Studying the Ottomans: Section 2: Ottomans in the Modern World (19th -early 20th C.) WWI and Aftermath. End of Empire, Birth of Modern Turkey (1:) Egypt and the Arab Revolt Nov. 26-30 WWI: how and why Ottomans Involved ‘Revolutionary’ Young Turk Goverment: - took Ottomans into WWI on side of Germans (Axis powers) - controversial decision (Mustapha Kemal, among others, opposed) - had initially declared neutrality WWI: how and why Ottomans Involved Also, October 29: - Allies announced to Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha that they had ‘an agreement with Egypt’ - any hostility towards Egypt would be treated as a declaration of war [more on Egypt, below] WWI: how and why Ottomans Involved Key stumbling block to allying with Britain (Allies) was Russia: - Russia long-time enemy, clearly had eyes on Straits of Dardanelles - Ottomans lost territories to Russia steadily since 18th C, reason for refugee crisis in 19th C - could never find support for fighting with Russia WWI: how and why Ottomans Involved Final ‘push’: - came from alliance treaty signed with Germany, August 1914 - followed by ‘incident’ when German ships, navy under protection Ottomans, attacked Russian sea- port October 28 - considered by many to be de facto Ottoman entry to war Official declaration of War against Allied Entente, 1 Nov. 1914 World War I All empire implicated: - Egypt-Sudan, Arabian peninsula, Fertile Crescent - Ottomans on side Central Powers threatened British communications to India (overland and through Suez Canal) - from bases in Egypt, Persian Gulf, British secured lifeline Ottoman Territories becoming Middle-Eastern Theatre of WWI Area Referred to as ‘Fertile Crescent’ In WWI World War I Germans asked for Turks: - to curtail shipping Suez Canal -proclaim jihad against the Entente - November 23, 1914: Sultan called upon all Muslim States to take up arms against British, French and Russia in name of Islam - goal: to unite Muslims across Islamic world: Africa (north, east), Asia, India – and ‘Middle East’ World War I In India: - British colony; sought to exploit Muslim animosity - largely ineffective, except for Pan-Islamists In Africa: - Sudan – competing with British for neo-mahdist loyalty: failed, memory Ottoman/Turkish oppression too recent - Zanzibar/East Africa – mixed results; sultan ultimately capitulated to British but many mainland Arabs assisted Germans in Tanganikya World War I Middle East: - a few tribal shaykhs in south Arabia Yemen, Fertile Crescent responded positively Egypt: under British - ‘occupied’ in 1882 - declared formal ‘protectorate’ December 1914 - Muslims loyal at first, experience of WWI would change that - ‘Nationalists’ sought escape from ‘Turkish Yoke’: not part of Pan-Arabism, Pan-islamism World War I: Egypt Egypt: -importance lay in Suez canal - critical to Britain’s communications, supply lines with Asian, African colonies - rightfully anticipated attack by joint Ottoman-German forces - moved 30,000 Indian forces and Anglo-French naval squadron into place World War I: Egypt Suez Expeditionary Force: - 25,000 troops under direction German officer - attempted ‘surprise’ attack but necessitated long march across desert - posed logistical problems; surprise impossible - lost 2000 men; attack a failure – led to retreat - no further attempt made to take Canal but British could not afford to leave it undefended: took needed forces World War I: Egypt Egypt remained critical: - British imposed martial law - pledged to defend, protect people and… - NOT call on Egyptians to aid in war effort - soon realized need of assistance – logistical, physical labour – to carry out that effort - country became one large army base World War I: Egypt Labour Corps: - built roads, railroads; constructed wharfs, loaded/unloaded ships; laid pipelines (most important being water); laid hundreds of miles wire netting over sand (for transportation); constructed huge resevoirs; assisted Lawrence with ‘Arab Revolt’ (below) - December 1916, Egyptian Expeditionary Force comprised of: - 150,000 British troops - 6,000 Indian troops - 13,000 Egyptian labourers Egyptian Labour Corps Moving along a Wire-Netting Road (above) Building Railway in Sinai Desert (right) World War I: Egypt Recruitment: - mostly in extremely poor villages, used ‘native’ recruiters - six-months’ enlistment (at first) - advance 3 English pounds (for family support); minimum daily payment - given clothes, blankets, necessary equipment, and ‘disinfected’ - offered choice of camel or horse transport, labour corps, veterinary corps (working in animal hospitals) World War I: Egypt With Time: - needs increased; longer terms of enlistment demanded - difficulty finding new recruits - armed ‘guards’ needed to keep (now forced) labour at work - martial law used to extract food to feed labour corps - 1918: riots broke out over methods used to recruit labourers World War I: Egypt - although Egyptians had