NEWS, VIEWS AND COMMENTS
his month’s News, Views and Comments column differs from those that have appeared in previous issues. The first of the com- Tpanion papers presented here offers the first in-depth historical overview of Dr. Peter Neubauer’s controversial study of infant identical twins separated at birth, launched in the 1950s. The author, Dr. Lawrence Perlman, was a research assistant on the project while earning his doctoral degree in clinical psychology from New York University. His paper is followed by my own critical appraisal of issues raised by that study, some of which are still timely today. Readers are invited to forward their comments to me ([email protected]) for possible consideration in future columns of Twin Research and Human Genetics.
Memories of the Child Development Center Study of Adopted Monozygotic Twins Reared Apart: An Unfulfilled Promise
Lawrence M. Perlman Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, United States of America
there being a therapeutic nursery, ages, socioeconomic status, educa- Then modeled on Margaret Mahler’s facility tional level and religion, and older The year was 1968. I was a 24-year- on the Upper West Side, and several siblings’ gender and age. The siblings old doctoral student in clinical ongoing research projects. One had also been adopted through the psychology at New York University of them was a study of adopted iden- Louise Wise agency, so the families (NYU), fresh out of my internship tical twins, separated at birth and were well-known return customers. at the Veterans Administration reared apart. This time, the parents were told that Outpatient Department in Brooklyn. The twin study had been going on they and their children were part of A fellow student told me about a for several years by the time I arrived. an ongoing study of child develop- part-time research position that was It was the brainchild of Peter B. ment that would require annual home available at the Jewish Board of Neubauer, a prominent child psychia- visits and psychological testing. They Guardians (JBG), assisting in a study trist who was the director of CDC. were never informed of the twinship of adopted twins reared apart. It A psychiatric consultant named Viola status of their new adoptee. sounded like a great opportunity to Bernard, who I never met, was also a (There may have been exceptions find a dissertation topic and finish central figure. Neubauer was a psy- to the family selection practice. In the my PhD. Many of my colleagues choanalyst, as were most clinicians only published report of the study, had clinical positions, but were stuck in New York in those days. He was Abrams [1986] indicated that the in the ‘all-but-dissertation limbo’. a busy man, who seemed to have adoptive parents of one female twin I jumped at the chance to get my little day-to-day input into the had a biological son, and that her research started. research. My boss, a psychologist twin was adopted by a family with JBG had its main office on the named Nancy Edwards, was the two children, a son and a daughter. In upper floors of a building at 120 West project director. She was a young addition, these two families differed 57th Street, in an upscale neighbor- graduate of Columbia University with somewhat in socioeconomic level.) hood down the block from Carnegie a background in child development, Suppression of the twinship infor- Hall. It had satellite clinics and resi- who was also in psychoanalytic train- mation is a crucial issue that has dential treatment centers throughout ing in NYU’s postdoctoral program. become a point of contention with the city. JBG was known as a good I do not recall whether there were any regard to the ethics of the research. In place to get clinical training in child other personnel on the research team. fact, it was one of the things that Dr. therapy, even though the pay was The study was unique. Louise Nancy Segal asked me about when we poor. The Child Development Center Wise Services, a well-known Jewish (CDC) was housed in the main office. adoption agency, was separating Address for correspondence: Lawrence It was a research enterprise that also infant identical co-twins and placing Perlman, PhD, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare provided therapeutic services for them in carefully selected families that System, 2215 Fuller Rd. (116C), Ann Arbor, preschoolers and their parents. I recall were matched according to parents’ MI 48105, USA. E-mail:[email protected]
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met in December 2004. How could which could have implications Dr. Segal commented that it this information have been kept from regarding the children’s genetic would not have been such a hard the parents? Weren’t they entitled to endowments, for example, the task to make those calculations. Now know that their children were twins? youngsters might be impulsive or it is not, but in 1968 there were no Of course, a major premise of the overly active. desktop computers, no canned statis- research was that they not know. The Much to my dismay, I soon dis- tical programs. We had to compute twin study staff believed that a weak- covered that the research, while well t tests and other statistical analyses on ness of prior studies on twins reared conducted, was not well organized. cumbersome calculating machines. To apart was the twins’ and parents’ Data had been collected for several use an enormous IBM computer for knowledge that there was an identical years, but no-one had begun to prop- data analysis meant getting special sibling out there somewhere. It was erly compile and analyze it. Dr. training, hiring a consultant, having assumed that such knowledge could Neubauer was a remote figure with handwritten data converted to punch affect the handling of the child by the whom I seldom interacted. (Abrams cards, and running a program parents, as well as the child’s own [1986] reported that there were that was certain to fail the first sense of self. This study intended to weekly staff meetings. If so, they may few times. Without funds to hire cler- eliminate such confounding variables. have occurred on a day that I did not ical workers, one had to spend The principal virtue of the study work at CDC.) Neubauer was a child hours recording and compiling data was that it was prospective and psychiatrist and respected clinician, by hand. longitudinal. We had the unique but was unfamiliar with research As for the ethics of the research, opportunity to build on an experi- design. My boss, Nancy Edwards, did I do not recall a single discussion of ment of nature: to follow two not seem to be especially invested in whether or not it was