Multiracial Identity Development

Presented by Eleanor Lewis, M.A., CAGS, Veronica Sanjines, M.A., CAS and Ricia Weiner, Ph.D.

Mixed Mulatto Half Breed

Multiracial Mischlingskinder

Mestizo Amerasian Eurasian Oreo Biracial

1 Living with the legacy of the one drop rule, the majority of Multiracial people born prior to the last two decades of the twentieth century could only identify with their “minority” ancestry, since social norms and practices treated them as if they were Monoracial, regardless of their actual racial ancestry. Wijeyesinghe (2001)

Loving v. Virginia

„ Laws making interracial marriage illegal deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1967. „ Between the years 1967 and 1987 there was a 250% increase in interracial marriages (Perkins, 1994). „ The increase in the birth rate of Multiracial children is 26x higher than any other group (Smolowe, 1993) ± this may be an underestimate given data collection methods (Kerwin & Ponterotto, 1994). „ Interracial marriage has only been nationally recognized for 44 years.

2 US Census

„ Individuals were first allowed to mark more than one race in the 2000 Census. „ In 2010, 9,009,073 million people (2.9 percent of the population) reported two or more races. „ This represents a 32% increase over the 2000 census in the number of individuals identifying as multiracial.

Arlington Demographics

„ APS boasts having students from 126 nations, speaking 98 languages. „ Last school year the APS population broke down to: White 48.4% Hispanic 26.3% African American 12.7% Asian/Pacific Islander 11.1% American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.1% Unspecified 1.4% „ At that time the number of multiracial students in APS could not be accurately determined due to: „ The ambiguity of the “Unspecified” category . „ Parents being forced to choose between marking one category for their child or them getting coded as “unspecified”.

3 APS Enrollment Forms

Previous enrollment form

Revised enrollment form 1/10

APS Enrollment Form cont'd

„ The previous form allowed parents/student to choose only one category. „ If more than one category was chosen, student’s race would be entered as “unspecified.” „ Current paper form (updated 1/10) allows for more than one race to be chosen.

4 What to Expect from this Presentation

„ Baseline knowledge about multiracial identity development „ The impact of race, adoption and language on identity development „ Some unique issues and challenges for these populations „ Assumptions and myths regarding these populations will be addressed

Myths (Kerwin & Ponterotto, 1995)

„ Myth 1 ± Multiracial individuals are destined to have far reaching problems due to their racial heritage (research supports that multiracial young adults are generally well adjusted). „ Myth 2 ± Individuals must choose to identify with only one racial group. „ Myth 3 ± Multiracial individuals do not want to discuss their racial identity.

5 Assumptions (Root, 1990)

„ In the US, generally we are grouped into white and non-white racially despite the multitude of ethnic and racial backgrounds represented in the population. „ White is considered superior to non-white with privileges and powers assumed by whites. „ There is a hierarchy of racial/cultural groups based upon their similarity to middle-class whites’ social structure and values. „ What a person looks to be (visual minority) may not be congruent with their ethnic/racial background.

These assumptions result in multiracial people: „ being given little choice in how they identify. „ experiencing oppression from the racial group to which they belong with a higher social status. „ finding it hard to gain acceptance by the minority group with whom they share a heritage if they are also part white.

Three Ways That Multiracial People Identify

Personal

Individual

Social Professional

6 Guess What?

Guess What?

7 Guess What?

Multiracial Identity Development Models

Two Models: „ Kerwin-Ponterotto Model ± stage- based model „ Wijeyesinghe’s Factor Model of Multiracial Identity (FMMI) ± factor model „ Both models allow for individuals to have fluidity and flexibility in how they choose to identify.

8 Kerwin-Ponterotto (K-P) Model

„ An integrated framework based on previous models for viewing the complex process that many individuals go through in developing their own racial identity. „ Multiracial identity formation is an individual process that is dependent on the resolution of numerous personal, societal, and environmental factors.

