Analysis of Human Decomposition Patterns Within the Piney Woods

ANALYSIS OF HUMAN DECOMPOSITION PATTERNS WITHIN THE PINEY WOODS

REGION OF SOUTHEAST TEXAS

______

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of the Department

of Anthropology

University of Houston

______

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

______

Alexander S. Palermo

May, 2017

ANALYSIS OF HUMAN DECOMPOSITION PATTERNS WITHIN THE PINEY WOODS

REGION OF SOUTHEAST TEXAS

______Alexander S. Palermo

APPROVED:

______Rebecca Storey, Ph.D. Committee Chair

______Janis Hutchinson, Ph.D.

______Joan Bytheway, Ph.D., D-ABFA

______Antonio D. Tillis, Ph.D. Dean, College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences Department of Hispanic Studies

ANALYSIS OF HUMAN DECOMPOSITION PATTERNS WITHIN THE PINEY WOODS

REGION OF SOUTHEAST TEXAS

______

An Abstract of a Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of the Department

of Anthropology

University of Houston

______

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

______

Alexander S. Palermo

May 12, 2017

iii

ABSTRACT

ANALYSIS OF HUMAN DECOMPOSITION PATTERNS WITHIN THE PINEY WOODS

REGION OF SOUTHEAST TEXAS

Alexander S. Palermo

Temperature, climate, and various other environmental factors are known to affect the rate and process of decomposition, calling for region-specific visual characteristics to be identified, characterized, and implemented in decomposition templates for use by medico- legal personnel in order to more accurately estimate the post-mortem interval (PMI).

This research aimed to more accurately describe and characterize the stages of decomposition undergone by four human cadavers within the Piney Woods region of

Southeast Texas. Creating a more accurate template in terms of the stages and visually observable phases of decomposition proves beneficial to law enforcement and researchers alike by means of having the ability to correlate characteristics with a stage of decomposition, which can be linked to accumulated degree days and the estimation of the post-mortem interval.

Major research goals included identifying visual characteristics associated with region-specific decomposition patterns occurring in human cadavers in the subtropical and humid region of the Piney Woods in Southeast Texas; as well as describing and analyzing the stages of decomposition that the cadavers undergo as well as any and all modifications or transformations that the cadavers experience.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... iv

LIST OF FIGURES...... ix

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION

A. SUMMARY…………………….………………………….…...…………..1

B. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH……………………………………...... ……..2

C. HYPOTHESIS……………………………………………………………....4

D. RESEARCH GOALS……………………………………………….…...... 5

E. METHODOLOGY…………………………………...... …………....8

i. TOTAL BODY SCORE (TBS) AND ACCUMULATED DEGREE

DAYS (ADD)…………………………………….……...... …...... ….11

F. THEORETICAL BASIS...... 18

i. MIDDLE-RANGE THEORY...... 18

1. TAPHONOMIC THEORY...... 19

2. AGENCY AND BEHAVIORAL THEORY...... 20

3. NON-LINEAR SYSTEMS THEORY...... 20

2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

A. DECOMPOSITION EXPLAINED…………………………...... …….…24

i. STAGE ONE: FRESH…………………………………………...... 25

1. PALLOR MORTIS……………………………………...... 26

2. ALGOR MORTIS…………………………………….....…26

3. RIGOR MORTIS……………………………………...... 27

4. LIVOR MORTIS……………………………………....…..28

ii. STAGE TWO: EARLY DECOMPOSITION……………………..29

iii. STAGE THREE: ADVANCED DECOMPOSITION………...... 32

iv. STAGE FOUR: SKELETONIZATION…………...…………...…34

3. LITERATURE REVIEW OF DECOMPOSITION STUDIES IN ANTHROPOLOGY

A. HUMAN ANALOGS VS. CADAVERS………………………...…...... …35

B. VARIOUS ECO-REGIONS AND ENVIRONMENTS………...……..….38

i. PAST REGION-SPECIFIC RESEARCH ON DECOMPOSITION...... 39

1. SOUTHERN ARIZONA…………...…………………...... 40

2. INDIANA AND ILLINOIS, VARIOUS STATE.……...…44

3. DELAWARE RIVER VALLEY REGION………………..47

4. SAN MARCOS, TEXAS………………...………………...49

5. KNOXVILLE, TENNESSEE………………...…..………..51

4. CLIMACTIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PINEY WOODS REGION AND TUCSON, ARIZONA

A. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF PINEY WOODS REGION, TX...... 55

i. TEMPERATURE………………………………………...…….…..56

ii. PRECIPITATION AND HUMIDITY/ARIDITY…………………56

iii. ELEVATION…………………………………...……………...….61

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. PINEY WOODS DECOMPOSITION MODEL COMPARED TO MEGYESI ET AL. & GALLOWAY ET AL.’S DECOMPOSITION MODEL...... 62

i. FRESH STAGE...... 67

1. HEAD AND NECK...... 67

2. TORSO...... 68

3. EXTREMITIES...... 69

4. FRESH STAGE SUMMATION...... 70

ii. EARLY DECOMPOSITION PHASE 1 STAGE...... 70

1. HEAD AND NECK...... 71

2. TORSO...... 73

3. EXTREMITIES...... 74

4. EARLY DECOMPOSITION PHASE 1 STAGE SUMMATION...... 75

iii. EARLY DECOMPOSITION PHASE 2 STAGE...... 75

1. EARLY DECOMPOSITION PHASE 2 STAGE SUMMATION...... 76

iv. ADVANCED DECOMPOSITION STAGE...... 76

1. HEAD AND NECK...... 77

2. TORSO...... 78

3. EXTREMITIES...... 79

4. ADVANCED DECOMPOSITION STAGE SUMMATION...... 80

vii

v. SKELETONIZATION STAGE...... 80

1. HEAD AND NECK...... 81

2. TORSO...... 82

3. EXTREMITIES...... 82

4. SKELETONIZATION STAGE SUMMATION...... 83

6. CONCLUSION

A. PINEY WOODS DECOMPOSITION PATTERNS…………...... …84

7. REFERENCES CITED...... 86

8. APPENDICES...... 93

A. SOUTHEAST TEXAS APPLIED FORENSIC SCIENCE FACILITY TOTAL BODY SCORE RESULTS...... 93

i. 2015-076...... 93

ii.2016-018...... 97

iii.2015-096...... 101

iv. 2016-030...... 105

viii

List of Figures

1. Piney Woods Region……………………...... …………...…………….1

2. Map of Texas…………………………………………………...... ……………………..….1

3. Categories and Stages of Decomposition (Megyesi et al.)……………………………...... 14

4. Categories and Stages of Decomposition Continued (Megyesi et al.)……………...... …...15

5. Megyesi et al.’s Prediction Equation for ADD using TBS……………...... ………………17

6. Moffat et al.’s Refined Prediction Equation for TBS using ADD…………...... ………….18

7. Approximate Times for Algor and Rigor Mortis in Temperate Regions………...... ……...28

8. Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al.’s Decomposition Characteristics for Early

Decomposition...... 31

9. Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al.’s Decomposition Characteristics for Advanced

Decomposition …...... ….33

10. Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al.’s Decomposition Characteristics for Skeletonization....35

11. Galloway et al.’s initial template for Categories and Stages of Decomposition...... 42

12. Stages of Decomposition by Time; Remains found in Open Air and in Closed

Structure...... 44

13. Hunstville, TX Climate Graph...... 54

14. Tucson, AZ Climate Graph...... 54

15. Relative Humidity Graph of Hunstville, Texas...... 59

16. Relative Humidity Graph of Tucson, Arizona...... 59

17. Probability of Precipitation in Huntsville, Texas...... 60

18. Probability of Precipitation in Tucson, Arizona...... 60

19. Piney Woods Stages of Decomposition for the Head and Neck...... 64

20. Piney Woods Stages of Decomposition for the Torso...... 65

21. Piney Woods Stages of Decomposition for the Extremities...... 66

22. 2015-076 Head and Neck TBS Scores: STAFS...... 94

23. 2015-076 Torso TBS Scores: STAFS...... 95

24. 2015-076 Extremities TBS Scores: STAFS...... 96

25. 2016-018 Head and Neck TBS Scores: STAFS...... 98

26. 2016-018 Torso TBS Scores: STAFS...... 99

27. 2016-018 Extremities TBS Scores: STAFS...... 100

28. 2015-096 Head and Neck TBS Scores: STAFS...... 102

29. 2015-096 Torso TBS Scores: STAFS...... 103

30. 2015-096 Extremities TBS Scores: STAFS...... 104

31. 2016-030 Head and Neck TBS Scores: STAFS...... 106

32. 2016-030 Torso TBS Scores: STAFS...... 107

33. 2016-030 Extremities TBS Scores: STAFS...... 108

1. INTRODUCTION

A. SUMMARY

This research focuses on the differential decomposition rates and patterns observed in a cohort of research subjects containing four human cadavers oriented in a supine position in both a full sun and full shaded terrestrial environment located in Southeast Texas over the course of 150 days.

1. 2.

Figure 1. Piney Woods Region including Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Oklahoma

within North America (Cephas 1999)

Figure 2. Map of Texas regions indicating Piney Woods on right (Dayton 1970)

The study has been conducted at the Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science

Facility (STAFS) located in Huntsville, Texas; spanning 150 days, which covers the entirety of the decomposition process ranging from stages fresh to skeletonization. Four (4) human cadavers were acquired through the STAFS Body Donation Program, and served as the primary subjects of research throughout the study; each photographed daily to record the

1 differences occurring in decomposition and the varied scavenging if applicable. The cadavers were enclosed in wooden and mesh cages in order to minimize animal scavenging, allowing for the natural process of decomposition to be observed. As mentioned, several photographs were taken daily of each individual in order to physically document the process of decomposition including the visual characteristics identified as being pertinent patterns of decomposition within this specific environment. In addition to daily photographs documenting the process of decomposition, median temperatures including maximum and minimum temperatures, average relative humidity, daily accumulated degree days, ongoing total accumulated degree days, precipitation/cloud cover, and comments regarding the individual’s pattern of decomposition were recorded and analyzed.

B. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

The purpose of this research is to further analyze and describe the process of decomposition in human cadavers through the identification of region-specific visual characteristics that coincide with an established point-value system referred to as Total Body

Score (TBS), established by Megyesi et. al (2005) in the publication titled “Using

Accumulated Degree-Days to Estimate the Postmortem Interval from Decomposed Human

Remains”; and improved by Moffatt et. al.(2015) in the recent publication of “An Improved

Equation for TBS and ADD: Establishing a Reliable Postmortem Interval Framework for

Casework and Experimental Studies” (year) within the Journal of Forensic Sciences. This research utilized qualitative visual observations pertaining to different sections of the body and converted these observable features into quantitative point values, as Megyesi’s model proposes; but these features have been re-examined and representative of the decomposition

2 process experienced in human cadavers within the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas, since varying patterns of decomposition occur in different ecoregions.

Megyesi et al. acknowledged that the state of decomposition of human remains is frequently used by forensic anthropologists to estimate the postmortem interval, especially in homicide cases where the accurate determination of the PMI is crucial to investigations

(Megyesi et al. 2005). Their revolutionary, titled “Using Accumulated Degree-Days to

Estimate the Postmortem Interval from Decomposed Human Remains” explored “a supplemental method of estimating the PMI based on scoring decomposing remains using a point-based system while taking into account temperatures affecting the remains (Megyesi et al. 2005). Sixty-eight human remains cases were utilized for the study, of which their date of death was known or based off of entomological data (Galloway et al. 1989). Individuals were scored for decomposition rates using a modified Galloway et al. method (1989) using regression equations utilized to complement and help predict accumulated degree-days

(ADD) from the assigned decomposition score (Megyesi et al. 2005). Megyesi et al. collected temperature data pertaining to each case from the nearest National Weather Service Station in order to analyze degree-days, and results indicated that more than 80% of the “observed variation in human decomposition could be accounted for by the combination of elapsed time and temperature (Megyesi et al. 2005).

There is a vast amount of literature regarding the pattern of decomposition experienced by human analogs such as pigs (Sus scrofa) and other animals, followed by only a handful of studies that utilized actual human cadavers and documented their process of decomposition. The focus for this thesis is to complement Megyesi et al., Moffat et. al., and

Galloway et al.’s previous work regarding Total Body Score and Accumulated Degree Days

3 templates, providing more detailed visual characteristics pertaining to the specific Piney

Woods ecoregion within Southeast Texas, coinciding with the assigned point values for region specific TBS templates- effectively making the method more accurate and allow for a more definitive estimation of the postmortem interval in this particular ecoregion (Megyesi et al. 2005).

C. HYPOTHESIS

The main hypothesis regarding this specific study argues that climate and various environmental factors affect the rate and process of decomposition, calling for the creation of region-specific visual characteristics in correlation to an established template regarding the process of decomposition. Past research on human decomposition complements the field of forensic anthropology, though the process of decomposition varies immensely in unique ecoregions. The Total Body Score template created by Megyesi et al. regarding physical patterns and characteristics of decomposition are not necessarily the exact same patterns of decomposition that are observed in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas, which invites the idea of comparing and contrasting the decomposition processes observed in each region. Creating a more accurate template in terms of the stages and visually observable phases of decomposition proves beneficial to law enforcement and researchers alike by means of having the ability to correlate characteristics with a stage of decomposition, which can be linked to accumulated degree days and the estimation of the post-mortem interval.