believed outcome of war would guarantee independence and therefore they should support British… - harsh treatment during war – largely related to Labour Corps -- led to resistance (e.g. riots) - also key to rise of nationalist movement Wafd, led by Sa‘ad Zaghlul World War I: Egypt Sa’ad Zaghlul: -son of small landowner, mayor of a village in Egyptian Delta - studied in medressa, al-Azhar (university) - disciple of traditional scholars al-Afghani, al-Abduh - also studied at French School of Law - collaborated with British; Minister of Education 1906 World War I: Egypt - as Britain's rule became more blatant, exploitative during WWI: Zaghlul emerged as nationalist leader - now arguing for ‘independence’: liberal, secular government - purely ‘Egyptian’ (not Arab or Islamic) nationalism - post-war, became ‘Muslim Brotherhood’: remained central to Egyptian politics (‘Arab Spring’, democratic elections etc) [See “Egyptian nationalism” in ‘Resources’] World War I: Arab Revolt Arab Nationalism: (1) Wahabism [see lecture/readings Oct. 29-31] - Muhamed Pasha engaged by Istanbul to destroy ‘anti-Ottoman’ religious movement; succeeded but movement remained strong (2) Arab discontent: - failure to listen to movements in exile (from 19th C.) - centralization in Istanbul (concern of Emir Husayn) World War I: Arab Revolt Early Arab nationalists generally moderate: Demands of reformist (not radical, revolutionary) nature - more autonomy - more Arabic in education - changes in conscription (during peacetime) World War I: Arab Revolt Arab nationalism: - not yet mass movement (even in Syria where strongest) - most Arabs gave primary loyalty to: - their religion/sect - their tribe - their local governments. Ideologies of Ottomanism and Pan-Islamism strong competition for Arab nationalism World War I: Arab Revolt Most existing Arab “nationalists” : in exile -al-Fatat(Youth) Paris, 1911 - al-Ahd (the Covenant), led by an Egyptian Both called for Arab-Turkish monarchy like Austrian- Hungarian empire - Arabs remaining in parliament had supported 1909 ‘counter-coup’ World War I: Arab Revolt 1913: Arab congress met in Paris: - again requested more autonomy - assurance that conscription outside their ‘home regions’ would only apply during war (not ‘peacetime’) CUP did not respond to requests - fuelled more general discontent ‘at home’, as well as abroad World War I: Arab Revolt Tribes of Arabian Peninsula: - Mecca (under Sherif Husayn) resented increased centralized control under CUP - had support of regional Hijaz tribes - son sought support of Lord Kitchener (Cairo) against Ottoman regime (1911) - British chose not to intervene -- at this time So: in 1914, most Arabs still loyal to Ottoman Empire World War I: Arab Revolt The Hijaz Revolt, 1916: - arguably turning point of Turkish - Arab relations in 20th C. - Hijaz Revolt does not represent expression of Arab or Islamic sentiment against Ottoman Empire - local reaction taking advantage of WWI and imperialist British goals in the Middle East - used religion to legitimize itself in eyes of Islamic world [“Turning Point of Turkish-Arab Relations”, ‘Resources’ for argument] World War I: Arab Revolt With outbreak of War and Ottoman involvement in Arabian Peninsula (e.g. attempt at taking Suez Canal): - strategy of encouraging Arab discontent became ‘official - Britain encouraged Sherif Husayn of Mecca to organize Arab revolt: - made promises of ‘reward’ [next lecture] - saw opportunity to undermine Ottoman attempts at Arab unity [ Sherif Husayn of Hijaz World War I: Arab Revolt Video Excerpt: “Lawrence of Arabia and the Arab Revolt” [Additional Readings] World War I: Arab Revolt June 10, 1916: Arab revolt declared World War I: Arab Revolt Given impetus by Colonel T. E. Lawrence: “Lawrence of Arabia” [ref. video excerpt] - aided by Amir Abd al-Aziz [Ibn Sa'ud] -- leader of nationalist, traditionalist Wahabi movement - was to engage regional pro-Ottoman princes in battle - offered separate, secret agreement by British [next lecture] Ibn Saud with British (Sir Percy Cox and Gertrude Bell ) Arab Revolt 1916-18 Carrying ‘Flag’ of revolt (above) Camel Corps (right) T.E. Lawrence “Lawrence of Arabia” (left) ‘Lawrence of Arabia’: engaged in guerilla warfare in the Desert World War I: Arab Revolt Not Known exactly how many ‘Arabs’ actually fought: - 5,000 official number; did not cover ‘irregulars’ fighting with Lawrence and Faisal - most important: many joined in revolt only when it arrived in their local region - totally unlike ‘regular’ warfare World War I: Arab Revolt Significance of Arab Revolt: - tied up tens-of- thousands of Ottoman troops (who otherwise might otherwise have attacked Suez Canal) - real British justification for starting the revolt Not at all what was understood as ‘purpose’ by those engaged (including Lawrence): believed fighting for new Arab Nation State [next lecture….] World War I: Arab Revolt To Be Continued …. [Wed. Nov. 28].