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Cracking the Glass Ceiling: Women on Corporate Boards in Germany and Chi- Na“ Selbstständig Und Ohne Unerlaubte Fremde Hilfe Angefertigt Habe

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Cracking the Glass Ceiling: Women on Corporate Boards in Germany and Chi- Na“ Selbstständig Und Ohne Unerlaubte Fremde Hilfe Angefertigt Habe Cracking the Glass Ceiling: Women on Corporate Boards in Germany and China Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie im Fach Politikwissenschaft am Fachbereich Politik- und Sozialwissenschaften der Freien Universität Berlin vorgelegt am 27. September 2019 von Friederike Kies 1 Erstgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Catherine Ruth (Katja) Levy Zweitgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Hong Meng Tag der Disputation: 16.12.2019 um 10:00 Uhr 2 Abstract Internationally women are still largely underrepresented on publicly listed corporate boards. The literature frequently uses the metaphor of a glass ceiling to highlight barriers that may block the rise of women to high-level corporate positions. In this study I analyse barriers for female board access in Germany and China, by asking, “Cracking the Glass Ceiling: Which barriers do women in China and Germany face when trying to reach a board position?´” For this study I conducted 31 interviews in both countries with female board members, CEOs, entrepreneurs and experts. The transcribed interviews were then addressed in an inductive manner by using qualita- tive content analysis and doing a cross-case analysis of female board underrepre- sentation in Germany and China. The most frequently mentioned and emphasised factors by both German and Chinese interviewees were summarised and revealed the following five thematic categories: Policies & Laws Compatibility: Family & Career Personal Initiative Individual Support & Networks Societal Structures: Gender Roles & Societal Expectations All five categories include both limiting barriers and promoting factors. In this study, I primarily focused upon barriers for female board access. All five categories were emphasised to a different extent by German and Chinese interviewees. My findings, based on the conducted interviews in both countries, suggest a five-fold result. First of all, I find that policies aimed at promoting and safeguarding women can have the opposite effect. German interviewees criticise the “Herdprämie” and “Ehegattensplit- ting” while Chinese interviewees mention the “early retirement scheme” and “two- child policy” as reinforcing traditional gender stereotypes and not being conducive when trying to increase the number of women on boards. Secondly, I find that meas- ures encouraging alternative working models, as part-time work, are not necessarily always career enhancing. This is particularly the case when a person is penalised in his or her career development after taking advantage of alternative working models. Thirdly, I find that a lack of confidence in one´s own abilities in addition to stereo- types assuming women to not have any interest in a board or management position to be a barrier in Germany and China. Fourthly, limited access to powerful often “old boys´ networks” and a lack of networking skills are barriers. Fifthly, societal expecta- tions assuming women to naturally embody stereotypical feminine characteristics are a barrier for women´s career development. I find that societal expectations, as as- suming women to be the primary caretaker, can lead to an underestimation of women´s abilities in the professional world. Key words: glass ceiling, women on boards, women in high-level corporate positions in China and Germany 3 Zusammenfassung Frauen sind weltweit in börsennotierten Vorständen und Aufsichtsräten weiterhin unterrepräsentiert. Die Fachliteratur verwendet häufig die Metapher einer Glasdecke, um Barrieren aufzuzeigen, die den Aufstieg von Frauen in hochrangige Unterneh- menspositionen blockieren können. In dieser Studie analysiere ich solche Barrieren für Frauen in Deutschland und China. Ich gehe dabei folgender Frage nach: „Durch- brechen der Glasdecke: Welche Barrieren begegnen Frauen in China und Deutsch- land, wenn sie eine Vorstands- oder Aufsichtsratsposition erlangen möchten?