Introduction

Introduction Mark Monmonier An encyclopedia refl ects a design and a process that not ity of offi cial delineations, and participatory mapping only determine its content but also limit and enhance its was a recurrent theme at academic conferences. usefulness. In addition to providing a comprehensive de- Indeed, as mapping practices pervaded all parts of the scription of the intellectual design of Cartography in the globe and all levels of society, and mapping became more Twentieth Century, this introduction situates volume 6 important as a tool for coping with complexity, organiz- as part of the larger History of Cartography series and ing knowledge, and infl uencing public opinion, scholars concludes with practical advice for users. It begins with recognized the need (belatedly perhaps) for a critical a concise overview of the importance of the twentieth appraisal of the use, misuse, and effectiveness of maps century as a period that saw broad changes in the form, for exploration, regulation, management, planning, and use, and circulation of maps. At the end of the volume persuasion. Understanding the importance of maps as a brief processual history describes the complex process tools also demands a conscientious effort to disentangle of implementing the logic and systematic strategy de- signifi cant, demonstrable impacts like those described in scribed below. volume 6 from assumptions based largely on theory or conjecture. During the twentieth century simplistic no- Mapping in the Twentieth Century tions of the map as an objective representation of reality have given way to a broader grasp of how the map’s Despite deep roots in the mapping practices of the nine- respectability as a scientifi c tool makes it a target of po- teenth century and earlier eras, the period 1900 through litical manipulation (see the entry “Geopolitics and Car- 2000 was a distinct and coherent era in cartographic tography”), a broader and deeper appreciation of the history characterized by six key themes that together diverse ways in which maps can be read and understood revolutionized both the form and the use of maps (e.g., (see “Social Theory and Cartography”), and a broader, Monmonier and Puhl 2000): more nuanced understanding of the role of cartographic 1. Diverse Impacts of Mapping on Society. Whether visualization in the packaging of ideas (see “Persuasive driven by technology, state formation, imperialism, or Cartography”). The changing boundaries between car- other forces, mapping assumed new or greatly enhanced tography and other endeavors were also apparent in the roles in the twentieth century, notably in entertainment, growing participation of humanists, literary scholars, environmental protection, growth management, weather and art historians at academic conferences on map use prediction, hazard mitigation, and other arenas with and map history as well as in the adoption of the geo- clear social impact. Dramatic change is most notably graphic information system (GIS) as an analytical tool apparent in the transition from paper to digital media in archaeology, environmental biology, and public ad- and in related changes in data acquisition, map com- ministration, among other fi elds. pilation, representation, and dissemination (Foresman 2. Overhead Imaging. Technologies for imaging 1998; Monmonier 1985, 1996). This unprecedented earth from aircraft, satellites, balloons, and rockets en- upheaval alone is a strong argument for the twentieth hanced the effi ciency of mapping and surveillance and century’s importance as a pivotal period and thus a co- had diverse scientifi c, social, military, and political im- herent focus of historical enquiry. Moreover, the cen- pacts, exemplifi ed in the early twenty-fi rst century by tury witnessed not only a relative “democratization” of an increased use of unmanned aerial vehicles as tools map use and associated improvements in cartographic of surveillance and weapons of attack. Improved tech- literacy but also an increased awareness of ethical con- nologies for capturing image data and extracting carto- siderations in the design and use of maps: by century’s graphic features spearheaded a proliferation of geospa- end maps and mapping were subject to unprecedented tial databases, which in turn fostered a revitalized use questioning, counter-maps were challenging the author- of maps in older, more traditional fi elds of application xxv xxvi Introduction such as energy exploration, transportation, and urban later became a defensive strategy through the declara- planning. During the twentieth century, aerial mapping tion of no-fl y zones, actively enforced in some cases but and photogrammetry extended the reach of large- and largely rhetorical in others. Radar, a new mapping tool intermediate-scale topographic mapping so effectively adept at tracking aircraft, became a strategy for enforc- that terrae incognitae no longer meant the absence of ing other kinds of no-fl y zones, including airspace re- any modern maps but a relative dearth of the censuses, strictions above coastal waters and dynamic temporary detailed land use surveys, and environmental assess- fl ight restrictions (TFRs) that could emerge or expand ments essential to the Western world’s managed spaces. suddenly in accord with the movements of top offi - In addition, remote imaging of other heavenly bodies cials. The growth of prohibitive cartography during the helped redefi ne exploration. twentieth century is also apparent in increased maritime 3. The Electronic Transition. Another dramatic devel- restrictions, including the widening of most territorial opment was the far-reaching conversion of geographic seas from three to twelve nautical miles and the delinea- information to electronic media, which allowed the tion of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), which gave creation of interactive and dynamic maps. While the coastal nations new authority over fi shing and subsur- products of this technology were not necessarily less ex- face mining within two hundred nautical miles of their pensive or more reliable, GIS and the Internet radically shoreline. The advent of offshore drilling and submarine altered cartographic institutions and lowered the skill warfare led to a broader, more intensive mapping of the required to be a map author, and satellite positioning sea fl oor as well as the discovery of a multitude of sea- and mobile telecommunications revolutionized map- mounts (submarine volcanoes), which triggered a round based wayfi nding. Moreover, web-based technology of aggressive naming reminiscent of the seventeenth cen- not only undermined the traditional role of the state in tury. Mapping had an inevitable if not indispensible role topographic mapping but also made zooming in and out in dividing the seas and shrinking international waters. a widely pervasive and intrinsically interactive means of New mapping technologies strengthened the bond changing map scale—an extension to everyday use of between national defense and cartography and under- the elegant but static bird’s-eye views that had begun to scored the unintended consequences of technological proliferate in the nineteenth century. Connections with innovation. Cold War fears of nuclear weapons and earlier periods of map history are also apparent in the intercontinental ballistic missiles inspired the develop- increased role of government in collecting, mapping, ment of artifi cial satellites useful not only for monitor- and using scientifi c data; the heightened concern for ing weapons development and launch sites but also for data quality; the rise and decline of truly mass produc- mapping terrain and monitoring weather systems. More tion in the twentieth century; and the confl ation of geo- exact representations of the planet’s shape and gravity graphical, thematic, and topographic mapping whereby anomalies, originally intended to guide intercontinen- users could toggle between different layers or “cover- tal ballistic missiles toward precisely pinpointed tar- ages” while interactively manipulating map scale. Astute gets, provided a more accurate geodetic framework for implementation of digital technologies, though never geographic information of all types, civilian as well as straightforward and far from complete by century’s end, military. In addition, the prospect of low-altitude un- had moved cartography farther beyond description and manned bombers guided by the automated comparison delineation and closer to the more ambitious goals of of altimeter readings with onboard electronic terrain seeing and knowing. maps led to digital elevation models, which by century’s 4. Maps and Warfare. The twentieth century wit- end were supporting civilian applications as diverse nessed the increased salience of the longstanding rela- as geographical mapping, landscape architecture, and tionship between cartography and warfare. Along with commercial forestry. Moreover, the global network of the greater effi cacy of precisely targeted cruise missiles seismographs sensitive to underground explosions— and the trickle-down of military technology into civil- essential for ensuring compliance with nuclear test-ban ian applications, this development brought impulsive treaties—proved useful in studying continental drift and aggression, the diversion of funds from benefi cial public modeling seismic risk. And fi nally, the Global Position- investment, and a reduced reliance on diplomacy. Ac- ing System (GPS), intended as a more reliable way to companying this technology-inspired reconfi guration

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