Stages of the K-P Model

Preschool (up to 5 years of age) „ Racial awareness emerges. „ Growing recognition of similarities and differences in people’s appearance. „ Experiential factors affect the rate of racial concept development (a child might enjoy the special attention or may get a feeling of otherness or lack of acceptance through verbal and nonverbal communications). „ Research supports that multiracial children develop racial awareness earlier than White children (Payne, 1977).

9 Stages of the K-P Model, cont'd

Entry to School „ Children begin to use social categories to simplify their perceptual world and start to become aware of hierarchies based on race. „ Children begin to ask questions such as “what are you?” „ Children begin to use labels and/or descriptive terms to define themselves and their families. „ Perceptions may vary depending on racial integration of the school environment. „ The child is affected by the teacher’s assumptions about race and multiracial identity that may set them apart from monoracial peers.

Stages of the K-P Model, cont’d

Preadolescence „ A general increase in the recognition of one’s own and others’ group membership as related to skin color, physical appearance, language, culture, etc, at this age. „ Preadolescents tend to use labels based on race, ethnicity, and/or religious background. „ For multiracial children there is an awareness that parents belong to distinct racial/ethnic groups. „ Environmental factors tend to trigger this awareness (i.e. experiences of racism, entry into a more integrated or segregated environment for the first time).

10 Stages of the K-P Model, cont'd

Adolescence „ Most challenging stage for multiracial youngsters due to developmental factors and societal pressures. „ Research shows that adolescents perceive pressure from peers to choose one racial group over another. „ Multiracial adolescents may find it difficult to resist pressure to identify solely with the parent of color. „ Dating can be complicated by the reactions of Whites (i.e. parents), as the multiracial adolescent may be perceived as belonging to a minority group.

Stages of the K-P Model, cont'd

College/Young Adulthood „ There may be a continuation of immersion in one culture with the rejection of the other. „ As a more secure personal identity emerges, others’ expectations are rebuffed and an acceptance of one’s multiracial heritage increases. „ Depending on environmental circumstances and personal appearance, the multiracial person may hear comments made by non-minorities that would not be said in front of visually identifiable persons of color. „ If there is a successful passage through the stages to this point, one may begin to recognize the advantages and disadvantages associated with being multiracial. „ There may be a development of “bicultural vision” which can allow the multiracial person to understand situations in a more in-depth and multifaceted way.

11 Stages of the K-P Model, cont'd

Adulthood „ Integration of cultures continues through adulthood. „ There will be a continuing of exploration and interest in different cultures, including one’s own. „ The individual will find they can function effectively in varying situations and understand different communities. „ Multiracial people may enjoy an increased flexibility in interpersonal relations due to their broad base of experiences.

Factor Model of Multiracial Identity (FMMI)

„ The FMMI was “developed from a qualitative study on African American/European American Multiracial adults” (Wijeyesinghe, 2001, p. 137). „ This model is applicable to multiracial people of other ethnic make-ups. „ FMMI assumes that racial identity is a choice made by each individual and how individuals understand and make meaning of these chosen identities in light of their experiences.

12 Factors FMMI Cultural Attachment Early Racial Experience Ancestry and Socialization

Choice of Political Physical Awareness Racial Appearance And Identity Orientation

Social and Historical Spirituality Context Other Social Identities

Factors

„ Racial Ancestry ± the racial groups reflected in an individuals ancestors. „ Early Experiences and Socialization ± Exposure to family, community and social institutions creates a system of socialization which can have a strong effect on choice of racial identity. „ Cultural Attachment ± Aspects of culture that multiracial people are exposed to; experiences in childhood and throughout life can include all sides of a person’s ancestry or only some of them. „ Physical Appearance ± Characteristics such as skin color and tone, hair color and texture, eye color and shape, size and shape of facial features, and body structure are used by the general public and society to make assumptions about people’s racial ancestry, racial group membership and racial identity.