This scientific study aims to more accurately describe and characterize the stages of decomposition undergone by human cadavers within the Piney Woods region of Southeast

Texas, and will also serve complementary to the literature on human decomposition in general

4 as well as the present knowledge regarding the post-mortem interval (PMI). In real life scenarios involving decomposed human remains in an outdoor context, identifying the possible post-mortem interval or the amount of time that has passed since the individual has died is integral to the case and has typically been evaluated purely through qualitative means in the past, based off of Galloway et al.’s and Bass’ physical observations- particular visual characteristics that coincide with the different stages of decomposition. This research is relevant to the field of forensic anthropology in so far as it will aid in the understanding of the patterns of decomposition in human remains both qualitatively, quantitatively and region specific situations. The decomposition patterns of the human body have been studied in the supine position on the terrestrial surface in general, though modern forensic science lacks extensive research on individuals in distinct, unique climates and environments. This specific research is indispensable due to the fact that majority of the previous research that has addressed the differential rate of decomposition has been studied on pigs (Sus scrofa), which may serve as a human analog, but they are in fact not humans and therefore not entirely accurate (Augenstein 2016). These controlled experiments using human analogs can benefit the scientific community in understanding similar changes that humans undergo, though they are not humans and they are therefore not as accurate as actual human cadavers as references for identifying the differences in decomposition in humans (Haskell et al. 2001).

D. RESEARCH GOALS

Major research goals for this study involved identifying the visual characteristics associated with region-specific decomposition patterns occurring in human cadavers in the subtropical and humid region of the Piney Woods in Southeast Texas; identifying, describing,

5 and analyzing the stages of decomposition that the cadavers undergo as well as any and all modifications or transformations that the cadavers experience. Gaining a better understanding of the variables that affect the rate and pattern of decomposition experienced by individuals will be beneficial to the scientific community, allowing researchers and law enforcement to more accurately evaluate and identify the postmortem interval associated with outdoor deaths, leading to the possibility of standardized methods of approximating PMI through more detailed observable stages of decomposition (“STAFS Research” 2013).

This research utilized Megyesi et al.’s Total Body Score models regarding human decomposition, amending them and creating a more accurate model for the decomposition process as experienced by human cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast

Texas. This research investigated the many visual characteristics that are observed in this particular region of Southeast Texas that are not listed on or different than Megyesi’s initial

TBS model, such as the bloating of the scrotum, in addition to the body entering a “plie” position during the early decomposition stage. Essentially, improving and amending the current TBS decomposition model with region-specific characteristics would allow for law enforcement to be able to compare and analyze established stages of decomposition via observable characteristics of the three sections (head and neck, torso, and extremities) to actual victims in real world scenarios. This then relates an accumulated Total Body Score to accumulated degree days, or the amount of time passed- making the PMI more accurate.

As stated within the introduction and methods section, there were several specific research goals that needed to be analyzed and compared within the study. These included the distinct aspects of decomposition that a human cadaver situated in a supine context on the terrestrial surface experiences in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas. In addition to

6 the basic patterns and rate of decomposition amongst the experimental cadavers within the cohorts, observations were recorded and logged to document and explain any aspects that are characteristic of the Piney Woods region in particular, or aspects that are not mentioned in other literature regarding outdoor decomposition.

In addition to the unique patterns of decomposition in this region, particular interest focused on understanding how insect activity adapts to the exposed body in a subtropical, humid environment; with the cadaver lying flat on the terrestrial surface. In terms of scavenging, preventative measures were taken to avoid any large animals or fair sized avian scavengers from gaining access to the cadavers within the cages- though in past research assignments conducted at STAFS, it appears that if any scavenging were to occur, it would be relatively small animals due to the inaccessibility at hand.

In addition to the pattern and rate of decomposition of human cadavers, another research goal aimed at identifying at what time interval the cadavers cease to show any decomposition changes, if at all. In sum, this research assignment focuses on the differential decomposition rates and patterns experienced by four human cadavers oriented in a supine position in a subtropical, humid terrestrial environment located in Southeast Texas. This research was conducted over the span of 150 days involving both full shaded and full sun placements to account for varying temperature and environmental factors; due to the fact that there is currently very little published research regarding how specific environmental factors like those of the Piney Woods region of Texas affect the rate of decomposition compared to the vast material regarding decomposition of human analogs.

The findings of this research have the potential to benefit the criminal justice system in a multitude of ways, by means of improving the qualitative visual assessments of the stages

7 of decomposition as well as quantifying the decomposition process so that it can be statistically analyzed, in addition to increasing the general knowledge regarding the decomposition process and its characteristics. By doing so, more accurate assessments of the post-mortem interval can be made, narrowing this important “window” of time. Also, as stated in Dr. Bytheway’s program narrative, “ the quantitative data and the possible development of region-specific PMI models would be invaluable in assisting medical examiners and law enforcement agencies in determining what stage of decomposition they are seeing and the time interval that has passed since the individual’s death” (Bytheway et al.

2014).

Megyesi et al.’s research is utilized though limited to their refined template regarding the Total Body Score and the general visual characteristics of the decomposition process.

Supplemental information regarding Accumulated Degree Days is mentioned and defined, though this particular area of research was not a main focus for this thesis. In summation,

Megyesi et al.’s refined template including visually assessed decomposition characteristics referencing Galloway et al.’s antecedent template is the focal literature utilized in this research, and reflects the goals of this study.

E. METHODOLOGY

In terms of these research goals and the previous research undertaken on or relating to the subject, this research specifically addresses the distinct aspects of decomposition that a human cadaver situated in an outdoor, sub-tropical and humid environment experiences in relation to Galloway et al.’s initial template scoring decomposition; as well as Megyesi et al.’s critiqued template for including total body score, visually assessing point values to assigned observable characteristics of decomposition. As aforementioned, four unautopsied human

8 cadavers were acquired through the Willed- Body Donation Program at Sam Houston State

University and were collectively placed in the spring. Not only does the research include observing, analyzing, and explaining any aspects that are seen specifically in this region throughout decomposition, the research involves comparing and contrasting the differences that occur between the individuals. The experimental cadavers include relatively average features such as height and build, allowing for reduced outliers in the decomposition data. In order to maintain similar starting points for the process of decomposition, each cadaver weighed within the range of 58.97 kg and 113.4 kg, or 130-250 pounds.

Specific research interests for this study include whether the patterns of decomposition observed in the sub-tropical, humid region of Southeast Texas fit into the pattern of decomposition outlined by Galloway et al. and Megyesi et al in different ecoregions. By minimizing the variables that affect the rate of decomposition such as scavenging activity, clothing or autopsied/unautopsied; a thorough examination of the decomposition process that the experimental cadavers undergo will be achievable. Even though some variables are reduced there are still a multitude of variables that cadavers are exposed to in an outdoor context, which is addressed further in this proposal within the theoretical basis of this research.

In order to adequately support findings and analyses regarding the research, STAFS has created an Excel spreadsheet containing the logged data throughout the entirety of the study, which kept track of several measurements and time periods, as well as temperatures and other crucial data that has been interpreted. In order to address the main research questions posed earlier, a thorough analysis of the high and low temperatures, as well as the average humidity for each day was logged. Photographs have been taken daily by STAFS

9 research assistants, including photos of each individual within the cohort and specific photos of the head and neck, torso, and extremities. With less changes in the decomposition process occurring in the advanced and skeletonization stages, photos were taken as deemed necessary by STAFS research assistants. Observations were made on site at the STAFS facility, in the early stages of the research, followed by photographic analysis for the latter half of the study.

Each of the four research cadavers were photographed daily for the first 18 days, followed by weekday photographs. Pictures were not taken on weekends following this rapid onset of decomposition. Photographs were taken intermittently following the third week of research, never spanning more than three days between photographs to ensure successive documentation of the decomposition process. Following the 107th day of research, photographs were taken weekly, as the observable changes of the decomposition process were slow in progression and lacked major variance. Figures 22-33 demonstrate the research days, actual date, stage of decomposition in accordance with Megyesi et al.’s template; as well as the days of which photographs were taken as indicated in yellow.

In addition to general observations, temperatures, and measurements; STAFS research assistants have scored the cadavers physical rate of decomposition daily according to

Megyesi’s TBS model. The assignment of points for each section of the body in correlation with visual characteristics, mentioned as an important aspect of determining accumulated degree days, served as a foundation for creating a viable method of quantifying the decomposition process by Megyesi et al. in Using Accumulated Degree Days to Estimate the

Postmortem Interval from Decomposed Human Remains (2005). The reasoning behind assigning the cadavers TBS values throughout the study serves to document the physical decomposition that occurs and puts the observations into a quantitative number, standardizing

10 the rate of decomposition opposed to the past methods of relying purely on gross observations of decomposition without any template or reference model to estimate the PMI (Megyesi

2005). This quasi-quantitative method of estimating the PMI using accumulated degree days including total body scores serves as a way to numerically rank the visible qualitative observations of active decomposition, derived from cross-sectional data collected from crime scenes and forensic studies spanning several regions across the United States (Suckling

2011). In forensic cases involving decomposed human remains, establishing a PMI can be vitally important.

As previously mentioned, the decomposition of human remains is typically divided into four main stages, each encompassing several characteristics that continue into the next phase. Megyesi et al. state that specific benchmarks such as the “sloughing of the epidermis or the collapse of the bloated abdomen may help to establish minimum or maximum time estimates, but in general the process is qualitative in nature.” Measuring accumulated degree days serves as a supplemental method of determining the PMI and involves the use of scoring the decomposition stages in a point based system as well as taking into account the temperature of each day that the remains have been exposed (Megyesi 2005).

i. TOTAL BODY SCORE (TBS) AND ACCUMULATED DEGREE

DAYS (ADD)

Accumulated Degree Days constitutes the gradual accumulation of thermal energy needed for the chemical and biological reactions involved in decomposition to occur

(Simmons et al. 2009). ADD measures the energy input into an equation representing the accumulation of temperature, which is observed over a given amount of time. By theory,

11 when the same amount of thermal energy or ADD is applied to a carcass, the same reaction

(which in this case is represented by TBS) should occur in the form of measurable decomposition (Simmons et al. 2009). This theory of ADD has roots in Van’t Hoff’s “Rule of

Ten”, stating that for every 10°C change, “enzymatic process in decomposition will be enhanced or prolonged by a factor of 1–3” (Simmons et al. 2009).

To accurately measure TBS and transfer the data into accumulated degree days, temperature recordings for each passing day are recorded, which are then added up for a total amount and inserted into an equation. To do so, average temperatures are derived from the maximum and minimum air temperatures for the day, which represents the ambient temperature (Mann et al. 1990). For the sake of replicating Megyesi et al.’s methodology, the base temperature for this research is 0 °C (32°F), and any temperatures under 0 °C (though unlikely in the Piney Woods region) will be recorded as zero instead of obtaining negative temperature values (Suckling 2011). The process of logging degree day information began immediately after placement, and continued throughout the entire study. This means that for each day that the cadavers were outside; the average daily temperature were recorded and documented. Data regarding accumulated temperature days antecedent to the placement of the research cadavers has not been included in the study. The reason for 0 °C as a base temperature is that decomposition essentially stops, so very little identifiable changes occur in the body (Micozzi 1997; Wagster 2007).

In the following diagrams, Megyesi et al. distinguish separate sections of the body to be scored separately, as different parts of the body decompose asymmetrically. The head and neck, trunk, and limbs are differentiated between and have corresponding point systems from which they are to be assigned values based on the rate of decomposition. Each section has

12 four main stages of decomposition: fresh, early decomposition, advanced decomposition, and skeletonization (Vass 2001). Within these four stages are corresponding point values, varying between the area of body being evaluated. Each stage is broken down with distinctive visual characteristics, such as the “purging of decomposition fluids out of the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, etc.” These descriptions are derived from frequent observations made by other scientists regarding human decomposition, as these qualitative observational stages of decomposition have long served as rough guidelines for the decomposition process for forensic anthropologists, and are seen as a quasi-continuous process (Megyesi 2005; Love and

Marks 2003). It is important to document that though the visual characteristics of decomposition follow a general trend, there are innumerable amount of variables that affect the process as a whole, and distinct eco-regions experience particular processes of decomposition that stray from the rough template in their own way. For such reasons, this specific research has been conducted in order to create a more accurate template for the process of decomposition as experienced in human cadavers in the Piney Woods Region of

Southeast Texas.

Figure 3. Categories and Stages of Decomposition (Megyesi et al. 2005)

Figure 4. Categories and Stages of Decomposition Continued (Megyesi et al. 2005)

These tables include the specific characteristics pertaining to each stage of decomposition for each section of the body and served as the descriptions for assigning total body scores to the cadavers for this research. TBS data has referred to this model, though discrepancies have been noted and fully analyzed, allowing for the creation of a newer, more accurate region-specific TBS model for future use. For reference later in this research, the stages will be further analyzed and explained below:

As stated, STAFS research assistants have continuously scored the cadavers and assigned point values to their level of decomposition throughout the study, in addition to logging daily average temperatures and humidity through the National Weather Service:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration website. Average temperatures, humidity levels, and total body scores have been logged into Microsoft Excel a database creation software allowing for organization of data for clear observation and analysis. Since the postmortem interval from time of placement is known, there lies the ability to continuously accumulate data regarding Megyesi et al.’s method of accumulated degree days and total body scores in addition to Moffat et al.’s, and effectively back track the data to check how accurate the procedure and equation for estimating PMI is. Effectively testing and comparing the estimated PMI from ADD through the use of Moffat et al.’s improved equation provided in their article against the known accumulated degree days and PMI for each cadaver will aid in understanding how accurate the equation for ADD is in determining a precise PMI.

After plugging in the TBS into Moffat et al.’s improved equation, the resulting number is the number of accumulated degree-days that would be necessary for the cadaver to reach that stage of decomposition (Suckling 2011). In actual practice, once the accumulated degree days have been found, one must find the temperature records for the given area in which the

16 body was found and work backwards- adding the average temperature for each day until the sum reaches the ADD. This will provide a timeline including the actual number of days that the ADD equation suggests have occurred given the rate of decomposition of the body in the given area.