inappropriate to individuals with identical genetic the research. It soon became apparent conceal the knowledge of twinship makeups from birth throughout their that, unassisted, I would need to carve from the families. Again, it is impor- developmental years. We would be out my dissertation research from this tant to put oneself back in the 1960s. able to study their families, as well, in mass of data. Informed consent for research sub- order to focus on differences in par- jects was not a required practice. I set to work learning about twins. enting styles that might affect their Of course, the dictum to respect sub- I became familiar with gestation, psychological characteristics. jects and not do psychological damage birth, infant testing, and other child All prior research on twins reared was very much a part of our ethos. development topics that were missing apart had consisted of retrospective No one suspected that we were doing from my graduate studies. I had studies of pairs that were reunited otherwise. Our principal responsibil- soon compiled a comprehensive later in life. We believed that many ity was to maintain confidentiality bibliography on twins reared apart had discovered one another by virtue about the twins and their families. and had read all the extant studies. of institutionalization or problems Adoption records were sealed and I clarified the research questions with the law, introducing sampling inviolable. Parents who adopted babies errors from which our study was and identified some of the did not expect to learn anything immune. (However, later research crucial variables. about the infant’s biological mother demonstrated that most reunited At that point, it became clear to or father. In fact, most had no interest twins had not met because of deviant me that one of the most essential in being burdened by that knowledge. behaviors.) Our data were much pieces of data had never been Environmental influences on develop- richer and more representative addressed, namely proof of the twins’ ment were assumed to be paramount. because we were observing the twins monozygosity. While we had lots of It was accepted that these children (and their families) from infancy. information on the infants from their would have better lives than could Since we had controlled for key differ- moment of birth, such as Apgar have been possible with their gener- ences in the families’ environments, scores, it was often not possible to ally unwed, teenage parents. Young, we would be able to tease out subtle determine if there had been one or pregnant women were frequently sent differences in the twins’ personalities two placentae. Furthermore, no one away to secretly give birth and then and lifestyles. Thus, we believed that had compiled the available data on give up their babies for adoption. the findings would have greater gener- blood types that could establish their Their sexual promiscuity was con- alizability than previous ones. likelihood of being identical twins. demned by their own families. Some The one variable for which we Since DNA testing was years away, it female patients that I treated in my could not control was the fact that was only possible to demonstrate with later clinical work had endured such these youngsters were adopted. This a certain degree of probability that a an ordeal and had been emotionally implied that the parents had experi- given pair was identical; one could scarred by it. enced infertility problems and never be 100% sure. Yet, incredibly, Thus, the adoptive parents, enter- associated psychological and social no one had bothered to calculate ing into a contract with the Louise challenges in their quest for children. these values. There was not even a Wise Services, were guaranteed that In addition, the twins were likely database for this information; it was they would not know anything about to have had biological mothers who buried in hospital records that had the family background of their were young, unwed and promiscuous, been provided to us. infants, including the possible exis-
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tence of biological siblings. No-one who were in foster care, awaiting were also in New York, doing psycho- expected anything else. It was the placement. We observed and rated analytically based child development obligation of the research team to pre- them, using infant scales such as the research. This work was influenced by serve this confidentiality, and we were Cattell and the Bayley. We also inter- ego psychology and object relations keenly aware of that responsibility. viewed the foster mother, who was an theory. The goal was to identify the It was essential that we not reveal to experienced observer in her own right, characteristic patterns individuals the families even a hint that our study having raised six children and fostered used to neutralize impulses and adapt was about twins. Looking back at the many babies. to their environments. Sensory-motor research from the perspective of 2005, The data on the twins after adop- reactivity, motility, affect, object rela- it seems odd that we did not antici- tion were collected at periodic visits tions, adaptability and a host of other pate the likelihood of these children to their homes, every 3 months for dimensions were rated. meeting one another by chance at the first year, every 6 months for the The visits and the IQ data were an some future time. After all, they were next 2 years, and annually thereafter. eye opener for me. I had subscribed to placed in families of like socioeco- A filmed sample of their play activity an interactionist position regarding nomic status and religion in the was made, an interview was con- the nature–nurture debate, but was greater New York metropolitan area. ducted with the mother, and an IQ still somewhat of an environmentalist. But again, it is important to recognize test was administered to the twin. The These identical reared-apart twins the changes that have occurred in visits were scheduled 1 week apart, so were remarkably alike! Knowing that American society in the past four that the observations would be made they and their families hadn’t the decades. Communities were more at the same developmental moment slightest inkling about one another, it separated and insulated in those days; and by the same staff members. We was striking to see how similar their it was a bigger world. People did not worked as a team, one examiner inter- behavioral characteristics and IQ pro- travel as widely or as frequently, and viewing the mother while the other files were. I became convinced of the instantaneous communication of worked with the child. Having been