13 Factors (cont¶d)

„ Social & Historical Context ± Individual and societal responses to social and historical events affect identity. „ Political Awareness and Orientation ± Claiming a particular identity, whether multiracial or monoracial, can take on meaning as a political act or statement. „ Other Social Identities ± Other social identities beyond race can mediate the choice of racial identity for some multiracial people. „ Spirituality ± Spiritual beliefs can provide a source of strength and refuge from racism, sustain individuals through the process of racial identity development, or assist them in deriving greater meaning form their racial ancestry or identity.

FMMI’s Take Home Points

„ The factors in the FMMI represents a filter for multiracial peoples’ experiences in order to create greater understanding of why and how they choose a range of racial identities. „ Many factors in the FMMI have an overlapping relationship. „ Greater possibilities for internal conflict may exist when there are wide discrepancies between the factors underlying choice of racial identity and possibly external perceptions or forces. „ A multiracial person’s choice of racial identity can be based on some, but usually not all, of these factors.

14 Transracial Adoption (TRA)

„ First publicly recorded documentation in the US of Black child being adopted by White parents was in 1948 in Minneapolis, Minnesota „ Gradual rise in TRA from 1950s-1970s „ TRA substantially declined after the 1971 Position Paper of The National Association of Black Social Workers against the practice because they posited:

“such placements compromised the child’s racial and cultural identity, amounting to a form of cultural genocide.” - Derrick Bell, Race, Racism and American Law 354 n.3 (4th ed. 2000).

Arguments Against TRA Morrison, A. (2004)

„ TRA Harms Black Adopted Children - Social armoring argument „ TRA Harms the Black Community - Black culture is diminished when black children are raised outside of their racial group - Perpetuates perception of pathologically inept black families who are incapable of raising their children „ TRA Harms the Adopting Parents - Parents will likely be subjected to hostility, intrusiveness, and/or prejudice for adopting transracially - Have to answer questions about adoption earlier and more often - Parents are likely to face more questions regarding infertility due to the transracial adoption - Parents may not know how to properly care for child’s hair & skin

15 Arguments for TRA Morrison, A. (2004)

„ TRA Provides Unique Benefits for the Children - Race matching delays and jeopardize the opportunity to be placed in a permanent home (1/2 of all children in foster care are Black) - Forces children to accept their adoptive status which can lead to positive self-identification and racial identity - Parents who adopt transracially are highly educated and the most qualified to adopt „ TRA Benefits Society in General - Increases social contact which reduces prejudice and can help to alleviate societal racism and racial tension „ TRA Benefits the Adopting Parents - TRA matches children with couples who might not otherwise be able to build a family - Teaches adoptive parents about a new culture - Provides parents with a lifelong education on race and supports the need for an active stance against racism

C.A.S.E./U.Md. Preliminary findings*

„ Comprehensive research regarding building self- esteem and racial identity in Transracially Adopted Youth

„ Preliminary findings shared through a webinar in March, 2011

„ Goal is to raise youth with High Racial Socialization = Cultural Socialization + Preparation for Bias

* Dr. Leigh Leslie (U.Md.) ± [email protected], Debbie Riley, M.S. (Center for Adoption Support and Education) ± [email protected]

16 C.A.S.E./U.Md. Preliminary findings (cont.)

„ Youth report that parents do a better job with cultural socialization (i.e. exposing children to books, dolls, cultural events, religious affiliations, individuals with similar racial backgrounds) than with preparation for bias (direct and frequent discussion about racism and discrimination)

„ Adequate Racial Socialization increases self-esteem and ethnic identity and decreases stress felt from discrimination (in cases where high levels of racial discrimination were reported)

Direct support regarding preparation for bias

Lois Melina, a Caucasian adoptive parent of Korean children and a noted adoption writer, lists five questions to ask to help your child deal with problem situations: 1. What happened? 2. How did that make you feel? 3. What did you say or do when that happened? 4. If something like that happens again, do you think you will deal with it the same way? 5. Would you like me to do something?

