i THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY SCHREYER HONORS COLLEGE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY THE RESILIENCE OF SHAMANISM AMONG THE BURIAT AND TUVAN PEOPLE OF SIBERIA Kylie Rose Doran SPRING 2018 A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for baccalaureate degrees in Anthropology and Russian with honors in Anthropology Reviewed and approved* by the following: Dr. Catherine Wanner Departments of History, Anthropology, and Religious Studies Thesis Supervisor Dr. Tim Ryan Department of Anthropology Honors Adviser * Signatures are on file in the Schreyer Honors College. ii ABSTRACT Shamanism is part of the foundation for all aspects of indigenous life in many parts of the world. To explore the history of indigenous peoples of Siberia, it is not helpful to trace the evolution of isolated cultural characteristics, such as language, gender roles, agricultural practices, or religion. Though Shamanism is most commonly identified as the latter, it is intricately tied together with most other aspects of life for Siberian people. Shamanism is a worldview based on connections that link the natural world to beliefs in a supernatural world, and shamans are those individuals who mediate both worlds. Thriving despite efforts of Christian missionaries and Soviet propagandists to eradicate it, Shamanism has proven its ability to adapt to radically different challenges and circumstances and stand the test of time. Though Siberian Shamanism has adapted and evolved in response to outside pressures, it has had lasting effects on indigenous populations and their cultures. The trends resulting from outside pressures seen among the Buriats, one of the largest and most powerful Siberian ethnic groups, and among the Tuvans, one of the most geographically isolated Siberian ethnic groups, mirror the trends among colonized groups over time. The history of Siberian indigenous peoples is one of shifting dynamics of power and powerlessness, much like histories of minority groups the world over. As indigenous peoples, Siberians have been particularly slated for reform or assimilation into majority groups because they are perceived as hindering progress. Their experiences are a particularly vivid example of these dynamics. The history of Shamanism’s transformation in Siberia is merely one side of a larger story of both colonialist disempowerment and self-led empowerment of a minority group, revealing how majority-minority power dynamics can transcend ethnicity, location, and time, and are prevalent around the world. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS viii Chapter 1 - Shamanism as a Religious Practice 1 The Importance of Kinship Ties 7 Sexuality and Gender Identity 9 Varying Academic Classifications 12 Buddhism in Siberia - Connections between Shamanism and Buddhism in Buriatia and Tuva 15 Buriat Culture and History 17 Tuvan Culture and History 20 Chapter 2 - Shamanism’s Evolution in Response to Oppression 23 Russian Conquest of Western Buriats 23 Early Contact with Christian Missionaries 28 Exploitative Trade with Tuvans 32 Leading up to the Russian Revolution 36 Leading up the Soviet Era in Buriatia 39 Leading up to the Soviet Era in Tuva 41 Regionalism - Early Scholarly Studies of Siberian Indigenous People 43 Political Forces in Siberia Following the 1917 Revolution 45 Stalinist Purges 48 Collectivization 49 iv Impact of Soviet Policies on Indigenous Lifestyles - Buriatia 51 Impact of Soviet Policies on Indigenous Lifestyles in Tuva 54 Shamanism in the Sovietization Period - the 1920s to 1940s 55 Role of Women in Early Sovietization 64 Questions of National Classification and Autonomy 66 Indigenous Languages 69 Chapter 3 - Post-Soviet Shamanism 71 Trends leading to the Collapse of the Soviet Union 72 Post-Soviet Shamanism – 1991 to Present 74 Contemporary Shamanism in Buriatia 85 Contemporary Shamanism in Tuva 92 Popularity of Esotericism and the Romanticization of Indigenous Beliefs Beyond Siberia 94 Ethnographers as Allies 97 Cultural Tourism and Tourists as Allies 101 Local, National, and Global Goals 104 Shamanism into the Future 110 Chapter 4 - Siberian Indigenous Rights as Part of a Global Movement 111 Current Status of Indigenous People in Siberia 111 Indigenous Rights Movements Worldwide 116 Why are Indigenous Rights Important? 