primacy of one’s genetic endowment, information was a dream. Apparently trained in psychometrics, I did the mutable though it may be by environ- no-one had considered what now testing and wrote the reports. These mental influences. seem to have been critical oversights evaluations included qualitative obser- I proceeded to work up the longi- in the study: the twins’ rights to know vations, as well as IQ scores. I recall, tudinal IQ data for analysis and, each other and the possibility that in particular, two 7-year-old boy hopefully, a dissertation. But the job they might meet in the future. twins who were thrilled to have a became too overwhelming because The notion that these individuals male examiner. Apparently, all of their there was no support or guidance for might some day be entitled to know previous visits had been made by my work. I also came to realize that about the existence of their twins women. the inner workings of the study were was never discussed during my year The families were not simply shaky. My task began to seem more (1968 to 1969) on the research team. observed as guinea pigs. If they like just a job and less like a pathway Perhaps such questions had been expressed the need for guidance in to my PhD. So, when a friend asked debated by the architects of the study dealing with their children, they were me to take over his position at in its early years, but we were cer- offered access to counseling services Maimonides Medical Center for a tainly not privy to such discussions. at CDC. Thus, an unspoken goal of year, I decided it was time to leave. There was no end plan for debriefing the project was to insure that I gave notice to Nancy Edwards and the subjects somewhere down the youngsters were receiving then to Dr. Neubauer. Oddly enough, the line; there seemed to be no need optimal parenting. Neubauer was reluctant to see me go, for one. We were not concerned about even though we had spoken little The significance of a person’s experimenter bias in having one psy- during my tenure there. Apparently, genetic endowment for behavior did chologist test both twins. In fact, we he recognized that there was some not loom large in the 1960s, as it does thought it was preferable to having potential to my work. He even hinted today. The idea of an adopted child two testers, because another source of at a higher salary, but my mind was searching for his or her biological variance could be eliminated. The made up. family was not in fashion. Certainly, work on researcher expectancy effects some adoptees had such an interest was just coming out in those days Now and embarked on the quest. But state and did not seem relevant to our Over the years, I often wondered adoption laws and agency policies study. However, it is possible that the about the study, but I had lost posed formidable barriers. It was observer’s preconceptions colored our contact with the other staff members. some years before registries were set characterizations of the twins. I assumed that a report of such a sig- up to reunite adult adopted children An elaborate coding system for nificant piece of research would with their birth parents, provided that the films was being developed, based appear in the professional press. It was both were willing. on similar studies by psychiatrists years later, in 2001, that I met Dr. The children in the twin study Stella Chess and Alexander Thomas, Thomas J. Bouchard, Jr., director of were followed from birth. I recall a and their collaborator Herbert Birch, the well-known study of twins reared visit to a pair of 28-day-old twin girls and by Sibylle Escalona. These people apart at the University of Minnesota
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— he was giving a lecture at the that he continued to maintain a clini- Institute of Mental Health.) There University of Michigan soon after cal practice and an active professional was apparently no thought of my arrival there. Had he heard of life. He did not remember me by informed consent, since the parents the CDC research? Certainly he had. name, but was willing to grant an were to be kept in the dark regarding It was infamous! There had been an interview to Dr. Segal and me before the twinship status of their adoptees. exposé in the popular media after a set we left town. Although Neubauer stated that it was of identical triplets had been reunited We met with Dr. Neubauer on ‘the belief of the time’ that being a by chance (Associated Press, 1980; December 27, 2004, in his elegant twin was handicapping, his efforts to Cummings, 1980; Cummings & Upper East Side office, furnished with enlist a Catholic adoption agency to Krebs, 1980). Lawsuits had been antique furniture and archeological participate in the study were thwarted threatened against the Louise Wise artifacts. At 91 years of age, he is by the director (ironically named Services, JBG, and the major partici- remarkably fit, alert, intelligent, and Sister Bernard), who categorically pants (Saul, 1997). Everyone had incisive. He was gracious and charm- stated that what God had created hunkered down and gone under- ing to a fault. Dr. Neubauer responded should not be torn asunder. ground. The fate of the data? That to a number of our questions regard- In total, 13 adopting families were was a mystery. ing the origins of the study and details enrolled in the study, comprised of Bouchard put me in touch with about its execution. five twin pairs and one triplet set. Dr. Nancy Segal, who had written a It was apparently during a casual I believe that one of the triplets had book, Entwined Lives (Segal, 2000), conversation with Viola Bernard that dropped out of the study by the time which referred to Neubauer’s study in he discovered that identical twins I arrived because I only tested two one of the chapters. We corresponded were being placed in separate families. of them. It is not clear whether any sporadically until meeting in New Bernard was chief psychiatric consul- other families left the study prema- York in December 2004. Shortly tant to the Louise Wise Services and a turely. The intention was to follow before that, I had attempted to contact close friend of Judge Justine Wise the families until the youngsters Nancy Edwards, only to discover that Polier, who was a board member and reached puberty, this apparently she had died several months earlier. daughter of the founder. (In her bio- having been viewed as the critical At that time, an exhibit of Viola graphical note, Bernard is credited period for psychological development. Bernard’s archives was underway at the with having professionalized the The researchers were interested in Columbia University Health Sciences