Studying the Ottomans:
Section 2: Ottomans in the Modern World (19th -early 20th C.) WWI and Aftermath. End of Empire, Birth of Modern Turkey (1:) Egypt and the Arab Revolt
Nov. 26-30 WWI: how and why Ottomans Involved ‘Revolutionary’ Young Turk Goverment: - took Ottomans into WWI on side of Germans (Axis powers)
- controversial decision (Mustapha Kemal, among others, opposed)
- had initially declared neutrality WWI: how and why Ottomans Involved Also, October 29:
- Allies announced to Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha that they had ‘an agreement with Egypt’
- any hostility towards Egypt would be treated as a declaration of war
[more on Egypt, below] WWI: how and why Ottomans Involved Key stumbling block to allying with Britain (Allies) was Russia: - Russia long-time enemy, clearly had eyes on Straits of Dardanelles
- Ottomans lost territories to Russia steadily since 18th C, reason for refugee crisis in 19th C
- could never find support for fighting with Russia WWI: how and why Ottomans Involved
Final ‘push’: - came from alliance treaty signed with Germany, August 1914
- followed by ‘incident’ when German ships, navy under protection Ottomans, attacked Russian sea- port October 28
- considered by many to be de facto Ottoman entry to war Official declaration of War against Allied Entente, 1 Nov. 1914 World War I
All empire implicated:
- Egypt-Sudan, Arabian peninsula, Fertile Crescent
- Ottomans on side Central Powers threatened British communications to India (overland and through Suez Canal)
- from bases in Egypt, Persian Gulf, British secured lifeline Ottoman Territories becoming Middle-Eastern Theatre of WWI Area Referred to as ‘Fertile Crescent’ In WWI World War I
Germans asked for Turks:
- to curtail shipping Suez Canal
-proclaim jihad against the Entente
- November 23, 1914: Sultan called upon all Muslim States to take up arms against British, French and Russia in name of Islam
- goal: to unite Muslims across Islamic world: Africa (north, east), Asia, India – and ‘Middle East’ World War I
In India: - British colony; sought to exploit Muslim animosity - largely ineffective, except for Pan-Islamists
In Africa: - Sudan – competing with British for neo-mahdist loyalty: failed, memory Ottoman/Turkish oppression too recent
- Zanzibar/East Africa – mixed results; sultan ultimately capitulated to British but many mainland Arabs assisted Germans in Tanganikya World War I
Middle East: - a few tribal shaykhs in south Arabia Yemen, Fertile Crescent responded positively
Egypt: under British - ‘occupied’ in 1882 - declared formal ‘protectorate’ December 1914 - Muslims loyal at first, experience of WWI would change that - ‘Nationalists’ sought escape from ‘Turkish Yoke’: not part of Pan-Arabism, Pan-islamism World War I: Egypt
Egypt: -importance lay in Suez canal
- critical to Britain’s communications, supply lines with Asian, African colonies
- rightfully anticipated attack by joint Ottoman-German forces
- moved 30,000 Indian forces and Anglo-French naval squadron into place World War I: Egypt
Suez Expeditionary Force: - 25,000 troops under direction German officer
- attempted ‘surprise’ attack but necessitated long march across desert
- posed logistical problems; surprise impossible
- lost 2000 men; attack a failure – led to retreat
- no further attempt made to take Canal but British could not afford to leave it undefended: took needed forces World War I: Egypt
Egypt remained critical: - British imposed martial law
- pledged to defend, protect people and…
- NOT call on Egyptians to aid in war effort
- soon realized need of assistance – logistical, physical labour – to carry out that effort
- country became one large army base World War I: Egypt
Labour Corps: - built roads, railroads; constructed wharfs, loaded/unloaded ships; laid pipelines (most important being water); laid hundreds of miles wire netting over sand (for transportation); constructed huge resevoirs; assisted Lawrence with ‘Arab Revolt’ (below) - December 1916, Egyptian Expeditionary Force comprised of: - 150,000 British troops - 6,000 Indian troops - 13,000 Egyptian labourers Egyptian Labour Corps
Moving along a Wire-Netting Road (above)
Building Railway in Sinai Desert (right) World War I: Egypt
Recruitment: - mostly in extremely poor villages, used ‘native’ recruiters
- six-months’ enlistment (at first)
- advance 3 English pounds (for family support); minimum daily payment
- given clothes, blankets, necessary equipment, and ‘disinfected’
- offered choice of camel or horse transport, labour corps, veterinary corps (working in animal hospitals) World War I: Egypt
With Time: - needs increased; longer terms of enlistment demanded
- difficulty finding new recruits
- armed ‘guards’ needed to keep (now forced) labour at work
- martial law used to extract food to feed labour corps
- 1918: riots broke out over methods used to recruit labourers World War I: Egypt