119 BIBLIOGRAPHY 123 v ILLUSTRATIONS 126 ACADEMIC VITA 127 vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis could not have been completed without the help and guidance of some very important people. My interest in indigenous knowledge blossomed during my freshman year under the direction of Dr. Pasang Yangjee Sherpa, who encouraged my interest in research and helped me complete a research project in 2015 in Gatlang, Nepal, a village inhabited by the indigenous Tamang people. There I met Durga Tamang, who was another huge influence and lifelong friend. Pasang and Durga gave me experiences that inspired me to continue learning about indigenous knowledge and cultural anthropology. Later, Dr. Audrey Maretzki worked with me and helped put my interests into action on campus at Penn State, helping me co-found the Student Society for Indigenous Knowledge with another passionate student, Kelli Herr, who also supported me, encouraged me, and inspired me in more ways than words can describe. Not only did she sit by my side on long nights in the Paterno library as we worked on our theses, she was also my loyal companion on adventures from Native reservations in New York and Minnesota to a remote commune in Nepal, which I revisited in 2017. Alongside my interest in indigenous knowledge, I have a passion for learning languages, leading me to study both Arabic and Russian during my time at Penn State. My interest in Russia and the post-Soviet space flourished as I studied abroad in St. Petersburg, Russia in 2016 and Astana, Kazakhstan in 2017. These experiences were completed with the help of the Foreign Language and Area Studies grant from the Department of Education. I owe Dr. Irina Mikaelian a huge debt of gratitude for encouraging me to apply for this grant, which fundamentally changed my college experience, and no doubt, the rest of my life. vii I also will forever be grateful to my advisor for this thesis project, Dr. Catherine Wanner. The amount of patience she showed me as I struggled with anxiety, and the amount of time she spent listening to my ideas, carefully editing my “crappy first drafts” and giving me advice was above and beyond what she signed up for. I will always look up to her as a (slightly intimidating) role model and source of support. There are certainly countless more individuals I could name who helped and supported me in some way throughout this process. Finishing this thesis marks more than just an academic accomplishment for me, but a victory in a mental battle that was not easily won. viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1: Political Map of Russia 2 Figure 2: Mongolian Shaman in Trance 4 Figure 3: Tuvan Shamanesses 9 Figure 4: Map of Buriatia 17 Figure 5: Map of Tuva 20 Figure 6: Varlaam, Orthodox Missionary 30 Figure 7: Russian Fur Traders 34 Figure 8: Soviet Propaganda, “The struggle against religion…” 37 Figure 9: Tuvan Shaman in 1900 41 Figure 10: Russian Civil War Map 46 Figure 11: Stalin with Buriat Child 52 Figure 12: Soviet Propaganda, “Don’t allow shamans…” 57 Figure 13: Soviet Ethnic Divisions Map 66 Figure 14: The Death of Stalin in Buriat 69 Figure 15: About Local Cooperatives in Buriat 69 Figure 16: Buriat Woman Receiving Blessing 71 Figure 17: Mongolian Shaman in Privacy 76 Figure 18: Tailgan Ceremony 77 Figure 19: “Seamstress of Souls” 84 Figure 20: Trance at a Tailgan 88 Figure 21: Initiation in Tuva 91 ix Figure 22: Olkhon Island 100 Figure 23: Nadezhda Stepanova 104 Figure 24: Tengri Shamans’ Center 105 Figure 25: RAIPON Logo 112 Figure 26: Oceti Sakowin Camp 116 Figure 27: No DAPL Movement 117 Figure 28: Mir Diamond Mine 120 1 Chapter 1 - Shamanism as a Religious Practice To explore the history of indigenous peoples of Siberia, it is not helpful to trace the evolution of isolated cultural characteristics such as language, gender roles, agricultural practices, or religion. Though Shamanism is most commonly identified as the latter, it is intricately tied together to other aspects of life for Siberian people, in a way that can be commonly observed among other indigenous peoples. The history of Siberian indigenous peoples is one of power and powerlessness, much like histories of minority groups all over the world (Balzer The Tenacity of Ethnicity: A Siberian Saga in Global Perspective. 3). Power relations become an issue because Siberia is difficult to govern due to its remoteness, harsh climate, and vast cultural diversity. Siberia - a region larger than the United States and Europe combined - is often misconceived by outsiders to be a largely uninhabited arctic wasteland. However, it is not only alive and flourishing with natural beauty and bountiful resources, it is home to a rich cultural diversity of indigenous groups of people who have lived there since 45,000 BCE. The northern part of Siberia is covered by vast tundra, buried in snow for at least eight or nine months of the year and plagued by brutal winter storms. In the short-lived summer months, transient patches of vegetation appear, while the ground remains frozen about one or two feet down. The eastern, western, and southern boundaries of the region are all marked by mountains, making Siberia extremely challenging to access, particularly before modern advances in technology and transportation. (Stutley 2). The southern two-thirds of the region are covered in taiga - large 2 Figure 1: This political map of Russia shows the vast expanse of Siberia, which includes five autonomous republics stretches of coniferous forests which still include harsh climates and plummeting winter temperatures. Shamanism is a belief system based on oral traditions, kinship, and strong ties to land and location (Fridman 7). Shamanic belief systems are known to exist across many countries and can be found in some form on six continents (Stutley 1).