agency. ‘She developed a credentialed identifying personality traits, such as Library. Nancy Segal and I hoped to professional staff, solicited govern- sensitivity to the environment, which glean more information about the ment funding, and established might have quite different behavioral origins of the study that might answer procedural structure and accountabil- manifestations in each twin. Thus, the some of our questions. We visited the ity at an organization which had superficial presentations might differ, library, but discovered that all corre- previously operated in a relatively ad- but the underlying temperamental spondence and records of meetings hoc, informal manner.’) It was Dr. dimensions would be identical. regarding the study are sealed until Bernard’s belief that being a twin was Neubauer considered these differences January 1, 2021. We found the follow- a handicap because it prevented a to be even more interesting phenom- ing reference to the project in an online child from securing a special place in ena than some of the striking biographical note
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TV report (Neubauer was apparently several twin pairs. One wonders if it I phoned Neubauer for clari- referring to the reuniting of the still might be worthwhile to track fication. On January 31, 2005, he triplets in 1980). He convinced them down, invite those twins who returned my call but declined to Cronkite to drop the story, because it had not yet found one another to answer the question, only asking why would be psychologically damaging to reunite, and collect follow-up data. I wanted to know the location of the the remaining twins to have their data. I explained that I was writing a identities revealed. Subsequently, Postscript remembrance of the study. He stated Neubauer had to fend off an even While preparing this article, I that he had no time to talk, would more determined effort by a host of attempted to locate the data and to need to call me back, and abruptly 60 Minutes. However, much to his ascertain the nature of the agreement hung up. Thus far, I have not received dismay, the story continued to appear according to which it had been ceded a response to the call or a follow-up in the press (Saul, 1997), and he was to Yale. I first spoke with the current email inquiry. mercilessly questioned regarding the director of CDC, Marian Davidson- Subsequently, the archivist at Yale ethical questions posed by concealing Amodeo, CSW. She has worked there did locate the files, listed as Manu- the twinship status of the adoptees. since 1975 and became administrator script Group 1585. They were gifted Neubauer continues to maintain in 1984 at the time of Neubauer’s to Yale in 1990 with the proviso that that everything done in the study was retirement. She has been director the records remain sealed until 2066! proper, and that it conformed to the since 1990. Ms. Davidson was aware I was told that Yale is not permitted adoption practices and research stan- of the twin study, but had never to publicize the conditions of the deed dards of the time. He stated that the worked on it and had no idea what of gift. The records can be accessed data had been deposited at the Yale happened to the data. She implied by researchers who receive written University, with the proviso that they that it was Dr. Neubauer’s private authorization from the executive vice remain sealed until the year 2021. project. When I said that surely there president of the Jewish Board of I left the meeting impressed by must be some records of where the Family and Children’s Services (cur- Neubauer’s intellect and professional data were sent, she indicated that rently Dr. Alan Siskind). Curiously, dedication. Likewise, it is difficult to there were none. She was cordial, but the inventory lists records on only 11 read Viola Bernard’s resume without not eager to discuss the project. children. The data comprise 67 linear being struck by the fact that she was a I also managed to speak with Dr. feet and include reports of home visits, dynamic and creative psychiatrist, Christa Balzert, who was cited by Saul test data, longitudinal profiles, devel- who was involved in truly innovative (1997) as having been one of the lead opmental sequences, films, tapes, projects dedicated to the common psychologists on the study. She appar- progress reports, a statistical study good. Yet, both of these prominent ently was hired about a year after I with the name Adler on it, minutes psychiatrists were blind to the left CDC and remained there through of meetings, and so forth (Staff of potential ethical issues posed by sepa- the mid-1970s. She had other respon- manuscripts and archives, 2004). rating these twins and maintaining sibilities at CDC and only worked Thus, this rich trove of data may now secrecy about their twinship for so peripherally on the study, interpreting be accessible to qualified researchers many years. some of the test data. She reported and, probably, to the twins themselves Dr. Segal informed me that two not having actually interviewed the if they wish to reconstruct their pasts. sets of identical twins had been youngsters. When asked why nothing reunited, in addition to the triplets. was ever published, she cited concerns It is not clear why the data on these about confidentiality. She agreed that six individuals needs to remain sealed ‘the study had disappeared from the for 15 more years, since the confiden- face of the earth’. Dr. Balzert also tiality requirement no longer seems recalled participating in staff meetings relevant. (One triplet committed ‘every so often’. She had no idea when suicide in 1995.) All of these individ- the study was terminated or how uals are now adults and are aware of many subjects had dropped out. She the circumstances of their separation remains on cordial terms with and adoption. The fate of the other Dr. Neubauer and sees him at profes- three pairs of twins is unknown. sional meetings. So little has been published from Seeking the location of the data, I the wealth of material collected on made inquiries with the head archivist these 13 individuals. Neubauer gave of the Yale University Library. After me a copy of the book he published some investigation, he wrote that 15 years ago with his son, Alexander, there was no record of files from who is a writer (Neubauer & Neubauer, CDC or JBG having been deposited 1990). It alludes to the twin study in at Yale. The only reference to Dr. several places and provides tidbits of Neubauer was some correspondence information relevant to the similari- between him and Dr. Donald Cohen ties in personality and preferences of of the Yale Child Study Center.