Figure 5. Prediction equation for ADD using TBS in order to estimate PMI with Standard Error

(Megyesi et al. 2005)

Above is Megyesi et al.’s initial prediction equation for estimating ADD using TBS in order to estimate PMI. It was tested in both Validation Study of the Utility of Using Total

Body Score and Accumulated Degree Days to Determine the Post-mortem Interval of Human

Remains from Three Human Decomposition Research Facilities and Validation Study of the

Utility of Using Total Body Score and Accumulated Degree Days to Determine the Post- mortem Interval of Human Remains from Three Human Decomposition Research Facilities.

Both studies proved that the equation is not suitable to accurately estimate PMI accurately.

Because of this, Moffat et al. reexamined the equation and improved its usefulness in the field of forensic anthropology, confirming that the modified equation leads to significantly smaller prediction intervals. Moffat et al. state that Megyesi et al.’s contribution of their initial quantitative framework for estimating time since death in human cadavers was monumental to the field of forensic anthropology because it represented the first real stride towards quantification of the decomposition process. As mentioned by Moffat et al., Megyesi et al.’s equation included the incorrect use of a statistical regression model which rendered it

17 unusable, in addition to errors concerning rounding, and temperature scale (Moffat et al.

2015). The improved equation represents a more appropriate regression model to predict accumulated degree days from the total body score. After testing the equation, Moffat et al. concluded that the equation was more accurate and produced narrower confidence intervals than the original, which allowed for impossible negative ADD values (Moffat et al. 2015).

This research focuses on creating a more accurate template pertaining to the different stages of decomposition and the visual characteristics within them, in order to produce more accurate TBS results. Increasing total body score accuracy inherently produces more authentic and definite results in regards to the equation below and in estimating of the PMI

(Moffat et al. 2015).

Figure 6. Moffat et al.’s Refined Prediction Equation for TBS using ADD (Moffat et al. 2005)

F. THEORETICAL BASIS

i. MIDDLE-RANGE THEORY

In terms of the theoretical basis for this research, incorporating several different levels of theory, as well as focusing on three middle-range theories in order to frame the decomposition research within the broad discipline of anthropology. As Boyd and Boyd explain in their publication Theory and the Scientific Basis for Forensic Anthropology, forensic anthropology has long been criticized for its lack of a strong theoretical and scientific foundation (Boyd & Boyd 2011). Boyd and Boyd emphasized the role that theory plays within the field of forensic anthropology, including different hierarchical levels (high-level,

18 middle-range, and low-level) and the relevance of these various theoretical concepts

(taphonomic, agency, and nonlinear systems) to the interpretation of forensic contexts (Boyd and Boyd 2011). In terms of high-level theory, the “overarching theoretical umbrella governing biological anthropology is that of evolution grounded in the Darwinian and punctuated equilibrium models, which are also applicable to some extent for the purposes of forensic anthropology (Guerra 2014). Considering that biological entities are subject to evolutionary forces of which govern human variation is crucial to determining the biological profile, skeletal growth, development, and other instances within the field of forensic anthropology. Though, the field of forensic anthropology is better suited with middle-range and low-level theoretical positions, since the focus is usually between an individual (victim) and the researchers at the scene. As stated by Sergio Guerra in his publication titled

Qualifying and Quantifying the Rate of Decomposition in the Delaware River Valley Region, middle-range theories transform static observations into inferential statements about the dynamic processes that produced the forensic record, linking materials, context, and recovery into explanations of human behavior (Guerra 2014).

1. TAPHONOMIC THEORY

Taphonomic theory is essential to time since death evaluations because of the need to identify and understand the roles that both human and non-human forces play, in addition to the natural and cultural processes that undoubtedly affect a scene in the reconstruction of forensic events (Boyd & Boyd 2011; Guerra 2014; Haglund and Sorg 2002). Thus, in terms of forensic anthropology; observations pertaining to decomposition and/or insect and animal activity are utilized in order to enhance inferences regarding the effects of these processes in the past (Guerra 2014).

2. AGENCY AND BEHAVIORAL THEORY

The next middle-range theory that is involved in forensic settings includes agency and behavioral theory; which recognizes that humans have agency, but are restricted by the social structure and context in which they are operating (Boyd and Boyd 2011; Guerra 2014). Lovis

(1992) and Mizoguchi (1993) build on this idea, emphasizing that the roles played by social structure memory, and repeated actions affect the way in which mortuary scenes and forensic anthropology in general is conducted (Guerra 2014). Building even further off of this idea is the notion that investigators in a given situation must not only recognize the initial role of the agents involved in the event, but the fact that they themselves play a role in the scene, such as their presence and interpretation of events (Boyd and Boyd 2011).

3. NON-LINEAR THEORY

Nonlinear systems theory is the main theory utilized in this research, essentially rejecting the traditional Newtonian model of isolating variables and controlling others (Guerra

2014). This theory accepts and acknowledges the idea that many variables are involved, especially in a study regarding human decomposition in an outdoor context. Nonlinear systems theory affirms multivariate analyses in actualistic, real-life situations; recognizing that there are often intertwined and complex relationships between various factors within a forensic context (Boyd and Boyd 2011; Guerra 2014). Since this particular research involves numerous variables (temperature, insect activity, humidity, sun/shade) with a high degree of interrelation amongst them, this theory is especially relevant because of the inability to factor out individual variables at hand; the attempt at doing so would be unrepresentative of the actual processes at play (Boyd and Boyd 2011; Guerra 2014). Due to the circumstances of decomposition studies, nonlinear systems theory and taphonomic theory are the main

20 theoretical guidelines that this research utilized because they encapsulate the research as a holistic, real life situation with many variables affecting the outcome, both human and non- human.

2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

This study was conducted at the Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science Facility

(STAFS) at Sam Houston State University located in Huntsville, Texas; spanning 150 days following placement. The STAFS facility is a 10-acre research facility located in the Center for Biological Field Studies, which is a 247 acre parcel of land that was donated to Sam

Houston University in 2001. This research coincides with an ongoing research project titled

Validation Study of the Utility of Using Total Body Score and Accumulated Degree Days to

Determine the Post-mortem Interval of Human Remains from Three Human Decomposition

Research Facilities, conducted with Dr. Bytheway, Dr. Steadman, and Dr. Westcott. The goal of said study aimed to “validate and compare the utility of TBS using ADD to estimate postmortem interval method designed by Megyesi et al. (2005) amongst three different decomposition research facilities: The Anthropology Research Facility (ARF) at the

University of Tennessee, Knoxville; The Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State

(FACTS) University, San Marcos, Texas; and The Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science facility at Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas (Bytheway et al. 2014; Killgrove

2015). The major goal of this research included the validation of Megyesi’s method of estimating the PMI by use of TBS and ADD. This research proposed that Megyesi et al.’s method is not applicable to each ecoregion involved, and that region-specific physical descriptors and statistical models based on the TBS/ADD model needed to be developed. In essence, Bytheway et al.’s research aimed to test Megyesi’s model among three human

21 decomposition research facilities, whereas this particular research focuses on the physical descriptors and the patterns of decomposition that are observed specifically at the STAFS facility in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas, giving way to a region-specific visual characteristic guideline for use with the TBS/ADD model.

One cohort containing four (4) human cadavers were studied from the willed- Body

Donation Program at Sam Houston State University. The Southeast Texas Applied Forensic

Science (STAFS) Facility is a research oriented facility that focuses on the application of forensic sciences to the human body. This specific application of forensic science developed at STAFS can be used by professionals in the field to help solve criminal cases and to develop the skills of future crime scene investigators (STAFS 2013). All cadavers involved in the research conducted at STAFS were donated through the willed-body donation program and have been vital components to the valuable research being studied; compliant with the

Anatomical Board of Texas, Chapter 692, Texas Anatomical Gift Act, accepting human body donations for the purposes of scientific research. STAFS is one of only six willed body facilities in the United States that researches decomposition and other aspects of forensic sciences on human cadavers including University of Tennessee, West Carolina University,

Texas State University, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, and Colorado Mesa

University (Forbes 2015). Facilities like these are crucial to the research and development of forensic science, due to the fact that the United States has many different climatic environmental regions, each with corresponding patterns of decomposition visible there.

Facilities conducting research on human decomposition in multifold environmental regions provides valuable information regarding the process of decomposition including environmental discrepancies, animal scavenging, insect species, and other factors that affect

22 the patterns of decomposition that are observable in that particular ecoregion (STAFS

2013). As previously stated, climates have a drastic effect on the rate and pattern of decomposition; so research conducted at the STAFS facility located in Southeast Texas exhibits the patterns of decomposition undergone within a subtropical and humid wooded environment. Contained within the outdoor facility are a variety of various environmental conditions, including a fluvial environment, full sun, full shade, and areas of both sun and shade (STAFS 2013). Two of the cadavers were placed in full sun exposure, while the remaining two were placed in full shade. The reason for this is that sun exposure has been observed as a definite variable within the process of decomposition, intertwined with temperature (Megyesi 2005; Shean et. al. 1992). Placing half of the cohort in sun and the other half in shade allows for a broader and more balanced observation of the pattern of decomposition, rather than purely basing the process on a cadaver placed in direct sun or full shade.

Also necessary to note is the fact that individuals deposited in outdoor environments can typically be in wooded areas, so the research at hand and the location of the facility are complementary and offer accurate findings. In terms of the STAFS facility, maximum security fencing surrounds the outdoor research facility with additional minimum security enclosing acreage designated for other types of forensic training (STAFS 2013). High definition cameras are also located within the facility, monitoring assorted post-mortem activities from both on and off-campus computers (STAFS 2013).

A. DECOMPOSITION EXPLAINED

Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler forms of matter, recycling matter that occupies physical space in the biome (World

2010). The process begins immediately after death, and varies in length and according to various biotic and abiotic variables. No two organisms decompose in the exact same way, though they all undergo relatively similar sequential stages of decomposition (World

2010). The decomposition process is caused by two main factors, autolysis, or the “breaking down of tissues by means of the body’s own internal chemicals and enzymes”, and putrefaction, which involves tissue breakdown via bacteria (World 2010). Both of these processes release gases that create the notable “bloat” phenomenon as well as the foul odor emitted by dead organisms. In addition to the natural processes that the body experiences after death, insect and scavenging activity play an important role in the rate of decomposition experienced. The most commonly observed insects involved with the decomposition process tend to include carrion beetles, blowflies (Diptera calliphoridae), and flesh-flies

(Sarcophagidae). These arthropods ingest tissue and thrive in dark, moist cavities of the organism; essentially speeding up the process of decomposition (World 2010). Scavengers also play a role in the decomposition process, often times removing and scattering bones from the organism. Examples of animals that have been associated with scavenging behavior include but are not limited to: coyotes, bobcats, dogs, wolves, rats, vultures, and foxes (World

2010; Bobcats 2012).

The decomposition of human remains is a process that has been traditionally classified into four stages which include fresh, early decomposition, advanced decomposition, and skeletonization (Galloway et al 1989; Megyesi et al. 2005; and Rodriguez and Bass

1983). Some researchers in the past have included a fifth stage of decomposition labeled extreme decomposition following skeletonization, though for continuity purposes and general acceptance of the above mentioned categories, four stages have been used in this study. Understanding and being able to interpret these stages of decomposition has allowed law enforcement or forensic anthropologists to estimate a post-mortem interval, or the amount of time that has passed since death via visible characteristics associated with the corresponding characteristics of a stage of decomposition.

i. STAGE ONE: FRESH

The first stage of decomposition is titled Fresh, and it encapsulates the time immediately following death- ending when visible signs of discoloration or insect activity begin to appear (Galloway 1997). In order to accurately describe and understand the first stage of decomposition, it is essential to gain an understanding regarding the phases that a body goes through immediately following death. The initial changes that occur in an individual following death involve several phases but are still encapsulated within this first major stage, involving pallor mortis, algor mortis, rigor mortis, livor mortis, and also the initial aspects of putrefaction. These initial phases are often overlooked when discussing the entire process of decomposition, mainly because they are stages that last anywhere from 24-

72 hours, and are quickly followed by stages of rapid decomposition development and activity

(World 2010). Megyesi et al. and Galloway et al. consider remains without discoloration or maggot activity to be in the fresh stage of decomposition (Galloway et al. 1989; Megyesi et al. 2005). Changes within the first stage of decomposition are limited primarily to the appearance of lividity, which is often apparent on the day of death or the day immediately following (Galloway et al. 1989). Deposits of insect eggs may be present in the nose, eyes,

25 mouth, ears, genital area, and hair of individuals within this first stage of decomposition

(Galloway et al. 1989).

1. PALLOR MORTIS

Pallor mortis, a paleness of the skin, occurs almost immediately after death and is not a strong determinant of time of death (Schafer 2000). Pallor mortis is caused by the cessation of capillary circulation throughout the body, which causes the blood to sink down to lower parts of the body which progresses to the livor mortis phase, which is explained below

(Schafer 2000).

2. ALGOR MORTIS

Following pallor mortis is algor mortis, which constitutes the change in body temperature post mortem, until an ambient temperature is reached. In general, this is a cooling process, though in areas of extreme heat, the ambient temperature may be higher than the individual’s initial temperature, representing a positive increase in temperature. Researchers have created a formula involving temperature which indicates the time of death, though its accuracy is debated (Guharaj 2003). This formula is called the

Glaister equation, and it measures rectal temperature as the body cools to ambient temperature; allowing for an estimate of hours elapsed since death as a linear function of rectal temperature. This cooling process can be approximated as a semi-linear process, 2°

Celsius during the first hour and 1° Celsius per hour until the body reaches ambient temperature (Guharaj 2003). Temperature change is considered an inaccurate method of determining the time of death, since the rate of temperature change is influenced by several variables including the amount of clothing the individual is wearing, the thermal conductivity

26 of the surface of which the individual is on, the stability of the ambient temperature, and the existence of a “temperature plateau”; which is a period of time in which the body does not cool to the ambient temperature (Kaliszan 2004).