- although Egyptians had believed outcome of war would guarantee independence and therefore they should support British…
- harsh treatment during war – largely related to Labour Corps -- led to resistance (e.g. riots)
- also key to rise of nationalist movement Wafd, led by Sa‘ad Zaghlul World War I: Egypt
Sa’ad Zaghlul: -son of small landowner, mayor of a village in Egyptian Delta
- studied in medressa, al-Azhar (university)
- disciple of traditional scholars al-Afghani, al-Abduh
- also studied at French School of Law
- collaborated with British; Minister of Education 1906 World War I: Egypt
- as Britain's rule became more blatant, exploitative during WWI: Zaghlul emerged as nationalist leader
- now arguing for ‘independence’: liberal, secular government
- purely ‘Egyptian’ (not Arab or Islamic) nationalism
- post-war, became ‘Muslim Brotherhood’: remained central to Egyptian politics (‘Arab Spring’, democratic elections etc)
[See “Egyptian nationalism” in ‘Resources’]
World War I: Arab Revolt
Arab Nationalism:
(1) Wahabism [see lecture/readings Oct. 29-31] - Muhamed Pasha engaged by Istanbul to destroy ‘anti-Ottoman’ religious movement; succeeded but movement remained strong
(2) Arab discontent:
- failure to listen to movements in exile (from 19th C.) - centralization in Istanbul (concern of Emir Husayn) World War I: Arab Revolt
Early Arab nationalists generally moderate: Demands of reformist (not radical, revolutionary) nature
- more autonomy - more Arabic in education - changes in conscription (during peacetime) World War I: Arab Revolt
Arab nationalism: - not yet mass movement (even in Syria where strongest)
- most Arabs gave primary loyalty to:
- their religion/sect - their tribe - their local governments.
Ideologies of Ottomanism and Pan-Islamism strong competition for Arab nationalism World War I: Arab Revolt
Most existing Arab “nationalists” : in exile
-al-Fatat(Youth) Paris, 1911 - al-Ahd (the Covenant), led by an Egyptian
Both called for Arab-Turkish monarchy like Austrian- Hungarian empire - Arabs remaining in parliament had supported 1909 ‘counter-coup’ World War I: Arab Revolt
1913: Arab congress met in Paris:
- again requested more autonomy - assurance that conscription outside their ‘home regions’ would only apply during war (not ‘peacetime’)
CUP did not respond to requests
- fuelled more general discontent ‘at home’, as well as abroad World War I: Arab Revolt
Tribes of Arabian Peninsula: - Mecca (under Sherif Husayn) resented increased centralized control under CUP
- had support of regional Hijaz tribes
- son sought support of Lord Kitchener (Cairo) against Ottoman regime (1911)
- British chose not to intervene -- at this time
So: in 1914, most Arabs still loyal to Ottoman Empire World War I: Arab Revolt
The Hijaz Revolt, 1916: - arguably turning point of Turkish - Arab relations in 20th C.
- Hijaz Revolt does not represent expression of Arab or Islamic sentiment against Ottoman Empire
- local reaction taking advantage of WWI and imperialist British goals in the Middle East
- used religion to legitimize itself in eyes of Islamic world
[“Turning Point of Turkish-Arab Relations”, ‘Resources’ for argument] World War I: Arab Revolt
With outbreak of War and Ottoman involvement in Arabian Peninsula (e.g. attempt at taking Suez Canal):
- strategy of encouraging Arab discontent became ‘official
- Britain encouraged Sherif Husayn of Mecca to organize Arab revolt: - made promises of ‘reward’ [next lecture] - saw opportunity to undermine Ottoman attempts at Arab unity [
Sherif Husayn of Hijaz World War I: Arab Revolt
Video Excerpt:
“Lawrence of Arabia and the Arab Revolt”
[Additional Readings] World War I: Arab Revolt
June 10, 1916: Arab revolt declared World War I: Arab Revolt
Given impetus by Colonel T. E. Lawrence: “Lawrence of Arabia” [ref. video excerpt]
- aided by Amir Abd al-Aziz [Ibn Sa'ud] -- leader of nationalist, traditionalist Wahabi movement
- was to engage regional pro-Ottoman princes in battle
- offered separate, secret agreement by British [next lecture] Ibn Saud with British (Sir Percy Cox and Gertrude Bell ) Arab Revolt 1916-18
Carrying ‘Flag’ of revolt (above)
Camel Corps (right) T.E. Lawrence “Lawrence of Arabia” (left)
‘Lawrence of Arabia’: engaged in guerilla warfare in the Desert World War I: Arab Revolt
Not Known exactly how many ‘Arabs’ actually fought: - 5,000 official number; did not cover ‘irregulars’ fighting with Lawrence and Faisal
- most important: many joined in revolt only when it arrived in their local region
- totally unlike ‘regular’ warfare World War I: Arab Revolt
Significance of Arab Revolt:
- tied up tens-of- thousands of Ottoman troops (who otherwise might otherwise have attacked Suez Canal) - real British justification for starting the revolt
Not at all what was understood as ‘purpose’ by those engaged (including Lawrence): believed fighting for new Arab Nation State [next lecture….] World War I: Arab Revolt
To Be Continued …. [Wed. Nov. 28]