17 TRA Questions to Ponder

„ Do I have family and/or close friends of other racial, cultural or ethnic groups? If not, how can I develop such relationships?

„ Am I willing to move to another community, change schools or join appropriate organizations to find adult mentors and peers of my child’s race and culture if necessary?

„ How do I feel about meeting the specific needs my child will have in developing self identity and esteem?

TRA Questions to Ponder (cont.)

„ How do I envision supporting my child when he/she experiences racial prejudice and discrimination?

„ Can I accept the reality that by adopting a child of color that our family becomes a multiracial family?

18 Race, Culture & Language

„ Language is a factor that can “socially” decide what race, ethnicity or culture one is and whether there will be a sense of belonging or a sense of exclusion from a group, regardless of what an individual’s chosen identity is. „ Just like stereotypes based on race can influence other’s perceptions of the identity of a multiracial or transracial adoptee (TRA) so can culture and language. ± Ex. “Black people don’t speak Spanish.” ± Ex. “You don’t speak enough Korean to be really ‘Korean- Korean.’ „ Assumptions are also made that because one looks a certain way they automatically inherit culture and language. ± Ex. “You look Chinese, how come you don’t speak Chinese.” ± Ex. “Do you celebrate Cinco de Mayo.”

19 Race, Culture, & Language (cont’d)

„ In a study of Korean TRA development of racial & ethnic identities, participants endorsed that among their White group race was an emphasis and the primary factor, whereas among the Korean & Korean American group emphasis of belonging was placed on culture and language knowledge. ± Some participants shared that while they had identified as being “American” to Whites this was often contested because being American could be synonymous to being White also meaning you don’t speak another language. „ In another study Japanese families that adopted Chinese children were more likely to encourage development of the Japanese language(L2) rather than continue fostering Mandarin (L1). ± This was noted to be a related to helping their children identify more with the culture and ethnicity of Japan.

Race, Culture, & Language (cont’d)

„ Another study looked at use of heritage camps for TRA and explored how parents and TRA negotiated racial and family identity. ± Parents and TRA tended to perceive the success and quality of the heritage camps differently. ± Parents reported that the heritage camps were helpful in letting their children know that their adoption or family was not “strange” or “unusual” and also gave them a opportunity to be around others “like them.” ± Whereas TRA reported that they were already comfortable with being adopted but felt that the heritage camps while fun, did nothing to support culture or identity building beyond the “superficial” and didn’t explore the primary IDFWRUWKH\IDFHG«UDFLDOGLVFULPLQDWLRQDQGQRWWKHIDFW that they were adopted.

20 Unique Situation for Multiracial Individuals & Transracial Adoptees

„ Just as parents of English language learners can question whether or not to support the “minority language” so can parents of multiracial children and transracial adoptees question if their children should be raised as monolinguals or as bilingual individuals. „ While each parent may make different decisions, ELL parents and multiracial parents may provide more language transition than adoptive parents (i.e., supporting L1 and L2 via access to groups and culture, raising simultaneous bilingual children), whereas adoptive parents are generally unable to provide that language transition for adoptee children beyond perhaps a few words or phrases. „ The situation is referred to as a abrupt language shift.

Language Development in International Adoptees

„ IA/TRA children don’t necessarily fit into bilingual language learner categories. Rather they fall into a unique category called ‘second first language learners.’

„ One study explored the language-learning experience of a 3- year-old Chinese female adopted by a White family. ± Although not the focus of the study, themes emerged revolving around racial and cultural identity and language’s role. „ Child based her identity as American in relation to where she lived. „ Child “became Chinese” when she assimilated into the Chinese culture of her nanny (i.e., visiting her home) and reverted back to her American culture in other settings (i.e., home, school). „ Child was drawn to Chinese peers (some Mandarin speaking and some not). „ Child was described as motivated to learn English. Oral language in Mandarin occurred only when teachers were not in her vicinity.