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Commentary: More Thoughts on the Child Development Center Twin Study
Nancy L. Segal The editor, Nick Martin, congratulates Nancy Segal on being recognized as the 2004–5 Outstanding Professor of Department of Psychology, California State University, United States of America the Year at California State University, Fullerton.
niche in their family. Consequently, I suspect that the two processes (sepa- Introduction when unwed mothers relinquished rating twins and studying them) It is a study that will not go away. their infant twins and triplets for perpetuated one other — as the It was fall 1982 when I arrived at adoption, Bernard advised the agency research benefits of separating twins the University of Minnesota as a new staff to place the babies in separate became clear, efforts to find addi- postdoctoral fellow, to work on the homes. Once this policy was in place, tional cases intensified. As Dr. Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Bernard mentioned the separated Perlman indicated, Neubauer had Apart (MSTRA). By then, the twins to her friend and colleague, Dr. contacted Sister Bernard at Catholic MSTRA had gained considerable Peter Neubauer. He replied, ‘They Charities in New York hoping to stature, drawing attention from must be studied’. identify other separated sets. She national and international scholars The opportunity to study sepa- would not cooperate at first, arguing and journalists. But for a brief time rated identical infant twins perfectly that what had been put together natu- during my early years in Minnesota, matched the interests of Neubauer rally (twins) should not be split apart. an older twin study was becoming and his colleagues. They wanted to Neubauer replied that mothers and newsworthy once again. CBS’s news determine how subtle parenting dif- children (who are also put together magazine, Sixty Minutes, was prepar- ferences predicted child behaviors. naturally) can be separated via adop- ing an exposé of Dr. Peter Neubauer’s They also wanted to know what con- tion. He said that Sister Bernard 1950s Child Development Center stituted an optimal fit between eventually agreed to help him, (CDC) twin project. The program adoptive parents and their children. although she never furnished the Neubauer took pride in the fact that intended to show how and why a promised pairs. The final CDC twin once the adoption agency identified group of New York child psychiatrists sample included five MZ twin pairs mothers pregnant with twins, his and psychologists decided to ‘play and one MZ triplet set, all placed team ‘was there at the birth’. God’, separating infant twins and through the Louise Wise Agency. tracking their development without Looking Back Thirteen children and 13 families informing the twins’ adoptive families were involved. that their children were twins. The The sequence of events leading to the Like my twin research colleagues, investigative journalists also wanted to research resolves a crucial point of I always wondered about the origins, know what the scientists hoped to contention among individuals famil- progress and ultimate fate of the learn from this unique study, the only iar with the study, namely whether or Child Development Center twin one in the world to follow separated not the twins were intentionally sepa- study. It was curious, as well as trou- twins prospectively from birth. rated for research purposes. It seems bling, that quantitative analyses of the Ultimately, the planned television that they were not. However, the deci- data never appeared in the psycholog- special was cancelled for reasons I sion to separate the twins created ical literature. The few descriptive would later learn. But some scientists an ideal condition for prospectively accounts include a 1986 case study of and journalists still revisit this contro- investigating genetic and environ- a single twin pair (Abrams, 1986), versial study from time to time. It is a mental influences on physical and and a book by Neubauer and his study that will not go away. behavioral characteristics and predis- journalist son, Alexander (1990); The project, described in detail positions. Until the CDC study was unfortunately, the book provides little for the first time by Dr. Lawrence conducted (beginning in the early information beyond the earlier case Perlman, had a fairly innocuous start. 1950s and continuing through the report. Then, a number of years ago In the early 1950s, Columbia mid-1970s), reared-apart twin studies University child psychiatrist, Viola were retrospective, relying on the I came across two references to a Bernard, was an advisor to the Louise recollections of adult twins, mostly Wise Adoption Services in New York without the observations and insights Address for correspondence: Nancy L. City. Bernard believed that monozy- of their rearing parents (see, for Segal, Department of Psychology, California gotic (MZ) twins growing up together example, Newman et al., 1937; State University, Fullerton, CA 92834, USA. suffered from never securing a special Shields, 1962; Juel-Nielsen, 1966). E-mail: [email protected]
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reared-apart MZ female twin pair — twinship status of the twins had Information Clearing House, 2004). the first one was in a 1977 book been provided to the researchers in Even less consideration was given to by New York child psychiatrists, confidence, they were obligated to the behavioral consequences of Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess. maintain silence on this point. The placing siblings in separate adoptive The reference had a bibliographical researchers also worried that if parents and foster homes, although some note that a more detailed paper by knew that their adoptive child was a early studies were available. Aldridge Chess, Ladimer and Thomas was in twin then parenting practices and and Cautley (1976) found that progress. The second one was in a child outcomes would be affected — common placement was viewed posi- 1986 chapter on temperament by precisely what the study was all about. tively by foster parents in 27% of the behavioral geneticists, Ronald Wilson The team also believed that the twin cases, whereas it was viewed nega- and Adam Matheny (1986), who children would eventually want to tively in 25% of the cases. Social cited that chapter. Knowing that seek each other out if they knew workers viewed common placement Neubauer, Chess and Thomas shared about the existence of their twin, positively in 49% of those