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2 Classical Liberalism 3 Modern Liberalism Notes 2 CLASSICAL LIBERALISM 1. Plato, Republic, 420b-421c passim, trans. D. Lee, Second Edition (Har­ mondsworth: Penguin, 1974), pp. 185-7 passim. 2. Aristotle, Politics, Book III, ch. 6, 1278 15-25, in Basic Works of Aristotle, ed. R. McKeon (New York: Random House, 1941), p. 1184. 3. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. C. B. Macpherson (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 376. 4. John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. P. Laslett, (Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 1960), Second Treatise, sec. 90. 5. Ibid., sec. 95. 6. Ibid., sec. 142. 7. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (lndiabapolis: Liberty Classics, 1976), p. 305. 8. Adam Ferguson, An Essay on the History of Civil Society, ed. D. Forbes (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1966), p. 58. 9. Henry Sidgwick, The Elements of Politics (London: Macmillan, 1891), p.34. 10. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, vol. 2, eds R. H. Campbell and A. S. Skinner (Shadeland, Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1979), p. 687. 11. Ibid., pp. 687-8. 12. I derive this terminology from Lord Robbins, Theory of Economic Policy in English Classical Political Economy, Second Edition (London: Macmillan, 1978), pp. 186-93. 13. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State and Utopia (New York: Ba~ic Books, 1974) and David Gauthier, Morals by Agreement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986). 14. Franz Brentano, The Foundation and Construction of Ethics (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973). 15. Ludwig von Mises, Liberalism (San Franscisco: Cobden Press, 1985), p. 10. 16. See John Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton, 'The History of Freedom in Christianity', in Lord Acton, Essays in the History of Liberty, ed. J. R. Fears (Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1986). 3 MODERN LIBERALISM 1. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972). 2. Ibid., p. 4. 3. Ibid., p. 7. 4. Ibid., p. 7. 5. John Rawls, 'Justice as Fairness: Political not Metaphysical'. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1985, vol. 14, p. 227. 6. A Theory of Justice, p. 72. 7. Ibid., p. 72. 139 140 Classical Liberalism 8. Ibid., p. 73. 9. Ibid., pp. 73-4. to. Ibid., p. 74. 11. Ibid., p. 74. 12. Ibid., p. 102. 13. Ibid., p. 102. 14. lowe the criticisms that follow to David Gauthier, 'Justice and Natural Endowment: Toward a Critique of Rawls' Ideological Framework', Social Theory and Practice, vol. 3, 1974, pp. 3-26. 15. John Rawls, Political Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 276-7. 16. A Theory of Justice, p. 278. 17. David Gauthier, Morals by Agreement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp.253-4. 18. Thomas Nagel, Equality and Partiality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). 19. Ibid., p. 35. 20. Ibid., pp. 38-9. 21. Ibid., pp. 81-2. 22. Ibid., pp. 65-8. 23. Ibid., p. 58. 24. Ibid., p. 64. 25. Ronald Dworkin, 'What is Equality?' in two parts: Part 1, Equality of Welfare, Philosophy and Public Affairs (Summer 1981); Part II, Equality of Re­ sources, Philosophy and Public Affairs (Fall 1981); 'Why Liberals Should Believe in Equality', New York Review of Books (3 February 1983), pp. 32- 4; 'In Defence of Equality', in Social Philosophy and Policy, vol. I, issue 1 (Autumn 1983), pp. 24-40. 26. R. Dworkin, 'Why Liberals Should Believe in Equality', New York Review of Books, 3 February 1983, pp. 32-4, 33. 27. Ibid., p. 32. 28. Ibid., p. 32. 29. R. Dworkin, 'Liberalism', in S. Hampshire (ed.), Public and Private Mor­ ality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 127. 30. Kai Nielsen, Equality and Liberty: A Defence of Radical Egalitarianism (Totowa. New Jersey: Rowman and Allanheld Publishers, 1985). 31. Ibid., pp. 7-8. 32. Ibid., pp. 288-9. 33. Ibid., p. 7. 34. Ted Honderich, Conservatism (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1990). 35. Ibid., pp. 234-5. 36. Ibid., p. 60. 37. F. A. Hayek, Individualism and the Economic Order (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), p. 14. 38. Conservatism, p. 73. 39. Franz Brentano, The Foundation and Construction of Ethics (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973), p. 332. 40. Ibid., p. 333. 41. Ibid., p. 333. Notes 141 42. Henry Sidgwick, The Methods of Ethics, Seventh Edition 1907 (London: MacmiJIan, 1963), p. 436. 43. Conservatism, p. 102. 44. Ibid., p. 104. 45. Ibid., p. 104. 46. Ibid., p. 106. 47. Terry L. Anderson and Donald R. Deal, Free Market Environmentalism (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), p. 164. 48. Conservatism, p. 42. 49. Ibid., p. 108. 50. J. J. Thomson, 'A Defence of Abortion', Philosophy and Public Affairs, vol. I, no. 2, 1971, pp. 47-66. 51. J. S. Mill, 'Utilitarianism', in John Stuart Mill, On Liberty and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 189. 52. See, for example, Benedict Spinoza, A Tlreologico-Political Treatise. 53. Friedrich Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960), p. 22. 54. Ibid., p. 26. 55. Ibid., p. 26. 