men drinking from 49 cups. Pored& I Plate XXXIX, No.250E Fig.30. Inlays ram being slaughtered. Parrot Sumer No.171B 50 Fig.31. Reliefs Skinning the carcase of a sheep. Gadd 50 Stones No. 29a. Fig.32. Sounding box of a harp: Joints of meats Parrot Sumer 50 No.179. Fig.33. Reliefs Hunting scene from Salonen A. Vegel... 51 Plate LXXVIII Fig.34. Reliefs Provisions being carried for the king's 51 feast. From Layard II Plate 9a. Fig.35. Reliefs 'Fishing' Barnett R.D. & Faulkner M. 52 Sculptures of ANgurnasirpal Plate CXX 1ig.36. Cylinder seals Bird set on a table. VR No.654 52 Fig.37. Cylinder seals goat being milked. Parrot Sumer No.107. 53 rig.38. Inlays Sheep being milked. Moortgat Art No. 40. 54 Fig.39. Cylinder seals 'Story of Etana l Dairy scene. 54 Parrot Sumer No. 226. Fig.40. Reliefs Provisions being carried for feast. From 55 Layard II, Plate 9b. Fig.41. Reliefs Fruit being carried for feast. From Layard 55 II Plate 8b. Fig.42. Cylinder seals Banquet. Parrot Sumer Ho. 197 56 LIM Cylinder seal: Banquet scene — men seated at 56 table with servants. Porada I Plee /XXIX No. 252. Fig.44. Relief: Woman with fish and bread. Du Ry C.J. 57 Art of the ancient Near and fiddle East., 123. Fig. 45 . Cylinder seals Table laid with bread, and dishes. 57 Porada I Plate XCIX No. 673 E. Fig.46. Reliefs Officer eating in camp. Barnett P.D. & 58 Faulkner M. Sculptures of Oturnagirpal Plate LX Fig.47. Ivory panel: Yen seated at separate tables. 58 Mallowan M.E.L. & Davies L.G. Ivories in Assyrian Style Plate V No. 7. Fig.48. Relief: Elamite prisoners eating. By the courtesy 59 of the British Yuseum. (Published in Barnett R.D, Sculptures from the Northern Palace Plate LXVI Slab A.) Fig.49 . Reliefs Elamite prisoners eating. By the courtesy 59 of the British Museum. (Published in Barnett R.D. Sculptures from the Northern Palace... Plate LXVI Slab A.) Fig.50. Reliefs Elamite prisoners eating. Gadd Stones No.40. 60 Fig.51. Relief: Elamite prisoners eating. Gadd Stones No.291).60 1 APP7NDIX I Capacity Measures In ancient Mesopotamia foodstuffs, grain yields etc., were expressed in capacity measu-t. es and some understanding of these measures is essential before the nutritional value of the food eaten and the efficiency of the agricultural techniques used can be considered. The basic measure which was used from the • , third to the first millennium is the S ILA/gag numbers of which form larger measures that vary from place to place and period to period. Thus, in Assyria, the imFru (homer) is made up of 100 aa; in Babylonia, the GURAurru equals 300 ALA/ (180 S1LA in the Neo-Babylonian period); in Mari (at the beginning of the second millennium)• the GUR equals 120 itl,A; in the Sargonic period the GUR.SAG.GAI is made up of 240 SILA and in the pre-Sargonic period the GUR.SAG.dIL equals 144 SILA. These larger measures (imeru, GURAcurru, GM.SAG.G).L etc.,) are also subdivided into units such as the PI/nanu and the BAN/siltu, which again contain 1 varying numbers of SILAS. This list of measures is a simplification as, especially in the earlier periods, there were other ORS (for example the GUR.SA.DZTG with 140 SILA and the GLIB.A-7a-de.KI• with 300 SILA) consisting of different numbers of SILAS. The satu too could be made up of different numbers of SILAS (for example the situ of Carcemish and the bronze satu and the -satu of 9 or 8 SILA ia the No Assyrian period. 2 ) However the measures listed are those used most frequently in connection with foodstuffs and agriculture and are the main ones used in this study. These measures apply mainly to solids and liquids were sometimes recorded in other terms. Although it is possible to draw up lists of, say, the yields in SILAS of fields in different areas and differentieriods, no proper comparison can be made until the size of the S1LA used can be established and preferably in terms of a modern equivalent. In other words 1) has the SI:A the same capacity throughout the third to the first millennium, and 2) how does that capacity relate to the modern litre? There are two possible ways of approaching these questions. It has been suggested that the ubiquitous bevel-rim bowls of the Uruk period may have been used to measure out the rations issued to employees in households.- If this was so there should be a standard size or sizes among these bowls, aud, given the 2 continuation of the ration-system, it is possible that there were similar standard sizes in pottery from later periods. Second, a few pottery vessels are inscribed with a capacity measure so that if the cubic capacity of the vessel is related to the inscription some idea can be gained of the size of the SILA at that time. In addition there are some mathematical texts which have made it possible for calculations to be carried out on the size of the SILA. Cubic capacity of pottery In order to calculate the cubic-capacity of pottery the published drawings from a number of sites have been studied. Of necessity this has been rather a rough and ready method as the drawings tend to be of pottery types rather than of specific pots so that slight variations of size from one vessel to another may have been ironed out. When the cubic-capacity is worked out, the pots have been divided into size-groups and the average for each group was taken. This has been done for all typos of pottery examined, and again for open-bowls. 4 The average sizes of the pottery suggested that if they were based on a standard measure, that measure stayed more or less the same throughout the period. Most variations, for example .6 litre open-bowl at Nippur in the Old Babylonian period, are generally caused by the smaller number of vessels falling into that range, and because of this cannot be taken as indicating a change in the standard measure.