3. RIGOR MORTIS

The table below illustrates the fluctuating stages of algor mortis and rigor mortis, which are both included in the first stage of decomposition. In conjunction with pallor mortis and algor mortis, the muscular tissues of the organism become rigid and stiff within hours after death as a result of a phenomenon called rigor mortis (World 2010). At the moment of death, a condition called “primary flaccidity” occurs, which includes the complete relaxation of the muscles of the body (Rigor 2011). Following this, respiration ceases depleting the organism of oxygen, a main component involved in the creation of adenosine triphosphate

(ATP). ATP is required in order to enact the separation of the actin-myosin cross bridges during the relaxation of muscle, so when the oxygen source is cut off from the equation, the body continues to create ATP by means of anaerobic glycosis (Hall and Guyton 2011). As the body’s glycogen is depleted, the ATP concentration diminishes and the muscle stiffen due to the inability to break aforementioned bridges (Fremery 1959). Following this, and lasting between twenty-four to eighty-four hours, rigor mortis causes the jaw, neck, and extremities of a deceased individual to stiffen (Saladin 2010). Researchers have concluded that the initial symptoms are recognized in the eyelids, neck, and jaw between two and six hours after death

(Saladin 2010). Rigor mortis then spreads to the other muscles of the body within the next four to six hours, but variables such as age, sex, physical condition, and muscular build play an important role in how rigor mortis develops. In addition to the already listed variables affecting the development of rigor mortis, the abiotic factor of ambient temperature has the

27 ability to influence both the onset and pace of rigor mortis. When conditions are warm, rigor mortis sets in quicker and develops faster throughout the body due to such conditions creating a prime environment for the metabolic processes that source decomposition. On the other hand, lower temperatures decelerate rigor mortis; therefore the application of rigor mortis is not an accurate assessment for estimating time since death (Peress 2011).

Figure 7. Approximate Times for Algor and Rigor Mortis in Temperate Regions (Staerkeby 2017)

4. LIVOR MORTIS

Since the heart of the individual is no longer pumping blood throughout the body, it drains to the dependent portions of the body under the force of gravity, creating a blue-purple discoloration called livor mortis- more frequently referred to as lividity. “Livor” meaning

‘bluish color’, and “mortis” meaning ‘of death’ in Latin, livor mortis is the settling of the blood in the lower portions of the body following death, which causes a reddish-blue discoloration of the skin. Livor mortis initially begins within 10-30 minutes after death starting with patchy areas of discoloration, but is not fully observable until relatively 8-12 hours following death (Senn 2013). Blood pools into the interstitial tissues of the body, and the intensity of the color relies on the amount of reduced hemoglobin in the blood (Senn

2013). Livor mortis, like the other phases within the first stage of decomposition, proves complementary to estimating time of death and position, though these phases only approximate such variables and are not used as exact measures (DiMaio and DiMaio 2001).

ii. STAGE TWO: EARLY DECOMPOSITION

Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. describe the early decomposition stage as involving several unique aspects; mainly the discoloration of the body, skin slippage, bloating, and purging of fluids. Early decomposition is “first marked by evident skin slippage and discoloration of the body, involving drying of the extremities, marbling, or an acquisition of a greenish tint in the abdomen” (Galloway et al. 1989). These initial observations are often reported as early as the first day following death and as late as the fifth day (Galloway et al.

1989). Following rigor mortis, green discoloration of the skin becomes evident, often beginning in the abdomen and spreading to the rest of the body; as Megyesi et al. conclude in their research (Megyesi et al. 2005; Dix and Graham 2000). The right aspect of the abdomen tends to turn green in color around 24 hours after death, and the entire abdomen by 36 hours at room temperature (Dix and Graham 2000). Dix and Graham state that the “onset and progression” of green discoloration is highly subject to variables, and tends not to be uniform. Certain areas of the body will not change color due to pressure or position of the body, whereas some bodies may develop blackish discoloration and lack any green discoloration (Dix and Graham 2000). As the discoloration process progresses, the body proceeds to bloat, due to gas production via anaerobic bacteria within the large intestine (Dix and Graham 2000). A significant component of these gases includes hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which is a small molecule that diffuses throughout the body (Goff 2009). Hydrogen sulfide reacts with hemoglobin in the blood, forming a compound called sulfhemoglobin (SulfHb)

29 which is greenish in color and can be seen in blood vessels and other parts of the body (Goff

2009).

Alongside with skin slippage and discoloration of the body, maggot infestation generally begins on the second day following death; however insect activity correlates closely with time of year or seasonality in which the individual is deposited (Galloway et al. 1989).

As the body decomposes, gases are produced in the abdomen and other parts of the body, accumulating and producing the visible bloat phase (Goff 2009). Bloating is a clear indicator that microbial proliferation is underway within the body, and has long been a major qualitative means of estimating the postmortem interval in the past, with no reference to templates or time intervals. Bloating of the abdominal cavity as observed by Galloway et al. was generally expressed as early as the second day, typically lost by the seventh day following death. Alongside discoloration of the body, anaerobic metabolism begins to take place which leads to the accumulation of several gases including hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen (Carter and Tibbett 2008). Coinciding with this bloating of the body is the purging of bodily fluids, particularly at the body’s natural orifices. The accumulation of gases within the body cause natural liquids and liquefying tissues to become frothy, which are then expelled as the pressure increases in the body (Carter and Tibbett

2008). Liquids are forced out of the body, mainly at the nose, mouth, anus, and other natural openings.

The final stages of early decomposition, as described by Galloway et al., include the darkening of the flesh on the body surface and the eventual rupture of the abdominal gases.

Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. explicitly describe early decomposition in the head and neck as involving the following:

 Pink-white appearance with skin slippage and some hair loss  Gray to green discoloration: some flesh still relatively fresh  Discoloration and/or brownish shades particularly at edges, drying of nose, ears, and lips  Purging of decompositional fluids out of eyes, ears, nose, mouth, some bloating of neck and face may be present  Brown to black discoloration of flesh

Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. explicitly describe early decomposition in the trunk as involving the following:

 Pink-white appearance with skin slippage and marbling present  Gray to green discoloration: some flesh still relatively fresh  Bloating with green discoloration and purging of decompositional fluids  Post-bloating following release of the abdominal gases, with discoloration changing from green to black

Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. explicitly describe early decomposition in the extremities as involving the following:

 Pink-white appearance with skin slippage of hands and/or feet  Gray to green discoloration; marbling; some flesh relatively fresh  Discoloration and/or brownish shades particularly at edges, drying of fingers, toes, and other projecting extremities  Brown to black discoloration, skin having a leathery appearance

Figure 8. Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al.’s Decomposition Characteristics for Early Stage

(Galloway et al. 1989; Megyesi et al. 2005)

iii. STAGE THREE: ADVANCED DECOMPOSITION

Galloway et al. initially describe advanced decomposition as beginning with the sagging of the tissue and an increase in maggot activity, focal to the thoracic and abdominal cavities as purge continues (Galloway et al. 1989). Advanced decomposition typically occurs after the fourth to tenth day following death, but it must be noted that temperature can accelerate or decelerate this time frame. It is essential to note that Galloway et al. based their observations on what they observed in Arizona, which is a very arid environment and the extreme heat and lack of humidity allows for certain phenomena to be observed which are not present elsewhere. Galloway et al. observed the dehydration of the outer surface of the remains, which caused the skin to become stiff and leather-like. Under this hardened skin, moist underlying tissues continue to decompose and serve as feeding grounds for insect activity (Galloway et al. 1989). Towards the end of the advanced decomposition stage, the remains exhibit a “loss of surface mummification and a marked decrease in maggot activity”

(Galloway et al. 1989). In addition to this, remnants of insect and maggot activity may be present in the form of pupal cases and evident in the latter phases of advanced decomposition.

Mold may also appear at the edges of the underlying body areas (Galloway et al. 1989).

Entomological data is frequently analyzed at this stage of decomposition because the toughened outer skin provides a “shield” for the maggots to feed on the underlying tissues; creating a hospitable, moist environment with access to air (Galloway et al. 1989). This stage of decomposition typically ends with bony exposure of less than half of the body, which in

Galloway et al.’s research appeared in the second month following death, lasting approximately six to nine months following death. These characteristics of advanced decomposition are as observed in the arid climate of southern Arizona, reinforcing the notion

32 that region-specific visual characteristics regarding the unique patterns of decomposition must be identified and recorded. This is because such a lengthy duration within the advanced decomposition stage may not be experienced by individuals in a more humid, less arid environment such as Southeast Texas.

Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. explicitly describe advanced decomposition in the head and neck as involving the following:

 Caving in of the flesh and tissues of eyes and throat  Moist decomposition with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored  Mummification with bone exposure less than one half of the area being scored Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. explicitly describe advanced decomposition in the trunk as involving the following:

 Decomposition of tissue producing sagging of flesh; caving in of the abdominal cavity  Moist decomposition with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored  Mummification with bone exposure less than one half of the area being scored Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. explicitly describe advanced decomposition in the extremities as involving the following:

 Moist decomposition with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored  Mummification with bone exposure less than one half of the area being scored Figure 9. Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al.’s Decomposition Characteristics for Advanced

Stage

(Galloway et al. 1989; Megyesi et al. 2005)

iv. STAGE FOUR: SKELETONIZATION

Skeletonization refers to the final stage of decomposition as described by Megyesi et al., slightly divergent from Galloway et al.’s initial template regarding the stages of decomposition in which they mention extreme decomposition involving bleaching and exfoliation of the remains (Galloway et al. 1989). This particular stage of decomposition begins when 50% or more of the body exhibits bone exposure (Galloway et al. 1989). In majority of documented instances, skeletonization includes mummified and desiccated tissues with underlying exposed bone material. This retention of desiccated tissue is often found at the points of muscle and ligament attachment, frequently including the spine and articular ends of the long bones (Galloway et al. 1989). It is also within this stage of decomposition that evidence of animal activity often reoccurs, including visible chewing marks by rodents and other animals (Galloway et al. 1989). Within the arid environment of southern Arizona, skeletonization occurred within two to nine months after death.

Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. explicitly describe skeletonization in the head and neck as involving the following:

 Bone exposure of more than half of the area being scored with greasy substances and decomposed tissue  Bone exposure of more than half the area being scored with desiccated or mummified tissue  Dry bone Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. explicitly describe skeletonization in the trunk as involving the following:

 Bones with decomposed tissue, sometimes with body fluids and grease still present  Bones with desiccated or mummified tissue covering less than one half of the area being scored  Bones largely dry, but retaining some grease  Dry bone Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al. explicitly describe skeletonization in the extremities as involving the following:

 Bone exposure over one half the area being scored, some decomposed tissue and body fluids remaining  Bones largely dry, but retaining some grease  Dry bone

Figure 10. Megyesi et al. & Galloway et al.’s Decomposition Characteristics for Skeletonization (Galloway et al. 1989; Megyesi et al.2005)

3. LITERATURE REVIEW OF DECOMPOSITION STUDIES IN ANTHROPOLOGY

A. HUMAN ANALOGS VERSUS HUMAN CADAVERS

Majority of research regarding the differential rate of decomposition has

predominantly dealt with pig carcasses (Sus scrofa) serving as human analogues (Payne

1965). Relative literature involves a study performed by Shean, Messinger, and Papworth titled Observations of Differential Decomposition on Sun Exposed v. Shaded Pig Carrion in

Coastal Washington State in which they placed two pig carcasses in close proximity to each other within a wooded environment, one exposed to sunlight and the other in continuous shade. As recorded by Shean et. al, “the exposed pig decomposed much faster than the shaded pig, reaching a stable minimal weight two weeks before the shaded carcass... bloat size, body weight, occurrence of blow fly larvae, and ambient air temperatures were compared... maggot development appeared to be a major factor in the overall rate of decomposition and was affected primarily by different temperature patterns at the two sites”

(Shean et. al 1992). Though there are similarities between the decomposition of humans and non-human species, the inherent fact at hand is that there are very real differences between studying a pig and a human, and studying actual human cadavers and the exact process of decomposition that they experience yields the most accurate findings.

Recent literature published by Tal Simmons, Rachel Adlam, and Colin Moffatt highlight the issues that the fields of both forensic anthropology and forensic entomology are experiencing in terms of analyzing findings from research to reach clear conclusions regarding decomposition and factors affecting it. Published in The Journal of Forensic

Sciences in 2009, Debugging Decomposition Data—Comparative Taphonomic Studies and the Influence of Insects and Carcass Size on Decomposition Rate pinpoints the inability for researchers to adequately make sense of each particular study regarding human decomposition, stating:

“Although considerable literature concerns taphonomic studies of soft tissue decomposition, until now the principal difficulty in understanding the decomposition process

36 has been the inability to directly compare the results and observations from published studies… these studies not only varied in their methodology but also by geographic locale, climatic zone and season in which they were conducted, and species observed as well as in the duration of observation; it has been virtually impossible to draw a clear conclusion. Some decomposition studies were longitudinal and laboratory based, reducing the parallels with

“real-life” situations but allowing the environment to be controlled and documented more precisely. Case studies provided snapshots of the decomposition process, but data were generally not reported in a standardized manner, and thus these remain anecdotal and neither scientifically tested nor repeated. Still more studies were based retrospectively on forensic case work, which afforded a brief, cross-sectional glimpse into the process as it really occurs” (Simmons et al, 2009: 8-13).

Simmons, Adlam, and Moffat highlight the importance of studying human cadavers because the availability to do so is extremely limited. Because of this, human analogs have predominantly been used to model the decomposition process (Simmons et al. 2009). In addition to the prevalent literature regarding the process of decomposition pertaining to human analogs, researchers have postulated that environmental conditions have the ability to affect the decomposition process, the problem being the inability to accurately reproduce these exact conditions repeatedly; allowing for multiple replications of experiments to be conducted to test for accuracy and reliability (Simmons et al. 2009; Tomberlin 2012).