“ Für diese Studie habe ich in beiden Ländern 31 Interviews mit weiblichen Vorstandsmit- gliedern, Aufsichtsratsmitgliedern, CEOs, Unternehmerinnen und Expert*innen durchgeführt. Die transkribierten Interviews wurden anschließend induktiv mittels einer qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse und einer fallübergreifenden Analyse zur Unterre- präsentation von Frauen in Aufsichtsräten und Vorständen in Deutschland und China untersucht. Die am häufigsten genannten und von den Befragten besonders hervor- gehobenen Faktoren wurden zusammengefasst und ergaben die folgenden fünf thematischen Kategorien: Richtlinien & Gesetze Kompatibilität: Familie & Beruf Persönliche Initiative Individuelle Unterstützung & Netzwerke Gesellschaftsstrukturen: Geschlechterrollen & gesellschaftliche Erwartungen Alle fünf Kategorien beinhalten sowohl hemmende Barrieren als auch fördernde Fak- toren. Für meine Analyse habe ich mich vornehmlich auf die Barrieren konzentriert. Von allen Befragten wurden Barrieren in unterschiedlicher Ausprägung genannt, die den oben aufgezeigten fünf Kategorien zugeordnet werden können. Meine Ergeb- nisse, basierend auf den in beiden Ländern durchgeführten Interviews, schlagen ein fünffaches Ergebnis vor. Erstens stelle ich fest, dass Maßnahmen, die zur Förderung und zum Schutz von Frauen dienen, einen gegenteiligen Effekt erzielen können. Deutsche Befragte kritisieren dabei die "Herdprämie" und das "Ehegattensplitting", während chinesische Befragte die "vorzeitige Pensionierungsregelung" und die "Zwei-Kind-Politik" hervorheben. Die Befragten sagen, dass solche Gesetze traditio- nelle Geschlechterstereotypen stärken und nicht förderlich sind, um die Anzahl von Frauen in Aufsichtsräten und Vorständen zu erhöhen. Zweitens stelle ich fest, dass Maßnahmen zur Förderung alternativer Arbeitsmodelle, wie zum Beispiel Teilzeit- modelle, nicht unbedingt karrierefördernd sind. Dies ist insbesondere dann der Fall, wenn eine Person in ihrer beruflichen Entwicklung durch die Nutzung alternativer Arbeitsmodelle benachteiligt wird. Drittens stelle ich fest, dass ein Mangel an Ver- trauen in die eigenen Fähigkeiten sowie Stereotypen, die davon ausgehen, dass Frauen kein Interesse an einer Führungsposition haben, ein Hindernis für die Karrie- reentwicklung von Frauen darstellt. Viertens bildet der begrenzte Zugang zu macht- vollen, oftmals “old boys´ Netzwerken“ sowie mangelnde Netzwerkarbeit Hindernisse für Frauen in beiden Ländern. Ein fünftes Hindernis stellen gesellschaftliche Erwar- tungen dar, die davon ausgehen, dass Frauen natürlich gegebene weibliche Eigen- schaften verkörpern. Gesellschaftliche Erwartungen, wie die Annahme, dass Frauen Hauptverantwortliche für Pflegearbeiten sind, können zu einer Unterschätzung ihrer Fähigkeiten in der Berufswelt führen. Schlüsselwörter: Glasdecke, Frauen in Aufsichtsräten und Vorständen, Frauen in hochrangigen Unternehmenspositionen in China und Deutschland 4 To my mother Acknowledgements I would like to thank everyone that supported me during my doctoral studies. My gratitude goes to my supervisors Professor Levy and Professor Meng for their advice, support and suggestions. I would like to thank my parents and siblings for their continuous moral support. I am especially grateful to my mother. A big thank you to my grandmas who pro- vided me with an undisturbed working environment and let me enjoy their cook- ing skills. I am grateful to my friends Carlos, Resi, Ivan, Lilo, Matthias, Tobias and Kinga who were always there with a kind word. Thank you to the Graduate School of Global Politics (GSGP) particularly to Professor Segbers, Sabine and Sandra for giving me the best possible surrounding environment for my studies. My particular gratitude goes to my interviewees in China and Germany. This study would have been impossible without you. 5 Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................. 3 Zusammenfassung ............................................................................................. 4 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. 5 1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 8 2. Literature Review ..................................................................................... 22 2.1. Individual Characteristics of Female Board Members ............................. 25 2.1.1. Demographics, Human- and Social Capital ......................................... 25 2.1.2. Perceptions and Attitudes regarding Female Board Members ............ 29 2.2. External Factors Influencing Female Board Appointment ....................... 32 2.2.1. Macro Level ........................................................................................ 33 2.2.2. Meso Level ......................................................................................... 35 2.2.3. Micro Level ......................................................................................... 40 2.3. Impact on Economic, Social and Ethical Aspects of Firms ...................... 42 2.3.1. Economic Impact: Firms´ Financial Output .......................................... 43 2.3.2. Social and Ethical Impact: Firms´ Corporate Responsibility ................ 44 2.4. Gaps in the Research ............................................................................. 48 3. Theory & Methodology ............................................................................... 51 3.1. Theory .................................................................................................... 51 3.1.1.
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