21 Language Development in International Adoptees (cont’d)

„ While ELL students and international adoptees both may have to learn new syntactic structure, morphological markers, and pragmatic conventions (influenced by culture), international adoptees may also face the complexity of not having built a solid foundation of L1 to assist in building L2 (This is reportedly more typical of Eastern European Children).

„ In addition, medical issues in international adoption can impact language development.

„ This can make parent decision to foster native language a tough choice. As parents may wish to encourage their child to maintain their native language thus fostering culture and ethnicity but have to balance current medical needs.

The Role of the Family

„ A positive self-concept is promoted when a family (and extended family) views a person’s value as independent of race though race is not ignored. „ Extended family can have a huge impact on the way the multiracial child views their parents. „ The child is less likely to be embarrassed or reject part of their race heritage if they: „ live in an diverse and accepting community, „ the parent of lesser racial status has pride in themselves, „ and if parents have equal social status in the family. „ Children should be supported and given the freedom to develop their own racial identity through safe family relationships. Parents should make themselves available to discuss these issues in an open and nonjudgmental fashion.

22 The Role of the Family (cont’d)

„ For adopted children attention should be paid to the child’s identity development as an individual, as an adopted person, and as a person of a different ethnic-racial background from their parents. „ Parents who are White should acknowledge that racism exists and that although they may not be racist or biased, the rest of the world may not be as accepting of racial minorities. „ Parents should talk to their children about race and ethnicity. You want the biggest influence on how your child views race to be you!

Implications

„ Educators, counselors, parents and other helping agents should be aware that although some multiracial people have concerns related to their racial identity, others may not feel the need to explore racial identity at all, or may feel that other social identities such as their gender, sexual orientation, religion or socioeconomic status are more pressing issues in their lives. „ Helping agents, parents and individuals working with multiracial people may find these models helpful in identifying their own biases and beliefs about race, racial identity and multiracial people; acknowledge how these beliefs might influence their work with multiracial people; and create greater personal openness to the range of experiences multiracial people may have.

23 You Know You Are Multiracial or TRA if You¶ve Been Told or Have %HHQ$VNHG«

„ You have been told, “You have to choose; you can’t be both.” „ People assume your race to be different by phone and in person. „ You have repeatedly been the recipient of stares or longer than passing glances from strangers. „ Your choice of friends has been interpreted as you’re “selling out” or not being authentic. „ A stranger assumes that your father is your “older boyfriend” or your mother is the “older woman.” „ You have been asked, “What are you?” „ You have difficulty filling out forms asking for a single race. „ You are told, “You aren’WOLNHRWKHU,QGLDQV$VLDQV/DWLQRV«” „ You are told, “You aren’W%ODFN/DWLQR$VLDQ«HQRXJK” „ Your mother is assumed to be your nanny or babysitter. „ You were well liked by peers but were not asked for dates. „ You have been knowingly approached and asked, “Your mother’s white (black, Asian), huh?”

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“How Multiracial people identify racially is affected by social responses to issues of race, racism, interracial relationships, and Multiracial people at a given time in history.” Wijeyesinghe (2001)

24 “Every parent’s job is to help [their child] form an identity, it’s just an additional layer of complexity when your child’s identity has pieces of it that you don’t own.” - Rita Taddonio, Director ± Spence Chapin Adoption Resource Center