Because of this, the authors mention the importance of using Accumulated Degree Days

(ADD), a standard method of documenting chronological time and temperature together in studies regarding decomposition to allow for the comparison of studies across varied regions

37 and environments, essentially putting the separate studies on a level playing field- and one that can be applied to each other.

B. VARIOUS ECO-REGIONS AND ENVIRONMENTS

There are numerous variables that differentially affect decomposition rates, namely climate, region, scavengers, and insects. These taphonomic agents vary with distinct climates and eco-regions, producing a dependent pattern and rate of decomposition. Sergio Guerra affirms this in his research, stating that “the differences in the timing and pattern of scavenging activity by similar species in different environments, as well as the unique assemblage of insect activity observed, not only brings to light extreme variations in decomposition rates and patterns, but also reiterates the need for site-specific taphonomic data collection. It is essential to create region-specific decomposition models and conduct such studies in order to create a comprehensive, accurate model for decomposition in that given area. Guerra also mentions a powerful statement by Haglund, claiming that “any assessment of postmortem interval is extremely area dependent and does not depend on a single criterion”

(Haglund 1997).

When discussing research that represents the climactic changes and this effect on the rate of human decomposition, it is crucial to explain these variables and how they might affect this process. Climates represent patterns of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, and other meteorological variables within a given region over long periods of time (Planton 2013). In this sense, a given region’s climate differs from its weather, which only describes short-term conditions regarding these variables. Nearly all researchers who have conducted research on human decomposition have explicitly stated that different ecoregions throughout the world will experience different rates and patterns of

38 decomposition, of which need to be researched in order to accurately estimate a postmortem interval. Ecoregions, defined as an ecologically and geographically defined area smaller than a bioregion; though they encompass vast areas of land and water containing geographically distinct assemblages of natural communities and species (Olson 1998). The biodiversity of fauna and flora included within a given ecoregion tend to be distinct from that of other ecoregions.

i. PAST REGION-SPECIFIC RESEARCH ON DECOMPOSITION

Majority of decomposition studies have been conducted in North America; specifically the Southeastern and Southwestern United States (Guerra 2014). Among these were research assignments led by Allison Galloway et al. (1989) within the Arizona desert,

Debra Komar (1998) in Edmonton, Alberta, and Rodriguez and Bass (1983:1985), Mann et al.

(1990), and Vass (2011), in the humid and subtropical climate of East Tennessee at the

University of Tennessee (Guerra 2014). These particular studies involve three main, broad climates; including a dry, desert climate; a colder and more precipitous prairie-steppe type climate, and a humid and subtropical climate. It is beneficial to the field of forensic anthropology to accumulate decomposition data from these unique areas, but there is a much larger need for far more studies to be conducted in innumerable geographic locations across the world in order to adequately understand the decomposition process, in turn improving the accuracy, validity, and reliability of time since death estimates and investigations (Guerra

2014).

1. SOUTHERN ARIZONA

Alison Galloway, Walter Birkby, Allen Jones, Thomas Henry, and Bruce Parks conducted a milestone research study in southern Arizona titled “Decay Rates of Human

Remains in an Arid Environment”, published in the Journal of Forensic Sciences in 1989. A predecessor to Megyesi et al.’s research, this study initiated research on the subject of human decomposition on the terms that the “environment of southern Arizona with its mild winters and hot, dry summers produces great variability in decay rates of human remains” (Galloway et al. 1989). Megyesi et al. utilized Galloway et al.’s initial template regarding the pattern of decomposition with associated visual characteristics, though Megyesi et al. altered it and critiqued certain aspects of it, the resulting template was utilized in the research conducted for this thesis. Though similar, it is essential to fully analyze and demonstrate the research that was conducted prior to Megyesi et al.’s study, which gave way to the current template that is being even further refined for regional variability within this thesis.

Galloway et al. recognized that Arizona’s summer temperatures, which often exceed 100°F

(38°C), induce rapid bloating in human remains as the result of the accumulation of decompositional gases (Galloway et al. 1989). Also noted, the aridity of the region can lead to extensive mummification of the human remains, a phenomenon unique to environments with similar climactic characteristics. Galloway et al.’s research included a retrospective study of 189 cases which served as a basis for outlining the sequences and time frame of the decay process; focused on remains that had been found on the desert floor or in close proximity to the surrounding mountains as well as remains found within closed structures.

Much of the literature antecedent to this research concentrated heavily on entomological data in assessing the post-mortem interval, as well as the seasonality of decomposition (Galloway

40 et al. 1989). Remains were classified in five major categories, including fresh, early decomposition, advanced decomposition, skeletonization, and decomposition of skeletal material (Galloway et al. 1989). The first four stages correspond with the stages of decomposition as outlined by Rodriguez and Bass in their 1983 publication of “Insect Activity and its Relationship to Decay Rates of Human Cadavers in East Tennessee” (Galloway et al.

1989).

Figure 11. Galloway et al.’s initial template for Categories and Stages of Decomposition within

“Decay Rates of Human Remains in an Arid Environment”

(Galloway et al. 1989: 609)

Results of the retrospective study provide basic guidelines to be used in the estimation of the postmortem interval based on the decay process in the arid Southwest (Galloway et al.

1989). It is crucial to point out that Galloway et al. explicitly mention this template for the process of decomposition is that of the Southwest, and not to be used as a broad guideline applicable to all ecoregions for estimating the postmortem interval. Environmental conditions observed in the Southwest provided contrasting sequences of decomposition to those previously reported in the literature, especially the high temperatures and low humidity; which accelerated early decomposition (Galloway et al. 1989). Major observations of the study include variables that accelerate or decelerate the decomposition process in an outdoor context, such as clothing, presence of major defects such as blunt force trauma or gunshot wounds, as well as insect/animal scavenging (Galloway et al. 1989). Galloway et al. conclude the research stating that “other factors must be acknowledged to affect the decay process”, including but not limited to body size, coverings, and location of the remains. This statement was a foretoken for future research on the subject of human decomposition, due to the fact that each decomposition study conducted merely complements another; gaining a broader, more thorough understanding of the process of human decomposition in distinct environments.

Figure 12. Stages of Decomposition by Time; Remains Found in Open Air and in Closed structure

(Galloway et al. 1989: 610)

2. INDIANA AND ILLINOIS, VARIOUS STATES

Galloway et al.’s retrospective study was discussed prior to Megyesi et al.’s research due to the fact that Megyesi et al. utilize their template for decomposition, modifying it slightly. It is essential to understand the characteristics that Galloway et al. discussed and the

44 aims of their research, in order to fully grasp what Megyesi et al. intended to study. Megyesi,

Nawrocki, and Haskell conducted a study on the subject of human decomposition with the intent of quantifying the process of human decomposition with the use of associated point values that correlate with visually identified characteristics. The research included 68 human remains cases from all over the United States, but predominantly in Indiana and Illinois

(Megyesi et al. 2005). All bodies were complete; and no burned, buried, or submerged remains were included in the study. Remains found outdoors were the most common in

Megyesi et al.’s dataset, accounting for 57 cases; including woods, fields, and ditches. Of which, 13 were found in full sun, 15 in shaded areas, and 29 in a mixture of sun and shade

(Megyesi et al. 2005). Also included in their research were remains found indoors, involving houses, apartments, trailer homes, abandon buildings, and a cabin. In addition to varying environmental circumstances, clothing served as another variable within the study. Forty were found clothed in normal attire (underwear, pants or shorts, shirt, shoes) and 26 were found nude.

The main research goal of Megyesi et al.’s research was to assign point values to various visual characteristics of decomposition in an effort to apply a more quantitative approach to the estimation of the PMI from decomposing remains (Megyesi et al. 2005). As stated, “it is clear that decompositional changes can be scored in a way that provides much more information than has been explored by previous researchers…The resulting quasi- continuous values can be subjected to more thorough statistical analysis and can provide more precise and accurate estimates of the postmortem interval” (Megyesi et al. 2005: 1-9).

Methods that take into account the temperatures experienced by the body inherently produce more accurate estimates of PMI than those that do not, according to Megyesi et al. Previous

45 studies considered decomposition quite typological, as a process to be described and analyzed but not observed as a continuous process that has the ability to be scored quantitatively

(Megyesi et al. 2005).

As previously mentioned, decomposition was scored using a modified version of

Galloway et al.’s method, which was initially created to represent the decomposition process as observed in southern Arizona. Because of this, it was necessary to modify their outlined stages into sequential ranking so that the final decomposition scores reflected the total amount of accumulated decomposition that had taken place (Megyesi et al. 2005). An example of the alterations made by Megyesi et al. include the removal of adipocere development, due to the fact that this trait seems to develop independently, regardless of the degree of decomposition exhibited (Megyesi et al. 2005). Another aspect that has been altered from Galloway et al.’s initial template is in regards to mummification; which does not occur as rapidly in temperate climates- calling for a region-specific template to reflect the process of decomposition in non- desert regions of the United States (Megyesi et al. 2005). The authors identified that not all stages of decomposition apply equally to all parts of the body; as the limbs do not bloat or purge decompositional fluid throughout the decomposition process. Most of the main visual characteristics were carried over from Galloway et al.’s initial template, minus the characteristics pertaining to mummification as previously mentioned. Megyesi et al. divided the decomposition stage into four broad categories, including: fresh, early decomposition, advanced decomposition, and skeletonization. Within these stages were subdivisions describing the appearance and general characteristics of the remains, each with a corresponding point value (Megyesi et al. 2005). Each characteristic has an assigned point value starting at “1”, and increasing 1 point for each successive observable characteristic.

Within this system, the total number of points received by a body represents the amount of accumulated decomposition that has occurred (Megyesi et al. 2005). This method is referred to as Total Body Score, and serves as a way to quantify data regarding the process of human decomposition. A further explanation regarding Megyesi et al.’s techniques involved in this particular study is found below in the Conceptual Framework section.

Results of the retrospective study conducted by Megyesi et al. demonstrate the utility of using decomposition and ADD to estimate the PMI. They mention that the decomposition scoring method must be used with caution; only on “complete, adult sized remains that have not been burned, buried, or submerged” (Megyesi et al. 2005). Following this warning, the authors state that the application of this template and TBS scoring method should be applied to various other climates, in hopes to refine and make region specific models that best represent the process of decomposition as experienced there (Megyesi et al. 2005).

3. DELAWARE RIVER VALLEY REGION

Sergio Guerra’s 2014 publication titled, Qualifying and Quantifying the Rate of

Decomposition in the Delaware River Valley Region enforces this notion, noting the gap in decomposition studies in the Mid-Atlantic States, particularly the Delaware River Valley which includes Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. The basis for his research lies at the heart of most other studies regarding human decomposition; the idea that environmental differences and varying climates and ecoregions have an immense effect on the rate of decomposition and in turn, PMI estimates in the given area (Guerra 2014). Due to the lack of research conducted in this area, Guerra was unsure whether the standards and patterns of decomposition observed in other regions of the world would be applicable to the specific

Delaware River Valley Region, leading him to assess the pattern of decomposition himself. An important point that is made by Guerra stresses that the main differences between the climates of past research and the climate of the Delaware River Valley include environmental discrepancies such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, and snowfall- all of which have been demonstrated to “greatly alter the decomposition process (Guerra

2014). Applying standards regarding the decomposition process as it occurs in East

Tennessee or southern Arizona to areas of significant climate differences does not give researchers the most accurate information, and thus the need for region-specific decomposition data is imperative to yield the most accurate and reliable estimates. Mann et al. acknowledged this, stating that it is “imperative that further research be conducted… in many other states where temperatures and other environmental and ecological factors differ from those in East Tennessee”. Within his work, Guerra mentions Jaggers and Rogers

(2009:1221) who stated that, “the complex relationship that exists between decomposition and temperature also illustrates the importance of being cautious when applying experimental results obtained in one region to different geographical areas” (Guerra 2014). In other words,

Jaggers and Rogers note that one should take caution when comparing the decomposition rate of an individual in one climate to another in order to establish a PMI estimate, mainly because the variables within each climate have such an immense effect on the process of decomposition itself. It is because of this that researchers within the field of forensic anthropology have supported the notion of creating a “country-wide post-mortem interval database and formula,” which would effectively incorporate data from all past and future decomposition studies, applying the observations into models that can account for the varying environments that have not yet been studied.

4. SAN MARCOS, TEXAS

More recently, a long-term project was initiated at the Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State (FACTS) at Texas State University-San Marcos by Joanna K. Suckling in 2011 to address outdoor decomposition scenarios in human cadavers over a 9-month period. Ten human cadavers were obtained for the study through the Forensic Anthropology Center’s

Body Donation Program, a body-willed donation method similar to the Southeast Texas

Applied Forensic Science facility. Each cadaver was placed on the ground surface of the research facility, in grassy or sparsely wooded areas. Once placed, FACTS personnel photographed the individuals along with taking cadaver measurements, noting any wounds on the body and other pertinent information regarding the condition of the donation upon arrival that would have the potential to complement future research (Suckling 2011). As stated in her research, the cadavers used in the study occurring between November 2009 and July 2010 included 7 males and 3 females, all identifying as White except for one that self-identified as

Hispanic (Suckling 2011). Of these 10 human cadavers, 4 of which were autopsied, which

“may have accelerated decomposition by providing additional access points for scavengers and insects” (Mann et al. 1990; Suckling 2011). In order to make the autopsied individuals relative to the research at hand regarding decomposition, Suckling suggested that the autopsied individuals can be considered analogous to trauma associated with crimes scenes involving blunt or sharp force trauma. Several aspects of decomposition were recorded until active decomposition ceased, including the ambient temperatures, any visible arthropod activity, and the pattern of decomposition occurring on all cadavers. In addition to these measurements, entomological observations were carefully pertaining to the pattern of decomposition witnessed on the cadavers.