cases, professional interests and worked in something that would upset their whereas 35% viewed it negatively. In New York, I assumed that the twin adoptive families. the introduction to their 1992 study, pair in question was ‘borrowed’ from Staff and Fein (1992) noted that Neubauer’s study, or at least identified Addressing the Issues investigators generally agreed that sib- through the Louise Wise Agency. I have known many reunited twins. lings should be placed together. They I was wrong, as I will explain. I have witnessed their pleasure in also noted that this policy is main- tained by the Child Welfare League of Probably the most important issue finding each other and in getting to America, as set forth in their 1989 concerning researchers and members know one another (Segal, 2000; Segal standards. of the media was that the adoptive et al., 2003). Not all twins have devel- families were not told of their chil- One could imagine specific situa- oped or maintained close dren’s twinship status. Such tions supporting separate placement relationships, but every twin was information would not be withheld of twins and siblings. In an unusual grateful for the opportunity to from adoptive parents today for twin custody case I favored separating become acquainted and to learn more numerous ethical reasons. I now 8-year-old dizygotic (DZ) twin girls, about his or her past. At the same understand why Neubauer and his one of whom was severely time, bitterness, anger and regret were staff kept this knowledge concealed, mentally retarded and physically voiced by many. They were upset that but I do not condone it. To fully handicapped — the special needs of decisions to separate them mainly understand how it happened, it is the affected twin disrupted the activi- benefited the families and agencies, necessary to consider their research ties, interests and welfare of her decisions in the context of the times. with little or no regard for how sepa- unaffected co-twin (Segal, 2000). Dr. Perlman explained this when I ration might affect them over the Staff and Fein (1992) provide addi- met him at Columbia University’s years. (For example, if families could tional discussion of events that might Health Sciences Library in December not afford to raise two children at the or might not warrant separating sib- 2004 — during the last days of the same time, it was easier for agencies to lings, some raised in the mid-1950s. new Viola Bernard exhibit. place one child, rather than wait for a Examples of events that might It was exciting — we had corre- family willing to take two.) Sorrow support separation include sibling sponded by telephone and e-mail over the lost opportunity to share interdependence and hostility, several times since 2001, after Dr. their childhood years was also a fre- although researchers assign different Thomas J. Bouchard had put us in quent theme, as was disappointment levels of importance to such circum- touch. But this was the first time that their own children had never stances. Negative effects from rearing we were in the same city. Once Dr. known their aunts and uncles. siblings separately include lack of Perlman arrived, we talked for a long Despite the climate of the times companionship, lack of support, time. I was riveted by what he had to regarding adoption practices, it reduced self-esteem and increased say — it was the first time I, or proba- appears that Neubauer failed to see depression (National Adoption bly anyone outside the study, was the big picture. An investigator in his Information Clearing House, 2004). learning about what actually took position should have asked Bernard The important point is that decisions place. (Neither the husband or daugh- to justify her assertion that twins regarding the placement of adoptive ter of the now deceased Project suffer significantly from growing up twins and siblings need to consider the Director Nancy Edwards knew much together. But does such literature individual circumstances of each set. about the project when I contacted exist? Other than individual reports of A recent article in Adoptive them.) As Dr. Perlman pointed out, twins confronting identity and separa- Families magazine questioned the in the 1950s adoptive children’s bio- tion issues, I am unaware of formal wisdom of placing unrelated near- logical backgrounds were not shared studies supporting Bernard’s view. in-age siblings in the same home with their adoptive parents who, for Of course, little research attention (Johnson, 1997). The arguments were the most part, were not interested and was directed toward the nature and that children do not secure special did not want to be burdened with this significance of sibling relations until places in their family, parental information. Furthermore, since the the 1980s (National Adoption resources are strained and children’s
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best interests are neglected. These Further Comments and studying them as he had done views seem to support Bernard’s prac- was correct. Amazing as it seems, he is Viola Bernard’s extensive archive at tices and beliefs, but they were not apparently unaware of the twins’ the Columbia University Health research-based. In fact, virtual twins special situation, specifically how sep- Sciences Library (http://library.cpmc. (near-in-age unrelated siblings raised arating them, studying them, and columbia.edu/hsl/archives/pastacq. together from infancy) in my ongoing concealing their twinship might have html) is open to the public, with the study have obtained IQ scores that affected them in later years. Neubauer exception of documents and corre- were above average and behavior was still surprised that his work had spondence associated with twins and problem scores that were below those come under attack from the media. of children in clinical and nonclinical the Louise Wise Services. Most of Apparently, his personal contacts at samples (Segal, 2000). this material has been sealed until CBS news had been sufficient to halt Most twins dealing with twin- 2021; interestingly, these files are their investigation and the Sixty ship issues do so successfully — in dated 1953 to 1997 suggesting that Minutes special. fact, it has been well established that Bernard’s involvement in this work Neubauer raised some question twins are no more highly represented continued after the study ended in over whether the New York triplets, than nontwins among psychiatric the mid-1970s. The actual twin data Bobby Shafran, David Kellman and and problem-behavior populations have been given to the