56. Conservatism, p. 120. 57. Ibid., p. 120. 58. John Gray, Liberalism (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1986), p. 74. 59. For example, Joan Kennedy-Taylor, Reclaiming the Mainstream: Individu­ alist Feminism Rediscovered (New York: Prometheus Books, 1992). 60. Susan Moller Okin, Women in Western Political Thought (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1979), pp. 3-4. 61. Ibid., p. 293. 62. Caroline New and Miriam David, For the Children's Sake (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), pp. 41-3. 63. See, for example, Women and Men in Britain 1991 (London: Equal Oppor­ tunities Commission, 1991). 64. George Gilder, 'The Myth of the Role Revolution', in N. Davidson (ed.), Gender Sanity: The Case Against Feminism (Lanham: University Press of America, 1989), pp. 231-3. 65. For a review of the evidence, see Anne Moir and David Jessel, Brain Sex (London: Michael Joseph, 1989), especially ch. 11. 66. For a good summary of this evidence, see, for example, Ellen Frankel Paul, Equity and Gender: The Comparable Worth Debate (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1989), ch. 2. 67. Quoted in Paul, ibid., p. 44. 4 COMMUNITARIANISM 1. See, for example, John Smith, 'Reclaiming the Ground', R. H. Tawney Memorial Lecture, delivered 20 March ·1993. 2. The most prominent representatives of this body of critics of liberalism are Alasdair MacIntyre, Michael Sandel, Charles Taylor, Michael Walzer. For a good introductory exposition of their thought, see Stephen Mulhall and 142 Classical Liberalism Adam Swift, Liberals and Communitarians (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992) and Sh1omo Avineri and Avner de-Shalit (eds), Communitarianism and Indi­ vidualism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992). 3. See Michael J. Sandel, 'Morality and the Liberal Ideal', The New Repub­ lic, 7 May 1984, pp. 15-17, and 'Democrats and Community', The New Republic, 22 February 1988, pp. 20-3. 4. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study ill Moral Theory, Second Edition (London: Duckworth, 1985). 5. As well as the references given in note 3, see Michael Sandel, Liberalism alld the Limits of Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). 6. After Virtue, p. 172. 7. Ibid., p. 236. 8. Ibid., p. 156. 9. Ibid., p. 156. 10. Ibid., p. 172. 11. Markate Daly (ed.), Commullitarianism: A New Public Ethics (Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1994), p. xv. 12. After Virtue, p. 156. 13. Ibid., p. 172. 14. Michael Sandel, 'Morality and the Liberal Ideal', The New Republic, 7 May 1984, pp. 15-17, p. 17. 15. Michael, J. Sandel, 'Democrats and Community', The New Republic, 22 February 1988, pp. 22-3. 16. On this, see A. E. Taylor, Aristotle (New York: Dover, 1955), pp. 99-100. 17. Charles Murray ,In Pursuit of Happilless alld Good Government (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988). See especially ch. 12. 18. Friedrich Hayek, 'Individualism; True and False', in F. Hayek,/lIdividualism and Ecollomic Order (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), p. 6. 19. Ibid., pp. 22-3. 20. After Virtue, p. 187. 21. Ibid., pp. 190-1. 22. Ibid., p. 191. 23. Ibid., p. 190. 24. Ibid., p. 187. 25. Ibid., pp. 187-8. 26. Ibid., p. 219. 27. Ibid., p. 222. 28. Ibid., p. 222. 29. Ibid., p. 191. 30. Ibid., p. 191. 31. Ibid., p. 219. 32. Ibid., p. 223. 33. Ibid., p. 223. 34. Ibid., p. 223. 35. Ibid., p. 223. 36. Ibid., p. 195. 37. Ibid., p. 172. 38. See ibid., p. 254. 39. Ibid., p. 227. Notes 143 40. Ibid., pp. 227-8. 41. Ibid., p. 227. 42. Ibid., p. 222. 43. Ibid., p. 195. Note that I have changed MacIntyre's text here and substituted 'political' for 'parental', since I believe the context of the remark makes clear that this is what he intended to write and that what was printed is a misprint. 44. Ibid., p. 195. 45. Ibid., p. ix. 46. Ibid., p. x. 47. Ibid., p. 259. 48. This account of Aristotle's conception of the human telos has been heavily influenced by Richard Kraut, Aristotle on the Human Good (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1989). 49. After Virtue, p. 59. 50. Ibid., p. 8. 51. Ibid., p. 231. 52. Ibid., p. 62. 53. Ibid., pp. 63-4. 5 CONSERVATISM 1. MichaelOakeshott, 'On Being Conservative', in Michael Oakeshott, Ration­ alism in Politics and Other Essays (Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1991), p. 408. 2. See Michael Oakeshott, Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (Indian­ apolis: Liberty Press, 1991). 3. See David Willetts, Modem Conservatism (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1992). 4. See Roger Scruton, 'In Defence of the Nation', in Roger Scruton, The Philosopher on Dover Beach (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990), 'What is Conservatism?', in Conservative Texts, R. Scruton (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991); and 'Totalitarianism, Civil Society and the Nation', Salisbury Review, March 1992, pp. 10-14. 5. See John Gray, Liberalisms (London: Routledge, 1989); The Moral Foun­ dations of Market Institutions (London: lEA Health and Welfare Unit, 1992); Post-Liberalism (London and New York: Routledge, 1993).
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