This study performed at the Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State is relevant scientific research on the topic of differential decomposition patterns in terms of human cadavers in a supine orientation on the terrestrial surface. There are several overlapping aspects regarding Suckling’s research and this particular study, though the latter intends on re- examining the template for the Total Body Score method and introducing more region- specific visual characteristics with correlative point values in order to refine the method and provide more accurate findings. An idea that Suckling’s research predominantly concluded; as stated in A Longitudinal Study on the Outdoor Human Decomposition Sequence in Central

Texas; “the results of this study demonstrate that different environments may contain significant variables that the Megyesi et al. decomposition scoring system does not specifically address” (Suckling 2011).

In summation, Suckling’s research aimed to test the method of estimating ADD from decomposition stages ranked through the use of the TBS template (Suckling 2011). Findings of the research concluded that there were statistically significant differences between the estimation of ADD given by the equation for ADD, and the actual accumulated ADD within corresponding decomposition stages (Suckling 2011). In addition to this, her research ascertained that the decomposition process progresses differently in various environments and the need to reevaluate the use of the ADD equation for PMI estimation derived from TBS, which supports the importance of this research for the reexamination of the method including region-specific data (Galloway et al. 1989; Willey and Snyder 1989; Mann et al. 1990;

Galloway 1997; Komar 1998; Rhine and Dawson 1998; Love and Marks 2003; Suckling

2011).

5. KNOXVILLE, TENNESSEE

Another important contribution, though older, includes Mann, Bass, and Meadows’

1990 publication in the Journal of Forensic Sciences, titled Time Since Death and

Decomposition of the Human Body: Variables and Observations in Case and Experimental

Field Studies. Their research was centered at University of Tennessee’s Forensic

Anthropology Research Facility, the first research center of its kind. Opened by Dr. William

M. Bass in 1980, the goal of the facility was to scientifically document postmortem change in an outdoor context using actual human cadavers. Many other universities have followed suit, recognizing the vital need for more forensic research facilities in order to create a more comprehensive understanding of human decomposition in different environments and climates (Garrison 2007). Their research highlighted the difficulty in determining the time since death (postmortem interval) and the lack of systematic observation and research on the decomposition rate of the human body that was present in the field of forensic anthropology

(Mann et al. 1990). Studies conducted at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, contributed valuable information regarding the impact of carrion insect activity, ambient temperature, rainfall, clothing, burial and depth, carnivores, bodily trauma, body weight, and the surface with which the body was in contact with in regards to the process of decomposition (Mann et al. 1990).

Also conducted at the University of Tennessee’s Forensic Anthropology Research

Facility was a 2002 study performed by Vass, Sega, Caton, Love, and Synstein titled

Decomposition Chemistry of Human Remains: A New Methodology for Determining the

Postmortem Interval (2002). This particular study was initiated to characterize the chemistry associated with the decomposition of human remains, with the main objective being the

51 identification of time-dependent biomarkers of decomposition (Vass 2002). By doing so, an accurate method for measuring postmortem interval (PMI) would be established. This example involves aspects of research that have not been included in this research study, such as tissue samples and the analysis of biomarkers like amino acids, neurotransmitters, and decomposition byproducts, although the end goal is related to this research- the creation of a more scientific way of understanding the process of human decomposition.

4. CLIMACTIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PINEY WOODS REGION AND

SOUTHERN ARIZONA

Since a major distinction of this research focuses on the idea that specific traits and patterns of decomposition occur in different, distinct regions, it is important to demonstrate how the Piney Woods differs environmentally from other regions, specifically southern

Arizona due to the fact that the initial template regarding human decomposition was modeled after this particular region. As stated in Forensic Anthropology, the “single most important criterion for decomposition, regardless of the scenario, is temperature” (Mann et al. 1990).

This research has been conducted in Southeast Texas, whereas Galloway et al. initially studied their subjects in southern Arizona. Since Galloway et al. documented temperature and precipitation ranges for southern Arizona using data pertaining to Tucson, Arizona; Tucson will be referenced interchangeably with southern Arizona. The environment in Southeast

Texas is quite different than that of Tucson, Arizona, in the sense that annual average temperature in Tucson is 70 °F (21°C), whereas Huntsville’s annual average temperature is 67

°F (19 °C), which undoubtedly affects the rate of decomposition. This plays an important role in this research due to the fact that ambient temperatures are different in Southeast Texas than they are in Tucson, Arizona even before taking into account the actual seasonality that the

52 research has been conducted in. In the most basic sense, temperature dictates the speed at which the chemical reactions involved in decomposition occur, aside from physical context differences (Wilson-Taylor 2013). The humid, sub-tropical climate of Southeast Texas exhibits different decompositional findings from those observed in an arid climate like that of

Tucson, Arizona; proper research conducted in multiple climate zones is crucial to understanding and establishing the post-mortem interval in unknown medico-legal forensic cases throughout the world.

As shown in the following tables, both Huntsville, TX, and Tucson, AZ, receive disproportionate amounts of annual rainfall, in addition to varying average annual maximum and minimum temperatures. The Piney Woods region of Texas is the “wettest part of Texas by a wide margin, but although the woods are damp and humid, all the trees make for a very temperate climate year-round...the summers never get too hot and the winters never get too cold” (World Wildlife Fund, 2017). The major area of variability lies in the amount of precipitation that each region receives, with Tucson averaging 11.92 inches of annual precipitation, while Huntsville receives an average of 49.10 inches of precipitation (U.S.

Climate Data: Tucson 2017).

Figure 13 (Above). Huntsville, TX Climate Graph

Figure 14 (Below). Tucson, AZ Climate Graph

(U.S. Climate Data: Tucson 2017; U.S. Climate Data: Huntsville 2017).

A. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF PINEY WOODS REGION, TX

The Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas is considered a temperate, coniferous forest terrestrial ecoregion within the southern United States; covering over 54,000 square miles including East Texas, Southern Arkansas, Western Louisiana, and Southeastern

Oklahoma (Piney 2009). This region is dominated by coniferous forest, primarily pine but also including hardwoods such as hickory and oak (Piney 2009). Because of this, the Piney

Woods ecoregion is classified as an oak-hickory-pine forest, despite sparse remnants of the long-leaf pine forests that initially dominated this ecoregion. This region is bounded on the east by the Mississippi lowland forests, on the south by the Western Gulf Coastal grasslands, the west by the East Central Texas forests, and the north by the Ozark Mountain forests

(Piney 2009). The Piney Woods ecoregion includes parts of what is commonly referred to as the “Big Thicket” region of East Texas, and includes the western extent of the Southeastern coastal plain. Particular flora within this ecoregion reflects that of which inhabits the

Southeastern Mixed Forests, as well as the Southeastern Conifer Forests (Cook et al. 2017).

Demonstration of the climactic variation between Galloway et al.’s original region of study and the current region being researched is crucial to understanding the contradistinctive rates and patterns of decomposition observed. Without addressing major environmental distinctions of each region, the creation of a refined and more accurate region-specific model of decomposition does not truly provide insight as to how these variables affect the process and rate of decomposition, but merely identifies it as recognizably distinct. Providing insight as to the primary differences between the climate of the region where the original template for human decomposition was created compared to this particular climate of Huntsville, TX

55 allows for a more general understanding and analysis of how these variables affect and influence the decomposition process.

i. TEMPERATURE

Temperature, in the most basic sense dictates the speed at which the chemical reactions involved in decomposition occur, aside from physical context differences (Wilson-

Taylor 2013). It is important to delineate the contrasting aspects of Tucson, Arizona’s climate to that of Huntsville, Texas in order to explicitly explain how these two ecoregions differ.

Averages annual temperatures for each region were briefly discussed in prior sections, though a more thorough analysis is required. Average annual high temperatures recorded in

Huntsville lie at 77.5 °F, with an annual low temperature of 57.4 °F (U.S. Climate Data:

Huntsville 2017). Within these annual high and low temperatures lies the average temperature of Huntsville, Texas; 67.45°F. Tucson, Arizona experiences an average annual high temperature of 83.7°F, with an annual average low temperature of 58.1°F (U.S. Climate

Data: Tucson 2017). Between these temperatures lies the average temperature for the region, a warmer 70.9°F (U.S. Climate Data: Tucson 2017). Huntsville experiences cooler summers as well as winters, with an average temperature slightly below that of Tucson. Galloway et al. state that the moisture and temperature of which human remains have been exposed are major areas of complication in estimating the decay rates (Galloway et al. 1989).

ii. PRECIPITATION AND HUMIDITY/ARIDITY

Precipitation affects decomposition but the role it plays has not been fully researched and analyzed. Daniel Westcott, director of the Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State

University, states that “Rain’s impact on decaying bodies is a little less straightforward than

56 some other weather factors. Sometimes it washes the maggots away from the carcass, slowing the process. Sometimes it speeds it up, if the rain happens to liquefy the body. In the case of a human body that’s already been mummified, wet weather could potentially rehydrate the remains, speeding up what would’ve been an extremely slow decline” (Berger 2013). It is sensible that too much precipitation may flood the remains, causing the insect activity to be flushed from the body, momentarily halting the feeding; though reintroducing liquid to the remains alongside warm weather has the ability to rehydrate the tissues and further decomposition. In terms of precipitation amongst Galloway et al.’s initial study and

Huntsville, Texas, it is evident that Huntsville receives a much higher amount of rainfall.

According to U. S. Climate Data, Huntsville receives roughly 49 inches of precipitation annually, compared to Tucson’s average of 12 inches of precipitation (U.S. Climate Data:

Huntsville 2017; U.S. Climate Data: Tucson 2017). Tucson typically experiences arid, hot summers with intermittent “monsoon” rains of great intensity, with mild winters alongside gentle rains (Galloway et al. 1989). Huntsville’s precipitation is more frequent, though is similar in nature, as 51% of the precipitation experienced in this area is from thunderstorms

(WeatherSpark Huntsville 2017). The relative humidity of Huntsville, Texas typically ranges from 40% to 92% over the course of the year, and rarely drops below 23% (WeatherSpark

Huntsville 2017). Tucson, Arizona on the other hand, experiences an average relative humidity ranging from 10% to 74% throughout the year (WeatherSpark Tucson 2017). The air is driest in Tucson during early June, at which the relative humidity drops below 12% three days out of four, whereas the it is most humid around January, where the average relative humidity exceeds 74% three days out of four (WeatherSpark Tucson 2017). Figure

15 and 16 below demonstrate average relative humidity levels for both regions throughout the

57 year, as recorded in 2016. This particular research regarding human decomposition began in

April, continuing through the month of September within the Piney Woods region, which experiences steady high relative humidity levels, whereas Tucson experiences a drastic reduction in relative humidity levels followed by a sharp increase and eventual decrease.

Figures 17 and 18 display the probability of precipitation pertaining to each ecoregion throughout a given year, which also affects the rate of decomposition observed.

Figure 15 (Above). Relative Humidity Graph of Huntsville, Texas.

Figure 16 (Below). Relative Humidity Graph of Tucson, Arizona.

(Humidity 2017)

Figure 17 (Above). Probability of Precipitation in Huntsville, Texas

Figure 18 (Below). Probability of Precipitation in Tucson, Arizona.

(WeatherSpark Huntsville 2017, WeatherSpark Tucson 2017)

As indicated by the preceding graphs, Huntsville steadily receives higher levels of precipitation through most of the year, though the possibility of precipitation surges within the summer months in Tucson; exceeding 54% of days in July (WeatherSpark Tucson 2017).

Huntsville, Texas is a warmer and more humid environment than Tucson, Arizona. These specific variables directly affect the rate of decomposition experienced by human cadavers in outdoor contexts and because of this it is crucial to understand the climactic variables at play in Huntsville to better interpret the differences between decomposition patterns.

iii. ELEVATION

Galloway et al. mention elevation as affecting the rate of decomposition, primarily delaying certain processes at higher latitudes. Though, they mention that affiliated with higher elevations are cooler temperatures, snowfall, and freezing during winter months, along with rain throughout the rest of the year (Galloway et al. 1989). Such conditions inhibit dehydration of the soft tissues of the body, which decreases insect activity (Galloway et al.

1989). In addition to dehydrating the soft tissues of the body, carnivore activity tends to be altered due to a “shift in species at higher elevations and latitudes” (Galloway et al. 1989).

The city of Tucson, Arizona lies at roughly 2,643 feet (806 m) above sea level, with outlying mountain ranges with greater elevations; whereas Huntsville, Texas lies at 371 feet (113 m) above sea level. At 113 meters above sea level, Huntsville does not experience cooler temperatures, snowfall, and freezing due to increased elevation; in summation, Galloway et al. witnessed delayed decomposition within human remains at notably higher elevations within Tucson; therefore the lack of substantial elevation in Huntsville suggests that this hindrance will not actively affect the rate of decomposition observed within this research.

Better understanding the environmental factors that influence decomposition will complement the findings and support the main hypotheses presented in the introduction, regarding the notion that region-specific visual characteristics need to be evaluated and implemented alongside the TBS model in order to more accurately define the process of decomposition experienced in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas. Focal study on the subject is critical to further understanding the decomposition patterns of individuals in climate zones similar to the Piney Woods, since the varying abiotic factors of different climates drastically affects the rate and process of decomposition in humans (Garrison 2007).