Yale Child Eddy Galland (who found each other (Kendler et al., 1995; Moilanen et al., Study Center, in New Haven, with a at age 19; see Saul, 1997) were truly 1999; also see Segal, 2000). I suspect similar stipulation — that they not be MZ, because there were two placen- that Bernard’s beliefs on separating released until 2066; an inventory of tas. I reminded him that onethird of twins were based on her own clinical items is available at http://mssa.library. MZ twins have separate placentas. impressions of selected twin pairs, and yale.edu/findaids/stream.php?xmlfile= Moreover, the triplets had been possibly those of her colleagues. If so, mssa.ms.1585.xml blood-tested at the University of this would not provide sufficient Neubauer believes this is a good Minnesota and were shown to be reason to routinely separate the infant thing as it will protect the twins until MZ. He remains unconvinced. twins. In fact, given Bernard’s reason- they are well into adulthood. I asked Neubauer his opinion of ing, one could conclude that all twins However, there are reasons to recon- recent twins-reared-apart studies, such (not just those given up for adoption) sider these decisions. The twins are as the one in Minnesota. ‘It’s a starting should be raised separately! now mature adults who are entitled to point’, he said. He explained that It is unclear to me how parents’ know about their past. Some events genetics means much less at the indi- knowledge of their child’s twinship that may have been unclear and con- vidual level, where one can associate would affect parenting practices in fusing to them could be clarified. And twin differences with parenting differ- significant ways. Some critics of those twins who have not yet met ences. I was reminded of Newman et reared-apart twin studies have asserted (possibly three pairs) might benefit al.’s (1937) finding that, despite genetic that certain features of the twins’ from the medical knowledge that influence on IQ, more educationally rearing environments explain their their twin can provide, and from the advantaged twins outperformed their degree of adult similarity, for example, close companionship they may offer less educationally advantaged co-twins. being raised by biological relatives or to one another. However, this does not imply that having had frequent contact prior to I wondered how Peter Neubauer genetics ‘means less’ — rather, the assessment (Taylor, 1980). However, and his staff might have felt if they levels of analysis differ. Genes and envi- reanalyses of these findings have dis- had been among the separated twins. ronments are both important for proved these charges (Bouchard, Would they have been angry if human development, but their relative 1983, 1997). In addition, most sepa- researchers had withheld this informa- contribution can be estimated only at rated twins have enjoyed loving tion from them? There was a lot I the group level. It is impossible to say relationships with their adoptive fami- wanted to ask him. The opportunity which one has greater impact at the lies and have delayed searches for to do so presented itself when Dr. level of the single person. biological parents and siblings until Perlman arranged a meeting with Neubauer stood up after about 45 adulthood so as not to hurt their fam- Neubauer at his New York office, in minutes, signaling that our meeting ilies. Twins who have searched earlier December 2004. was over. (Knowing his psychoana- have usually enjoyed their adoptive Neubauer was a warm and gra- lytic background, I was not surprised parents’ support. Thus, there is little cious host, especially when he learned by the ‘50-minute hour’ limit.) Before reason to believe that parents’ knowl- that one of my best high school leaving, he and I exchanged books. edge of adoptive children’s twinship friends was his younger cousin. He I felt pleased to have met him and would have proven detrimental to invited us into his study, a beautifully to have gained some knowledge of their wellbeing. If anything, it might furnished room decorated with inter- the inner workings of his study. But have helped explain some of the esting artifacts he had acquired on his there was another person I wanted to twins’ developmental features, such as travels. He answered our questions talk to. It was Dr. Stella Chess, one their lower than average birth weight openly and honestly, echoing the of the principal investigators on and more uncertain health status, rel- views of Viola Bernard. He remains the New York State Longitudinal ative to nontwins (Taffel, 1995). convinced that separating the twins Study (NYSLS) of temperament. As I
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indicated above, I wondered about studied by the researchers until they Closing (but not Final) the source of her one reared-apart turned 16. They had a Parent Trap- Thoughts MZ twin pair. I called her and we like meeting. Twin A (who did not Neubauer’s twin data are clearly arranged to meet at her home in know she was a twin) attended unique, the only existing data on sep- January 2005. summer camp when she was 12 or 13 arated twins to have been gathered Dr. Chess, an elegant 90-year-old, years old. A girl there seemed sur- prospectively. A key question is greeted me warmly. It was exhilarating prised to see her and called her by the whether or not to publish the findings to meet someone whose work with wrong name. It was a case of mistaken in the event that one can gain early childhood temperament was so well identity — the girl had been friendly access to the Columbia University known. To her credit, she still attends with Twin B (who was aware that she and Yale Child Study Center materials meetings at Columbia University and was a twin). One day after camp had lectures occasionally to select audi- ended the telephone rang in Twin A’s that are sealed until 2066. Among the ences. It turned out that Dr. Chess home. Her mother answered — it was issues this would raise are: Would knew little about Neubauer’s work. In her daughter’s twin (Twin B). When potentially new findings emerge, and fact, when we met she didn’t know the mother told her daughter who would analysis and publication by whether he and Viola Bernard were had called, the girl cried and accused current investigators condone or still alive. It seems that even though her mother of lacking the confidence excuse the fact that important life they were colleagues working in the in her to tell her she was a twin. history information was concealed same city they were not close. Eventually, the twins met and became