References

„ Root, M. (1996)50 Experiences If Racially Mixed People. The multiracial child resources book. Seattle, WA: Mavin Foundation. „ Wijeyesinghe, C. (2001). Racial identity in multiracial people. In Wijeyesinghe, C. & Jackson, B. (Eds.), New Perspectives on Racial Identity Development (pp.129-151). New York, NY: New York University Press. „ Root, M. (2005). Resolving “other” status: Identity development of biracial individuals. In Wilson, M. (Ed.), College Student Development Theory (pp. 269-278). Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing. „ Harris, H. (2003). Multiracial students: What school counselors need to know. ERIC Digest database. „ Schwartz, W. (1998). The identity development of multiracial youth. ERIC/CUE digest, No. 137. „ Root, M. (1996). The multiracial experience: Racial boarders as a significant frontier in race relations. In Root, M. (Ed.), The Multiracial Experience: Racial Boarders as the New Frontier (pp. xiii-xxviii). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. „ Kerwin, C. & Ponterotto, J. (1994). Biracial identity development theory and research. In Griffith, E., Blue, H., & Harris, H. (Eds.), Racial and Ethnic Identity Development (pp.199-217). East Sussex, UK: Routledge Publishing. „ Payne, R. B. (1977). Racial attitude formation in children of mixed Black and White heritage: Skin color and racial identity. Dissertation Abstracts International, 38, 6-B. (University Microfilms No. 77-27, 605). „ Perkins, M. (1994, March 17). Guess who’s coming to church? Confronting Christians’ fear of interracial marriage. Christianity Today, pp. 30-33. „ 6PRORZH-  ,QWHUPDUULHG«ZLWKFKLOGUHQ7LPH  -65.

25 „ Randolph, T. & Holtzman, M. (2010). The Role of Heritage Camps in Identity Development Among Korean Transnational Adoptees: A Relational Dialectics Approach. Adoption Quarterly, 13: 75-99. „ Kim, G., Suyemoto, K., & Turner, C.B. (2010). Sense of Belonging, Sense of Exclusion, And Racial and Ethnic Identities in Korean Transracial Adoptees. Cultural Diversity And Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16:2, 179-190. „ Greenfield, R. (2011). Beginning Again: The impact of international adoption on the English language development of a preschooler. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 11:1, 47-72. „ Hough, S., & Kaczmarek, L. (2011). Language and Reading Outcomes in Young Children Adopted from Eastern European Orphanages. Journal of Early Intervention, 33:1, 51-74. „ Glennen, S. (2009). Speech and Language Guidelines for Children Adopted From Abroad At Older Ages. Top Language Disorders, 29:1, 50-64. „ Ladage, J.S. (2009). Medical issues in International Adoption and Their Influence of Language Development. Top Language Disorders, 29:1, 6-17. „ Lee, R.M. (2003). The Transracial Adoption Paradox: History, Research, and Counseling Implications of Cultural Socialization. The Counseling Psychologist, 31:6, 711-744. „ Brunsma, D.L. (2005). Interracial families and the racial identification of mixed-race Children: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Social Forces, 84:2. „ Morrisson, A. (2004). Transracial adoption: The pors and cons and the parents’ perspective. Harvard Blackletter Law Journal, 20, 163-202.

„ CensusScope. (nd). Retrieved March, 2011, from www.censusscope.org/us/chart_multi.html „ Fogg-Davis, H. A Race-Conscious Argument for Transracial Adoption, 6 B.U. PUB. INT. L.J., 385, 385 n.1 (1997). „ Kerwin, K., Ponterotto, J.G. (1995). Biracial identify development. In J.G. Ponterotto, J.M. Casas, L.A. Suzuki C.M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 199-217). Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage. „ Kerwin, K., Ponteroot, J.G., Jackson, B.L., Harris, A. (1993). Racial identity in biracial children: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40, 221-231. „ Poston, W.S.C. (1990). The biracial identity development model: A needed addition. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69, 152-155.

26 Resources for Parents

„ Association of Multi-Ethnic Americans (AMEA): www.ameasite.org „ Center for Adoption Support and Education, www.adoptionsupport.org „ Center for the Study of Biracial Children: www.csbchome.org

&KLOGUHQ¶s Books

Black is Brown is Tan Arnold Adoff, Emily Arnold McCully

Families are Different Nina Pellegrini

I Love Saturdays y Domingos Alma Ada, Elivia Savadier

Trevor's Story: Growing Up Biracial Bethany Kandel, Carol Halebian

The White Swan Express: a Story about Adoption Jean Davies Okimoto

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