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. PINEY WOODS DECOMPOSITION MODEL COMPARED TO MEGYESI ET AL. & GALLOWAY ET AL.’S DECOMPOSITION MODELS

The observations derived from this research yielded results that provoked interpretation in terms of identifying the factors behind these discrepancies between decomposition patterns. These decomposition templates identify the process that the cadavers experienced within this research, and the visual characteristics included in each stage represent this quasi-sequential series of events. These templates have not been mathematically tested according to Megyesi et al.’s or Moffat et al.’s Total Body Score equations, though doing so with this research would prove complementary to the understanding of the decomposition process in terms of quantifying the process as a whole. If conducted, a hypothesis that each visual characteristic be worth points independent from each other, graded as including whichever visual characteristics are visible would prove most accurate in defining the stage of decomposition that a cadaver is in. This hypothesized research exceeded the limitations of this thesis, though such research would complement the

62 field of forensic anthropology insofar as critiquing the ever growing desire to quantify the decomposition process.

After reviewing the decomposition templates outlined by both Galloway et al. and

Megyesi et al., several overlapping characteristics were present in addition to several unique, region-specific decomposition characteristics that can be attributed to the humid, sub-tropical

Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas.

In general, the cadavers utilized in this research only spent one to four days in the fresh stage of decomposition, some even qualifying as being in the early stage of decomposition on the initial day of placement. Following a brief period in the fresh stage, majority of the cadavers then proceeded to display characteristics commonly attributed to the early decomposition stage. All of the cadavers involved in this study spent a longer interval of time in early decomposition compared to the fresh stage, and a general trend was observed.

All four of the cadavers’ head and neck regions displayed characteristics pertaining to

Megyesi et al.’s early decomposition ranging from two to six days, with an increase in this time interval for the torso, with an even longer time interval for the extremities. All of the cadavers enter the early stage at approximately the same day of the study, though these particular body regions vary in their progression through the decomposition process as described by Galloway et al. and Megyesi et al.

PINEY WOODS STAGES OF DECOMPOSITION FOR THE HEAD AND NECK

A. Fresh

1. Skin appears normal in color/texture 2. Initial egg masses evident in hair, eyes, nose, and/or mouth 3. Slight marbling present 4. Preliminary discoloration involving purple, gray, and red 5. Preliminary skin slippage B. Early Decomposition Phase 1

1. Extensive egg masses visible in hair, eyes, nose, and/or mouth 2. Preliminary fluid draining from eyes and mouth 3. Pronounced skin slippage/hair sloughing 4. Introductory maggot activity evident in natural orifices 5. Collapse of eyes 6. Focal maggot activity within center of face, displaying teeth 7. Increased discoloration of skin involving black, purple, and dark brown 8. Eyes, nose, and/or mouth distorted and discolored black. C. Early Decomposition Phase 2 1. Visible skin discolored black/dark brown 2. Increased maggot infestation, covering >50% of area being scored 3. Skin contiguous with surface moist/wet in appearance, forming “Cadaver Island” D. Advanced Decomposition 1. Decrease in maggot activity, <50% of area being scored 2. Deterioration/desiccation of tissue surrounding eyes, nose, mouth, and ears 3. Skin of face leathery in appearance, discoloration ranging from dark brown to black 4. Desiccation with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored

5. Mold formation E. Skeletonization 1. Bone exposure over one half the area being scored, some decomposed tissue and body fluids remaining. 2. Bones largely dry, but retaining some grease

Figure 19. Piney Woods Stages of Decomposition for the Head and Neck

PINEY WOODS STAGES OF DECOMPOSITION FOR THE TORSO

A. Fresh

1. Skin appears normal in color/texture 2. Egg masses evident in body/pubic hair 3. Marbling present 4. Preliminary discoloration involving purple, gray, and red 5. Extensive skin slippage/blistering B. Early Decomposition Phase 1

1. Pronounced skin slippage 2. Extensive maggot activity surrounding pubic region, abdomen 3. Preliminary bloating of abdomen 4. Increased focal areas of discoloration of skin involving tan, orange, and dark brown 5. Full bloat of abdomen/chest (In males, scrotum bloats) C. Early Decomposition Phase 2 1. Visible skin discolored black/dark brown 2. Increased maggot infestation, covering >50% of area being scored 3. Skin contiguous with surface moist/wet in appearance, forming “Cadaver Island” D. Advanced Decomposition 1. Decrease in maggot activity, <50% of area being scored 2. Deterioration/desiccation of tissue 3. Skin leathery in appearance, discoloration ranging from dark brown to black 4. Deterioration of pubic regions, discolored black 5. Complete collapse following bloat, skin appears crinkled and tough; followed by greasy appearance 6. Desiccation with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored

7. Mold formation E. Skeletonization 1. Bone exposure over one half the area being scored, some decomposed tissue and body fluids remaining 2. Bones largely dry, but retaining some grease

Figure 20. Piney Woods Stages of Decomposition for the Torso

PINEY WOODS STAGES OF DECOMPOSITION FOR THE EXTREMITIES

A. Fresh

1. Skin appears normal in color/texture 2. Preliminary marbling present 3. Preliminary skin slippage most evident on hands/feet 4. Skin blisters retaining fluid present 5. Preliminary discoloration involving purple, orange, and red B. Early Decomposition Phase 1

1. Extensive skin slippage on hands/feet a. “Degloving” of hands and feet 2. Marbling 3. Extensive skin slippage/blistering on upper/lower limbs 4. Increased focal areas of discoloration of skin involving tan, orange, and dark brown C. Early Decomposition Phase 2 1. Skin discolored black/dark brown with greasy appearance 2. Increased maggot infestation, covering >50% of area being scored 3. Skin contiguous with surface moist/wet in appearance, forming “Cadaver Island” D. Advanced Decomposition 1. Decrease in maggot activity, <50% of area being scored 2. Deterioration/desiccation of tissue 3. Skin leathery in appearance, discoloration ranging from dark brown to black 4. Desiccation with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored

5. Skin appears crinkled and tough; followed by greasy appearance 6. Mold formation E. Skeletonization 1. Bone exposure over one half the area being scored, some decomposed tissue and body fluids remaining 2. Bones largely dry, but retaining some grease

Figure 21. Piney Woods Stages of Decomposition for the Extremities

i. FRESH STAGE

1. HEAD AND NECK

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“fresh” stage of decomposition in regards to the head and neck if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates

Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region

 Fresh, no discoloration or insect activity  Skin appears normal in color/texture  Fresh burned  Initial egg masses evident in hair, eyes, nose, and/or mouth  Slight marbling present  Preliminary discoloration involving purple, gray, and red  Preliminary skin slippage

Initially, the head and neck appear normal in color and texture, though there may be preliminary marbling beginning to develop within this region. After only hours, egg masses begin to develop within the hair, eyes, nose, and/or mouth. In addition to preliminary marbling, the beginning stages of discoloration observed involved purple, gray, orange, and red tones. Skin slippage first appears in the fresh stage, reaching its full potential within the

Early Decomposition Phase 1 stage.

2. TORSO

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“fresh” stage of decomposition in regards to the torso if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates

Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region

 Fresh, no discoloration or insect activity  Skin appears normal in color/texture  Fresh burned  Egg masses evident in body/pubic hair  Marbling present  Preliminary discoloration involving purple, gray, and red  Extensive skin slippage/blistering

The torso exhibits higher levels of decompositional activity within the fresh stage of decomposition, which is included within the Piney Woods model. Similar to the head and neck region, the torso initially appears normal in color and texture, though marbling and preliminary discoloration begin to become evident on the body. Egg masses are evident in the body hair and pubic region, and discoloration involving purple, gray, and red begins to appear. As for Megyesi et al.’s & Galloway et al.’s templates, the only characteristics pertaining to the torso for the fresh stage include “fresh, no discoloration or insect activity, and fresh burned” (Galloway et al. 1989). Extensive skin slippage is present on the torso and abdomen within the fresh stage, more prominent than on the other regions of the body. In addition to skin slippage, blisters retaining fluid are observed on the torso.

3. EXTREMITIES

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“fresh” stage of decomposition in regards to the extremities if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates

Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region

 Fresh, no discoloration or insect activity  Skin appears normal in color/texture  Fresh burned  Preliminary marbling present  Preliminary skin slippage most evident on hands/feet  Skin blisters retaining fluid  Preliminary discoloration involving purple, orange, and red

Proceeding with the extremities in regards to the fresh stage of decomposition, analogous characteristics are observed including the initial appearance of normal color and texture, which is quickly superseded by preliminary marbling, skin slippage and blistering, as well as discoloration involving purple, orange, and red. Skin slippage within the fresh stage predominantly involved the hands and feet, though was also observed on the areas of the long bones.

4. FRESH STAGE SUMMATION

The visual characteristics associated with the fresh stage of decomposition are fairly uniform amongst the three regions of the body, though it is apparent that the torso exhibits increased skin slippage and blistering, followed by the hands and feet of the extremities. This refined template for the decomposition process as experienced in the Piney Woods region is more specific than the other templates, due to the fact that these visual characteristics are visible in their preliminary stages and must be accounted for before the body fully develops the characteristics of early decomposition.

The Piney Woods region model of decomposition incorporates several more visual characteristics that had not been included within the fresh stage in both Galloway et al.’s and

Megyesi et al.’s templates. The reasoning behind this is that these characteristics are observed in nearly every cadaver that is situated in an outdoor context within the Piney

Woods region, and the increase in characteristics allows for a more accurate determination of where the individual is in the decomposition process as it relates to the Piney Woods.

ii. EARLY DECOMPOSITION PHASE 1 STAGE

Moving on to the early stage of decomposition, there are also several additional visual characteristics of decomposition that have been added to the Piney Woods model. When the process of decomposition experienced in Piney Woods is scored according to Megyesi et al.’s

TBS template, the body tends to move quite rapidly past the fresh stage, progressing to the early stage then the advanced stage, in which it stays in for an incredibly long time. After observing this trend, it seemed most appropriate to break down the stages of early decomposition and advanced decomposition into three more specific stages, titled Early

Decomposition Phase 1, Early Decomposition Phase 2, followed by Advanced

Decomposition. The reasoning behind this is to more accurately define the process of decomposition, since a very real set of physical changes were observed throughout the decomposition process. Instead of assessing the body as pertaining to a stage of decomposition of which they remain in for an indefinite amount of time before finally reaching skeletonization, it seemed more suitable to further analyze the visual characteristics that were represented within the process and further break down the stages into sub-stages.

1. HEAD AND NECK

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“Early Decomposition Phase 1” stage of decomposition in regards to the head and neck if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates

Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region

 Pink-white appearance with skin  Extensive egg masses visible in hair, slippage and some hair loss eyes, nose, and/or mouth  Gray to green discoloration: some flesh  Preliminary fluid draining from eyes still relatively fresh and mouth  Discoloration and/or brownish shades  Pronounced skin slippage/hair particularly at edges, drying of nose, sloughing ears, and lips  Introductory maggot activity evident in  Purging of decompositional fluids out natural orifices of eyes, ears, nose, mouth, some  Collapse of eyes bloating of neck and face may be  Focal maggot activity within center of present face, displaying teeth

 Brown to black discoloration of flesh  Increased discoloration of skin involving black, purple, and dark brown  Eyes, nose, and/or mouth distorted and discolored black.

The head and neck templates for this particular decomposition stage share certain aspects, whereas the Piney Woods model includes numerous aspects that are not included in

Galloway et al.’s and Megyesi et al.’s templates. Skin slippage is mentioned in both templates, as well as the discoloration of the skin; involving gray to green discoloration in

Megyesi et al.’s model and black, purple, and dark brown in the Piney Woods model.

Extensive egg masses are observed within the hair, nose, and mouth at this stage, with a central focal point being the face. It is also at this stage of decomposition that the collapse of the eyes was observed, which then is overtaken by maggot activity. Purging of decompositional fluid is noted by Megyesi et al., whereas cadavers in the Piney Woods tend to exhibit preliminary purge fluid draining from the eyes and mouth. In addition to these characteristics, focal maggot activity was observed within the center of the face within the

Piney Woods, which led to the presentation of the teeth and maxilla. The drying of the nose, ears, and lips was mentioned in previous research, which was also observed within this region; though the ears, nose, and mouth appeared distorted and blackened, not simply drier than the rest of the body.

2. TORSO

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“Early Decomposition Phase 1” stage of decomposition in regards to the torso if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates

Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region

 Pink-white appearance with skin  Pronounced skin slippage slippage and marbling present  Extensive maggot activity surround  Gray to green discoloration: some flesh public region, abdomen relatively fresh  Preliminary bloating of abdomen  Bloating with green discoloration and  Increased focal areas of discoloration of purging of decompositional fluids skin involving tan, orange, and dark  Postbloating following release of brown abdominal gases, with discoloration  Full bloat of abdomen/chest (in males, changing from green to black scrotum bloats)

The torso exhibits pronounced skin slippage within this stage of decomposition in the

Piney Woods model, also mentioned in Megyesi et al.’s and Galloway et al.’s models. Both templates include a general discoloration of the flesh, involving gray to green in Megyesi et al.’s research, whereas a tan, orange, and dark brown discoloration was observed in the Piney

Woods. Bloating of the abdomen is a key component of this stage, mentioned in both templates. The Piney Woods model includes the preliminary bloating of the abdomen, followed later by the full bloat of the abdomen. A unique aspect of this stage mentioned in

73 the Piney Woods model is the bloating of the scrotum in males, a phenomenon not mentioned in past studies.