from the participants? Chess believes that twins have a close for a while. Chess recalls that the New findings would emerge in right to know that they are twins. twins had many similarities — inter- the sense that prospective longitudinal Nevertheless, she defended Neubauer’s ests in music and gymnastics, average data (e.g., IQ scores, physical mea- decision to keep this information from skills on the Information and sures, parental reports) on separated the twins’ adoptive families — after Similarities subscales of the WISC, MZ twins would be available for the all, this knowledge had been entrusted and elevated scores in creativity. first time. However, it is unlikely that to him. ‘He was being discreet’, she Chess received written permission the findings would really be ‘new’ or said. Interestingly, Chess had adopted from the twins’ families to write up would significantly change current her two eldest children and had given their research for publication, but thinking on genetic and environmen- birth to her two youngest. Consistent never did so. She explained to me that tal influences on development. In with the views of the 1950s and one twin’s father was concerned that other words, it is likely that the MZ 1960s, she said that she had never someone would recognize his family twin children would show synchro- wanted to learn about her adoptive from the report — even though he nized patterns of behavioral and children’s pasts because ‘they are my himself had spoken to many people physical development, outcomes that children’. When I mentioned Viola about raising a separated twin. I asked would be explained with reference to Bernard, Chess remembered that their identical genetic make-up, as in Bernard had regarded Chess as her Dr. Chess if she intended to ever write up the data. She said no and indicated the 1986 case study and in other pub- protégé. Apparently, Bernard had tried lished works (e.g., Wilson, 1983). hard to involve Chess in some adop- that she might not even have the Thus, the findings would probably tion work (not at the Louise Wise material anymore. But when I was not be new, in and of themselves, but Services), but her efforts did not pay ready to leave two hours later she said they would offer a new way of con- off. Chess recalled, ‘She [Viola to call her in a few weeks — perhaps firming what is known. Bernard] treated me as her protégé, she would write it up after all. This Inspection of the CDC twin data but I wasn’t’. She also recalled that seemed reasonable to me because the Bernard had thought of herself as a families knew that they had adopted might yield new ideas about how ‘psychiatric busybody’. twins and were informed participants experience affects development. It According to Dr. Chess, the single in her studies. Chess had even may be that co-twin differences could reared-apart MZ twin pair in the obtained consent to present her find- be tied to specific features of the NYSLS was found serendipitously. ings as a case report. However, she twins’ rearing environments more Sophie Ladimer, one of Chess’s assis- had promised the family that she directly and more accurately than has tants, was visiting her pediatrician’s would not publish them once their been possible with available data. office and noticed a photograph of a privacy concerns were known. I called Such analyses have been conducted beautiful baby girl. The doctor men- her in March 2005 to obtain her final with young twins reared together tioned that it was not his child, but decision — she has decided against (Reiss at al., 2000), but not with was a member of an MZ twin pair publishing, citing her earlier promise young twins reared apart. Given that that he had helped to separately place. not to. She added that it was ‘just one only 13 families were involved in the Ladimer was interested in the case small story’, but clearly acknowledged CDC study (five twin sets and one from a scientific point of view and its interest and importance. This clari- triplet set), it is unlikely that firm received permission to contact the fied why the paper in progress by conclusions regarding associations two adoptive families. Soon, the twins Chess, Ladimer and Thomas never among parental rearing practices, were part of the NYSLS and were went to press. childhood experiences and behavioral
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outcomes could be drawn. But new future. One way to handle this would publish the material. This may be one hypotheses may be generated. be to preface publications with a note way to begin to compensate the twins I have generally maintained that explaining the origins of the study, in for their lost years together. arguments in favor of publishing ques- what ways the data collection proce- It is curious that Bernard’s files tionable data would be acceptable if dures were inappropriate, and why have been sealed until 2021 and the the data helped save a life or uniquely such practices should be avoided in twin study data have been sealed until benefited some individuals or groups. the future. The papers could then be 2066. Neubauer said that this was However, the CDC study data do not used as educational examples of how done to protect the twins. But the meet these criteria. The twins and not to study twins and families. twins are now adults and able to their families were not hurt physically, We really do not need the data to decide for themselves whether they but some were hurt psychologically be analyzed and published to make this want to see their files. Researchers and still suffer, which should not be point; writing about the study and dis- dismissed or taken lightly. A concern cussing it with students and colleagues today often make project information is that publishing the data would send should be enough. However, some par- available to participants with their an inappropriate message to current ticipants may favor publication to written consent. I wonder who will and future investigators, namely that justify their separation from their twin, seek access to the data when it gathering information under mislead- to call attention to the study, or for becomes available years from now. ing conditions is ‘okay’ because even if various other reasons. It may be possi- Perhaps someone will try to inspect the data could not be used at the time ble to consult the twins and their the material before that. I wonder who of collection they could be used in the families before making a decision to is being protected by waiting so long.
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