3. EXTREMITIES

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“Early Decomposition Phase 1” stage of decomposition in regards to the extremities if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region  Pink-white appearance with skin  Extensive skin slippage on hands/feet slippage of hands and/or feet o “Degloving” of hands and feet  Gray to green discoloration;  Marbling marbling; some flesh still relatively  Extensive skin slippage/blistering on fresh upper/lower limbs  Discoloration and/or brownish shades  Increased focal areas of discoloration of particularly at edges; drying of skin involving tan, orange, and dark fingers, toes, and other projecting brown

extremities  Brown to black discoloration, skin having a leathery appearance

The extremities share several similarities in visually identified characteristics, including skin slippage of the hands and feet, as well as marbling and the initial stages of discoloration. “Degloving” or the phenomena involving the epidermis separating from the dermis and creating a glove-like shape was observed in the cadavers within the Piney Woods, an aspect not mentioned in past research. Extensive blistering was seen on the arms and legs,

74 as mentioned in the Piney Woods model. Focal areas of discoloration were observed on the extremities including tan, orange, and dark brown; whereas Megyesi et al. mention gray to green discoloration evolving into brown to black discoloration and a leathery appearance of the skin. This “leathery” appearance of the skin was also observed in this research, but at a later stage.

4. EARLY DECOMPOSITION PHASE 1 STAGE SUMMATION

Early Decomposition Phase 1 includes the development of egg masses in the natural orifices of the body, as well as the purging of bodily fluids from the eyes and mouth. Skin slippage is a major component of this stage, which is manifested on all regions of the body.

Maggot activity begins to take place on the body, and discoloration ensues with time and temperature. The preliminary bloating of the abdomen leading to the eventual full bloat is included within this stage, as well as the bloating of the scrotum in males. In summation, rapid decompositional changes are experienced by the body within this stage that bridges between the fresh stage and Early Decomposition Phase 2.

iii. EARLY DECOMPOSITION PHASE 2 STAGE

As previously mentioned, the newly refined Piney Woods template for decomposition divides the Early Decomposition stage into two phases, each with distinct physical developments pertaining to each stage. The emendations to this stage in the Piney Woods template are included below, though not alongside Megyesi et al.’s and Galloway et al.’s; since their models included only “Early Decomposition”, which was explained in the latter section. Each region of the body exhibits these characteristics described in the table below.

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates Piney Woods Region

 Visible skin discolored black/dark brown  Increased maggot infestation, covering >50% of area being scored  Skin contiguous with surface moist/wet in appearance, forming “Cadaver Island”

1. EARLY DECOMPOPSITION PHASE 2 STAGE SUMMATION

Within Early Decomposition Phase 2, the visible skin of the body is discolored dark brown/black; there is no longer relatively fresh flesh on the head and neck. There is a marked increase in maggot activity, covering over half of the area being scored, with a focal adherence to the central face region. In addition to these aspects the skin contiguous with the ground surface appears quite moist/wet in appearance, forming a blackened and greasy

“Cadaver Island”; resulting from the decomposition fluids draining from the body creating a blackened area surrounding the body.

iv. ADVANCED DECOMPOSITION STAGE

Following the stages of Early Decomposition, the Piney Woods template assumes a similar format coinciding with Megyesi et al.’s and Galloway et al.’s; establishing the

Advanced Decomposition stage. Within this stage, major components of Megyesi et al.’s/

Galloway et al.’s templates involve moist decomposition and mummification with bone exposure less than one half of the area being scored. The Piney Woods template includes this, stated slightly different as “desiccation with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored”. Notable aspects from these models also include the sagging and caving in of flesh of the eyes, throat, and torso. Interestingly enough, there is no further mention of

76 discoloration within these templates, whereas the Piney Woods model includes apparent discolorations with texture analysis. Observed within the Piney Woods region was a marked decrease in maggot activity, a pronounced deterioration and desiccation of tissue, and mold formation throughout the cadavers within the advanced decomposition stage.

1. HEAD AND NECK

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“Advanced Decomposition” stage of decomposition in regards to the head and neck if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region  Caving in of the flesh and tissues of  Decrease in maggot activity, <50% of eyes and throat area being scored  Moist decomposition with bone  Deterioration/desiccation of tissue exposure less than one half that of the surrounding eyes, nose, mouth, and area being scored ears  Mummification with bone exposure  Skin of face leathery in appearance, less than one half that of the area discoloration ranging from dark brown being scored to black  Desiccation with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored  Mold formation Additions to the Piney Woods template includes a mention of decreased maggot activity, less than half that of the area being scored. Also, the specific deterioration and eventual desiccation of tissue surrounding the eyes, nose, mouth and ears can be observed within the Piney Woods. Coinciding with this is the leathery appearance of the skin of the

77 head and neck involving discoloration ranging from dark brown to black. Bone exposure is evident, though remains less than half that of the area being scored, otherwise the region would be identified as pertaining to the skeletonization stage. Towards the latter stages of advanced decomposition, mold formation is evident, observed in focal patches amidst the head and neck.

2. TORSO

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“Advanced Decomposition” stage of decomposition in regards to the torso if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region  Decomposition of tissue producing  Decrease in maggot activity, <50% of sagging of flesh; caving in of the area being scored abdominal cavity  Deterioration of pubic region,  Moist decomposition with bone discolored black exposure less than one half that of the  Skin leathery in appearance, area being scored discoloration ranging from dark  Mummification with bone exposure brown to black less than one half that of the area  Complete collapse following bloat, being scored skin appears crinkled and tough; followed by greasy appearance  Desiccation with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored

The torso exhibits similar decompositional changes to the head and neck, involving a decrease in maggot activity, a leathery appearance to the skin, and discoloration ranging from dark brown to black. This region also exhibits a marked deterioration of the pubic region, and the complete collapse of the torso following bloat. The skin appears crinkled and tough, which is followed by a greasy appearance covering all areas of the visible skin. Eventual bone exposure is observed specifically in the clavicular region, the ribs, as well as the pelvis.

3. EXTREMITIES

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“Advanced Decomposition” stage of decomposition in regards to the extremities if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region  Moist decomposition with bone  Decrease in maggot activity, <50% of exposure less than one half that of area being scored the area being scored  Deterioration/desiccation of tissue  Mummification with bone exposure  Skin leathery in appearance, less than one half that of the area discoloration ranging from dark being scored brown to black  Desiccation with bone exposure less than one half that of the area being scored  Skin appears crinkled and tough; followed by greasy appearance  Mold formation

The extremities experienced the same decompositional changes that the torso exhibited, minus the deterioration of the pubic region and the postbloat collapse, both tied specifically to the torso region. A decrease in maggot activity, deterioration and desiccation of tissue, and discoloration ranging from dark brown to black were observed. Also, the skin displays the same leathery appearance, with areas that appear crinkled and tough with a greasy appearance. Mold formation develops towards the latter half of the advanced decomposition stage, as experienced in the Piney Woods Region.

4. ADVANCED DECOMPOSITION STAGE SUMMATION

As previously stated, a major component of Megyesi et al.’s and Galloway et al.’s templates for this stage of decomposition includes the moist decomposition/mummification with bone exposure less than half that of the area being scored- a phenomena that carried over into the Piney Woods region template. Instead of moist decomposition, desiccation of tissues with bone exposure was observed and included in this template. An important aspect of this particular stage involved the decrease in maggot activity as the body’s tissue begin to toughen and desiccate, which coincides with the leathery appearance of the skin and the crinkly, greasy texture.

iv. SKELETONIZATION STAGE

The skeletonization stage is the final decomposition stage within the Piney Woods template, analogous to Megyesi et al.’s model though differing from Galloway et al.’s model which includes a further stage of decomposition titled “Extreme Decomposition” (Galloway et al. 1989). Galloway et al.’s initial template regarding the skeletonization stage of decomposition involves four identifiable characteristics, including the following:

 Bones with greasy substances and decomposed tissue, sometimes with body fluids still

present

 Bones with desiccated tissue or mummified tissue covering less than one half of the

skeleton

 Bones largely dry, but still retaining some grease; and dry bone

Megyesi et al. slightly modified Galloway et al.’s initial template for this stage, introducing bone exposure with decomposed/desiccated tissue, amongst others throughout the different body regions.

1. HEAD AND NECK

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“Skeletonization” stage of decomposition in regards to the head and neck if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates

Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region

 Bones exposure of more than half of the  Bone exposure over one half the area area being scored with greasy substances being scored, some decomposed tissue and decomposed tissue and body fluids remaining.  Bone exposure of more than half the area  Bones largely dry, but retaining some being scored with desiccated or grease mummified tissue  Bones largely dry, but retaining some grease  Dry bone

2. TORSO

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“Skeletonization” stage of decomposition in regards to the torso if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region  Bones with decomposed tissue,  Bone exposure over one half the area sometimes with body fluids and being scored, some decomposed grease still present tissue and body fluids remaining.  Bones with desiccated or mummified  Bones largely dry, but retaining some tissue covering less than one half of grease the area being scored  Bones largely dry, but retaining some grease  Dry bone

3. EXTREMITIES

Cadavers in the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas can be considered in the

“Skeletonization” stage of decomposition in regards to the extremities if they exhibit the following visually identified characteristics:

Discrepancies between Decomposition Templates Galloway et al/Megyesi et al. Piney Woods Region  Bone exposure over one half the area  Bone exposure over one half the area being scored, some decomposed being scored, some decomposed tissue and body fluids present tissue and body fluids remaining.  Bones largely dry, but retaining some  Bones largely dry, but retaining some grease grease  Dry bone

4. SKELETONIZATION STAGE SUMMATION

Due to the fact that more decompositional changes and visual characteristics were described in the Piney Woods template within the previous stages compared to the other models, the skeletonization stage was kept relatively simple in regards to what constituted as

“skeletonized”. Observations included bone exposure over one half of the area being scored, with or without decomposed tissue and body fluids remaining. In time, the bones appear largely dry, but still retain some grease. The decompositional developments that represent the transition between advanced decomposition and skeletonization are gradual, though observable. In general, the Piney Woods decomposition template classifies the body as being skeletonized if there is bone exposure over one half of the area being scored, with or without decomposed tissue and body fluids present. Eventually, decomposed and desiccated tissues dissipate and the bones are left largely dry, though still remain greasy. This is the final stage of decomposition described within the Piney Woods template, as the research was conducted over a span of 150 days and further “extreme decomposition” that Galloway et al. mentioned takes place over a series of months and even years; making it an impossibility to observe during this time period.

6. CONCLUSION

A. PINEY WOODS DECOMPOSITION PATTERNS

Included in the forthcoming pages are the Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science

Facility’s results of applying these four cadavers to Megyesi et al.’s total body score templates. These results demonstrate that cadavers within the Piney Woods region of

Southeast Texas progress very rapidly between fresh to early stage, then remain relatively stagnant in advanced decomposition stage for majority of the duration; then finally reach skeletonization. Critiquing this total body score template results in a more accurate time table of the decomposition process, this in turn allows for a more accurate and narrower postmortem interval estimate for law enforcement. After observing the decomposition within this region, it proved beneficial to accumulate point values, rather than grading the bodies in a sequential order. Many aspects of the decomposition process are in fact sequential in nature, though climactic variables often transform this process and allow for variation to occur. To conform to Megyesi et al.’s template, points were not assigned to the correlating body part unless the body had that specific visual trait, therefore either progressing through the decomposition or

Since the main focus for this research has been to create a refined, region-specific template demonstrating the observed stages of human decomposition within the Piney Woods region of Southeast Texas, the actual mathematic equations pertaining to TBS and ADD were excluded. Mathematical and statistical testing of TBS and ADD pertaining to this critiqued template for the decomposition process will need to be conducted, though a refinement of visual characteristics likely can only improve the accuracy of the methods by breaking the stages into smaller, more manageable increments.

Results of the research conclude that cadavers situated in the Piney Woods region of

Southeast Texas do in fact experience a unique, region specific pattern of decomposition when compared to the previous templates provided by Galloway et al. and Megyesi et al.

Physical aspects that are not included within Megyesi et al.’s fresh stage are observable within the Piney Woods template, and the trend of quicker decompositional changes follows in suite for the rest of the body regions. The humid, subtropical environment of the Piney Woods region affects the decomposition process, progressing the rate of decomposition at a seemingly higher rate than that described by Galloway et al. and Megyesi et al. As stated, the trend that appeared within the research included the notion that cadavers in the Piney Woods region experienced decompositional changes earlier and at a higher degree than those included in past research, which demonstrates the need for region-specific decomposition templates in order to more accurately define and estimate the postmortem interval in real life scenarios involving decomposed human remains.

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8. APPENDICES

A. SOUTHEAST TEXAS APPLIED FORENSIC SCIENCE FACILITY

TOTAL BODY SCORE RESULTS

i. 2015-076

Exposure: Sun

Data acquired by STAFS Facility Research Assistants

4-19-2016 through 9-15-2016

2015-076 HEAD AND NECK

Figure 22. 2015-076 Head and Neck: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

2015-076 TORSO

Figure 23. 2015-076 Torso: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

2015-076 EXTREMITIES

Figure 24. 2015-076 Extremities: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

ii. 2016-018

Exposure: Sun

Data acquired by STAFS Facility Research Assistants

4-19-2016 through 9-15-2016

2016-018 HEAD AND NECK

Figure 25. 2016-018 Head and Neck: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

2016-018 TORSO

Figure 26. 2016-018 Torso: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

2016-018 EXTREMITIES

Figure 27. 2016-018 Extremities: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

100

iii. 2015-096

Exposure: Shade

Data acquired by STAFS Facility Research Assistants

4-19-2016 through 9-15-2016

101

2015-096 HEAD AND NECK

Figure 28. 2015-096 Head and Neck: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

102

2015-096 TORSO

Figure 29. 2015-096 Torso: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

103

2015-096 EXTREMITIES

Figure 30. 2015-096 Extremities: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

104

iv. 2016-030

Exposure: Shade

Data acquired by STAFS Facility Research Assistants

4-19-2016 through 9-15-2016

105

2016-030 HEAD AND NECK

Figure 31. 2016-030 Head and Neck: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

106

2016-030 TORSO

Figure 32. 2016-030 Torso: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

107

2016-030 EXTREMITIES

Figure 33. 2016-030 Extremities: Data acquired by STAFS Research Facility

108

109